Lecture 6 - 22CIVIL05C - Consolidation

Soil Mechanics -1
22CIVL05C
Dr. Salwa Yassin
BUE-23CIVIL05C-SM1-SY23 1
Lecture 6
Consolidation of Soils
BUE-CIVIL-SM1-SY23 2
Consolidations of Soils
As drainage of pore water takes place, the solid particles become free to take up new
positions with a resulting increase in the inter-particle forces. In other words, as the excess
pore water pressure dissipates, the effective vertical stress increases, accompanied by a
corresponding reduction in volume. Then by the time the dissipation of excess pore water
pressure is complete the increment of total vertical stress will be carried entirely by the soil
skeleton. The time taken for drainage to be completed depends on the permeability of the
soil. In soils of low permeability, drainage will be slow, whereas in soils of high
permeability, drainage will be rapid. The whole process is referred to as Consolidation.
With deformation taking place in one direction only, consolidation is described as one-
dimensional Consolidation .
H
∆𝑒
𝑆 𝑐 =∆ 𝐻 = 𝐻 𝑜 .
1+𝑒 𝑜 h1 Voids
S~100%
h2 Voids
Ho
The consolidation settlement Hf
is f (e0, H, and e ) hs hs
Solids Solids
• Initial void ratio e0.
• Thickness of layer H &
• Change of void ratio e
Primary consolidation During the process of stress transfer from water to soil particles, the
soil mass decreases in volume, the volume reduction being equal to the volume of water
drained out. This phenomenon of gradual compression due to the expulsion of water from
soil voids accompanied by the transfer of stress from pore water to soil particles caused by
the application of sustained external stress is known as Primary consolidation
Mechanical Modeling of The Consolidation Process
Ds - kPa
Sand
Clay H
Sand
Ds = Ds`
Consolidation of Soils - Terzaghi’s Theory
Drainage Length or Path
The drainage path is the longest distance that water moves through the soil
to escape the pressure due to additional load
Time Elapsed for Consolidation
The total settlement

of a foundation includes
three components : Static Load
Where:
St = Total settlement
Si = Immediate / Elastic settlement
Sc = Primary consolidation settlement.
Ss= Creep or Secondary settle./ compression
One-dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
 Consolidations would occur in a saturated clay layers under the effect of additional
loads/surcharge/pressure…etc. (kPa)
 Undisturbed sample is taken from the field, then tested in the laboratory for 1-D
consolidation test.
 Data obtained from laboratory testing can be used to predict consolidation settlement time
for consolidation to occur (in approximate way).
Surcharge - kPa Oedometer

GL
Sand or
porous stone
Drainage
layer
Undisturbed
Soil (clay) metal ring
specimen
Saturated clay
Field Conditions Laboratory Test

One-Dimensional Consolidation test
 The one-dimensional consolidation test was first suggested by Terzaghi. It is performed in Oedometer.
Water
Porous stone
Soil
specimen
The schematic diagram of the Oedometer
Loading Sequence or Increments
• Load sequence (25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600,

… kPa) or (0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 kg/cm2)
• Allow full consolidation under each load
increment before next increment (i.e. 24 hours)
• Record compression during and at the end of
each increment using dial gauge.
• Time sequence: (10 sec, 30 sec, 1 min, 2, 4, 8, 15,
30, 1 hr, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24)
• The procedure is repeated for additional
doublings of applied pressure.
• The applied pressure is in excess of the total
stress to which the clay layer is believed to be
subjected to when the proposed structure is
built.
• The total pressure includes effective overburden
pressure and net additional pressure due to the
structure. The oedometer and loading frame
Results of the consolidation test
Typical Typical
readings/results readings/results
per each load for all loadings
increment
1- Coefficient of compressibility (av) ‫اط‬B‫النضغ‬BB‫املا‬B‫مع‬
It is the numerical value of the slope of the

(e - ) curve
2- Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)

The volumetric strain due to a unit increase in stress
is called the coefficient of volume change (mv).
Or (for one
dimensional
consolidation) where:
H = change of height due to consolidation
under ()
H = original height.
3- Coefficient of consolidation (Cv) - ( B‫لتدعيم‬BB‫املا‬B‫)مع‬
(i) Taylor's method: The square root of time fitting method.
The compression readings are plotted against

( t). The upper portion of the curve is
theoretically a straight line which is extended
upwards to determine the initial value of
compression at the beginning of the
consolidation process, and extended
downwards to meet the x – axis. A line with
abscissa 1.15 times that of the first straight
line is drawn from which t90 (time for 90%
consolidation), R90 and H90 (height of
specimen at 90%
consolidation) and d90 = H90/2
For the oedometer

Tv = 0.848, and d90=(H90)/2.
Square root of time fitting method
3- Coefficient of consolidation (Cv) - ( B‫لتدعيم‬BB‫املا‬B‫)مع‬
(ii) Casagrande's method: The logarithm of time fitting method
The compression
readings are plotted
against log10 t. The
values of R0, R100 and
R50 are determined.
From R50 get H50 and
d50 = H50/2.
For the oedometer

