Fundamentals of Liquefaction under Cyclic Loading

Martin, Finn, Seed (1975)

Introduction
Casagrande (1936) first introduced the qualitative understanding of mechanism of
liquefaction of saturated sand.

Saturated sand subjected to loading Monotonic loading

Cyclic loading
Drained Undrained
stotal = s’ + (u + Du)
s’ = stotal - (u + Du)
Volume change (ev) Excess pore water
- Contraction pressure generation
(Du) If (u + Du) = stotal
- Dilation
s’ = 0
(liquefaction)
Objectives
• Investigate the mechanism of progressive increase of pore water pressure
during undrained cyclic loading
• Propose quantitative relationships between volume reduction during
drained cyclic loading and corresponding pore water pressure increases
under undrained conditions.
Previous Studies
Typical soil elements subjected to shear stress are depicted in the following
figure.

svo’ = vertical effective stress

K0 = coefficient of lateral earth
pressure at rest
thv = cyclic shear stresses

Laboratory test methods used for evaluating the liquefaction potential based
on above stress conditions have been presented by several researchers.
• SIMPLE SHEAR TEST
– More closely simulated the field condition
– Difficult to ensure the soil in undrained condition
• TRIAXIAL TEST
– More easily to conduct undrained test
– Axisymmetric condition (need to assume Ko)
 Relationship between Volume Reduction during Drained Cyclic Test and
Pore Water Pressure Increase in Undrained Test

∆𝑢 𝑛𝑒 ∆𝑢
air = ∆𝜀𝑣𝑑 − (2𝑎)
𝐾𝑤 𝐸𝑟
Vol. of
water void (Vv) ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
Bulk modulus → 𝐾 = =
∆𝑉/𝑉 𝜀𝑣
Vol. of
sand sand
𝑉𝑣
structure Porosity of sample → 𝑛𝑒 =
(V) 𝑉

∆𝑃
change of vol. of sand structure → 𝜀𝑣 = 𝐾

Assuming only the void volume can change its volume; the porosity of sample is needed
to be considered in the equation
∆𝑃 𝑉𝑣 ∆𝑃 ∙ 𝑛𝑒
𝜀𝑣 = ∙ =
𝐾 𝑉 𝐾
The pressure applied to the sample equal to the increasing pore water pressure, ∆𝑃 =
∆𝑢
∆𝑢 ∙ 𝑛𝑒
change of vol. of void → 𝜀𝑣 =
𝐾
 A sample of saturated sand subjected to
one cycle of loading in drained condition.
strain
(𝜀𝑣 ) ∆𝜀𝑣𝑑 : volumetric strain due to one cycle
of loading (from point A to B)

If the sample is subjected to loading in

undrained condition; no volume change
𝐸𝑟 is allowed (point A to C).
∆𝜀𝑣𝑑
However, the soil grains deformation is
naturally occur, so the soil must rebounds
(swelling) and transfer some of the stress
∆𝑢 to the pore water. (point B to C)
JGS (1998) stress 𝜎 ′
𝐸𝑟 : tangent modulus of the one-
∆𝑢
net change in vol. of sand = ∆𝜀𝑣𝑑 − dimensional unloading curve
𝐸𝑟
(gradient of curve BC)

∆𝑢 𝑛𝑒 ∆𝑢
= ∆𝜀𝑣𝑑 − (2𝑎)
𝐾𝑤 𝐸𝑟
 change in vol. of void = net change in vol. of sand

∆𝑢 𝑛𝑒 ∆𝑢
= ∆𝜀𝑣𝑑 − (2𝑎)
𝐾𝑤 𝐸𝑟

∆𝜀𝑣𝑑
∆𝑢 = (2𝑏)
1 𝑛𝑒
+ negligible
𝐸𝑟 𝐾𝑤

If the soil is fully saturated, 𝐾𝑤 ≈ 40x bigger than 𝐸𝑟

↓
Can be assumed that the water is incompressible
↓
No volume change
∆𝑢 (3𝑎)
∆𝜀𝑣𝑑 = ∆𝜀𝑣𝑟 =
𝐸𝑟

∆𝑢 = 𝐸𝑟 ∆𝜀𝑣𝑑 (3𝑏)

It is important to obtained a complete saturation sample for undrained tests.