Tv(50) = 0.197, and d50=(H50)/2. Logarithm of time fitting method
4- Coefficient of Permeability (kz)
Cv is the coefficient of consolidation and its value is governed by both the

permeability and the compressibility of the soil
Or
Pore water pressure dissipation during

Where: consolidation
mv = Coefficient of volume compressibility

Kz = Coefficient of the vertical permeability
5 - Tv is the time factor (‫لزمن‬BB‫امل ا‬B‫)مع‬
where :
d = length of the drainage
path ‫صرف‬
( ‫ل‬BB‫)مسار ا‬
d = H/2, if a soil layer of
thickness H is drained from
both top and bottom ends, and
d = H, if a soil layer of thickness
H is drained from one side Pore water pressure dissipation during
only. consolidation
t = at any given time t the
distribution of the excess pore
water pressure can be
calculated and plotted as
shown in Figure. The resulting
curves are called isochrones.
Calculation of time for Consolidation Settlement
5 - Tv is the time factor (‫لزمن‬BB‫امل ا‬B‫)مع‬
where :
Hdr = The longest drainage path
Cv = Coefficient of consolidation
T = Non-dimensional time factor
If water is permitted to drain from
both sides, during consolidation. Hence, 0.5Hdr.
6- Degree of consolidation (Uz ) at depth (z) and time (t)
The degree of consolidation ( B‫لتدعيم‬BB‫ ) درجة ا‬Uz is defined as the ratio of the vertical
settlement of the soil element, at depth z and time t, to its final settlement,
Thus the distribution of Uz across the depth is similar to the distribution of the excess
pore pressure Uz
 Degree of consolidation Uz at depth z and time t
Consolidation Related Parameters & Coefficient
7. Average degree of consolidation (U)
 The degree of consolidation at any depth is normally not of practical interest.

 It is more convenient to work in terms of the average of consolidation (U) when
determining the change in the thickness of the soil layer as a whole. (U) is
defined as:
 Then at any time t , the change in the thickness of a soil element is:
 Settlement in case of several layers
8 - The relationship between U and Tv
Solution of one-dimensional consolidation

9 - Relation between void ratio and logarithm of effective stress
The main limitation of using av and mv in describing soil compressibility/settlement is that they are
not constant. To overcome this shortcoming the relationship between e and v’ is plotted in a semi
logarithmic plot and evaluate Cc and Cs index.
void ratio
Cc ~ compression index
e1
Cc 

log
Cc 1
e1 2

Cs ~ Swell index
e2
Cs Cs 
 2 
e log
 4
3
’ ’ ’ log ’

’
10 – Identify Normally consolidated clay, Over-consolidated clay, and Under
consolidated Clay
(1) Normally Consolidated Clay (NCC)The clay layer could be classified as NCC if the
present effective pressure to which it is subjected is the maximum pressure the soil has ever
been subjected to.
(2) Over- Consolidated Clay (OCC)
• Over-consolidated pressure/stress is the
maximum effective vertical stress that has
acted on the clay in the past, denoted as pre-
consolidation stress.
• Casagrande proposed an empirical procedure
to obtain the over-consolidated
pressure/stress from the e-log s` curve:
a) From the e–log plot determine the point of
minimum radius (A), or maximum curvature.
b) From (A) two lines are drawn one tangent to the
curve and the other parallel to the log ' axis.
c) The angle ( ) between the two lines is bisected.
s`o
d) The intersection of the bisector and the extension
of the straight portion of the plot is determined. Determination of the pre-
The abscissa of the point of intersection gives the consolidation stress
pre-consolidation stress ('c).
10 – Identify Normally consolidated clay, Over-consolidated clay, and Under
consolidated Clay
(3) Under-consolidated clay

In this case the reconsolidation stress is found less than the overburden stress, i.e., c< o.
This occurs when the element of soil is not fully consolidated under the overburden stress,
for example in the case of recent fill deposit.
s`o
11 – Field (Insitu) Curve
Due to the effects of sampling and preparation, the specimen in an oedometer test will
be slightly disturbed. It has been shown that an increase in the degree of specimen
disturbance results in a slight decrease in the slope of the virgin compression line. It
can therefore be expected that the slope of the line representing virgin compression of
the in-situ soil will be slightly greater than the slope of the virgin line obtained in a
laboratory test.
The procedure for finding the field

consolidation curve for NCC is:
1) Determine on the undisturbed or

remoulded curve the point corresponding
to 0.42 eo, point f .
2) Determine point (a) corresponding to eo
and o.
3) Line a – f is the field consolidation line.
Field Curve for Normally Consolidated Clay
11 – Field (In-situ) Curve
Field consolidation curve is obtained as

follows:
a) Point b is determined, which corresponds to
eo and log o.
b) Point f is determined on the laboratory
curve, corresponding to 0.42 eo.
c) Point a is determined from the intersection
of line b parallel to the average slope of the
laboratory reloading curve and the vertical
line corresponding to c.
d) The field compression curve is then b-a-f.
Field Curve for Over-Consolidated Clay
c > o
Consolidation Settlement for Normally Consolidated Clay (NCC)
a) Normally Consolidated Clay ( ’ 0 =  c’ )
so  = sc 
e
 o   
e