 Volume Reduction during Drained Cyclic Test
evd
evd = volumetric strain due to drained loading
Devd Devd = increment volumetric strain (drained loading)
N = number of cycles

N N+1 N
Drained Non-uniform Cyclic Loading

Predict volumetric strain (∆𝜀𝑣𝑑 ) due to

the non-uniform cyclic loading.

After N cycles, how much

accumulated 𝜀𝑣𝑑
↓
Shear strain (𝛾) amplitude of (N+1)th
N ↓
N+1 Measured the ∆𝜀𝑣𝑑
 evd g=0.2%

Devd2 g=0.1%
x
Devd2
Devd
Devd

N1 N2 N3 N

Devd evd=0
Devd

Devd evd=x

Devd2
Devd2
0.1 0.2 g (%)
Volumetric Strain during Drained Non-uniform Cyclic Loading
Comparison between experiment result and prediction
 Shear Strain Amplitude from Shear Stress Controlled Loading
To calculate volume changes during stress controlled cyclic simple shear tests, the
calculation of corresponding cyclic shear strain amplitudes is necessary.

Constant strain Constant stress

𝐺2
𝐺1

𝜏 = constant

𝛾 = constant

𝛾
For drained cyclic tests, the shear modulus
𝜏 is a function of both shear strain amplitude
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 → 𝐺 =
𝛾 and the number of cycles of loading.
Shear Strain Amplitude from Shear Stress Controlled Loading

By assuming the shear stress amplitude for

a given strain amplitude is proportional to
the square root of vertical effective stress,
the hyperbolic curves may be expressed

𝜎𝑣 ′ 1/2
𝜏ℎ𝑣 =
𝑎+𝑏

Where,

𝜀𝑣𝑑
𝑎 = 𝐴1 −
𝐴2 + 𝐴3 𝜀𝑣𝑑

𝜀𝑣𝑑
𝑏 = 𝐵1 −
𝐵2 + 𝐵3 𝜀𝑣𝑑
One-Dimensional Unloading Characteristics

Volumetric strain may be divided into:

1. Non-recoverable slip strain (𝜀𝑣𝑠𝑜 ),
resulting from slip at grain contacts
2. Recoverable strain on unloading
(𝜀𝑣𝑟𝑜 ), from elastic deformation of
grain contacts

Experimental curve fit to equation:

𝜀𝑣𝑟 = 𝑘1 𝜎𝑣 ′ 𝑚

Analytical unloading curve is

geometrically similar:
𝑚
𝜀𝑣𝑟 𝜎𝑣 ′
= 𝜀𝑣𝑟𝑜 = 𝑘2 𝜎𝑣𝑜 ′ 𝑛
𝜀𝑣𝑟𝑜 𝜎𝑣𝑜 ′

𝑚
𝜎𝑣 ′
′ ′ 1−𝑚 𝜀𝑣𝑟 = 𝑘2 𝜎𝑣𝑜 ′ 𝑛 = 𝑘2 𝜎𝑣𝑜 ′ 𝑛−𝑚 𝜎𝑣 ′ 𝑚
𝑑𝜎𝑣 𝜎𝑣 𝜎𝑣𝑜 ′
𝐸𝑟 = =
𝑑𝜀𝑣𝑟 𝑚𝑘2 𝜎𝑣𝑜 ′ 𝑛−𝑚
 Pore Pressure Increase during Undrained Stress Controlled Cyclic Test

Known initial condition: 𝜏ℎ𝑣 , 𝜎𝑣 ′ , 𝜀𝑣𝑑 , and corresponding pore

pressure (𝑢) from previous loading

From shear stress – strain correlation, the shear strain (𝛾)

amplitude may be computed

From the calculated shear strain, the increment volumetric

strain (∆𝜀𝑣𝑑 ) can be computed from ∆𝜀𝑣𝑑 curves

The unloading modulus (𝐸𝑟 ) can be calculated

Then substitute the parameter (∆𝜀𝑣𝑑 , 𝐸𝑟 ) to the equation

∆𝑢 = 𝐸𝑟 ∆𝜀𝑣𝑑