Cc
log  
Consolidation Settlement for Over Consolidated Clay (OCC)
b) Overconsolidated Clays 
 o   
Case 1: ’0 + ’ ≤  c’ e e

o

c

Cs
Case 2: ’0 + ’ >  c’ log


c 
e e1
o

’
Cs
e2 o  
Cc

log
BUE-CIVIL-SM1-SY23  30
Summary of Settlement calculations steps:
1. Calculate ’o at the middle of the clay layer
2. Determine ’c from the e-log  plot (if not given)
3. Determine whether the clay is NCC. or OCC
4. Calculate 
5. Use the appropriate equation If NCC or OCC
NCC
OCC & o    c
OCC & o    c
Some Common Empirical Relations
GS: Specific Gravity PI: Plasticity Index

e0 : in situ void ratio LL: Liquid Limit
Example 1:
A consolidation test was carried out on an undisturbed clay sample 19 mm thick extracted from a clay
layer 4 m thick. Under a certain stress increment, the sample reached 50 % consolidation in 20 min,
when allowing double drainage. Find the time for 50 % consolidation in the field under the same
stress increment assuming double, or single drainage.
Solution:
Sand
Sand
Example 2:
For the shown building and soil formation, calculate the average settlement of the building
due to consolidation of the clay layer. Use the approximate method for stress distribution
in soil.
Cc = 0.315
Example 2:
Solution:
The average stress increase at C.L. of the clay layer due to the building is
calculated following the approximate method.
Example 3:
In a consolidation test with double drainage, the stress increment was from 1 to 2 kg/cm 2, the
initial height of the specimen was 19 mm and the dial reading at zero loading was zero.
Calculate Cv using both Taylor's and Casagrande's methods.
Example 3:
Solution:
Example 4:
Two samples (A) and (B) were extracted from two clay layers. A specimen was prepared
from each sample and tested in the oedometer. The specimens were 2 and 3 cm thick,
respectively. Under a stress range of 2 to 4 kg/cm 2, the void ratios for specimens (A) and
(B) change from 0.68 to 0.5 and from 0.72 to 0.62, respectively. Furthermore, the time
required to reach 50 % consolidation for specimen (A) was one-quarter of that for
specimen (B). Find the ratio between the permeability of the two clay samples within the
pre-mentioned stress range.
Solution:
Example 5:
The shown building is assumed to settle ultimately 12 cm. Measurements indicated that it
settled 3 cm in the first month. How long would it take to reach 50 % settlement? What will
be the settlement after 1 year?
Solution:
Example 6:
The stratification at a site
contains two clay layers,
as shown in the figure. It
is required to construct an
embankment of large
width. For the given data,
calculate the settlement of
the embankment.
Solution:
Example 7:
The shown are three soil formations at three different sites. Results of consolidation tests on
samples from the three layers at these sites are given. For each clay, layer discuss the stress
history and construct the field consolidation relationship.
Example 7:
Solution:
Example 7: Cont.
Solution:
Example 7: Cont.
Solution:
Reference for further Readings:
 Murthy; Geotechnical Engineering, Principle and practices of soils

mechanics and foundation engineering.
 Craig; Soil Mechanics book.
 Das; Principles of Foundations Design.
 Radwan; Fundamentals f soil mechanics
Thank You

Lecture 6 - 22CIVIL05C - Consolidation

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Lecture 6 - 22CIVIL05C - Consolidation

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Soil Mechanics -1

Dr. Salwa Yassin

The total settlement

Surcharge - kPa Oedometer

Field Conditions Laboratory Test

The schematic diagram of the Oedometer

• Load sequence (25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600,

It is the numerical value of the slope of the

2- Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)

The compression readings are plotted against

For the oedometer

For the oedometer

Cv is the coefficient of consolidation and its value is governed by both the

Pore water pressure dissipation during

mv = Coefficient of volume compressibility

 Degree of consolidation Uz at depth z and time t

7. Average degree of consolidation (U)

 The degree of consolidation at any depth is normally not of practical interest.

 Settlement in case of several layers

Solution of one-dimensional consolidation

’ ’ ’ log ’

(3) Under-consolidated clay

The procedure for finding the field

1) Determine on the undisturbed or

Field Curve for Normally Consolidated Clay

Field consolidation curve is obtained as

Field Curve for Over-Consolidated Clay

c > o

a) Normally Consolidated Clay ( ’ 0 =  c’ )

Case 2: ’0 + ’ >  c’ log

2. Determine ’c from the e-log  plot (if not given)

3. Determine whether the clay is NCC. or OCC

5. Use the appropriate equation If NCC or OCC

OCC & o    c

OCC & o    c

GS: Specific Gravity PI: Plasticity Index

 Murthy; Geotechnical Engineering, Principle and practices of soils

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