SEMINAR ON GROUND IMPROVEMENT

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF STONE COLUMNS

Ir EG Balakrishnan
GCU Consultants Sdn Bhd

GCU
 Presentation Content
• Soft or Weak Ground Conditions
• Overview of Ground Improvement Types
• Stone Column Design
➢ Basic Principles & Details
➢ Settlement of Composite Ground
➢ Time Rate Settlement
➢ Stability of Composite Ground
➢ Bearing Capacity of Single Columns
➢ Bearing Capacity of Group Columns
• Stone Column Installation Methods
• Case Studies
 Soft/Weak Ground Conditions

• Low Shear Strength &

Bearing Capacity
• Highly Compressible
• Very Low Permeability
 Soft/Weak Ground Conditions

• Quaternary Deposits : Marine &

Terrestrial (Soft Clays)
• Ex-Mining area – Slime
• River alluvium, Colluvium at valleys
• Typical Properties :
o SPT-N < 4
o Su < 30kPa*
o qc < 0.6MPa*
o High Moisture Content
Overview: Types of Ground Improvement
 Stone Columns

Stone Column is a subsoil improvement method at which large-

sized columns of coarse backfill material are installed in the soil by
means of special depth vibrators or any means
Stone Columns improves non compactible cohesive soil by the
installation of load bearing columns of well compacted, coarse
grained backfill material contrary to vibro compaction used for
cohesionless soils.
 Stone Columns Benefits
Stone columns have threefold effects in soil :

• Compaction of compatible layers.

Layers of clean sand and gravel and slightly silty sand (up to 20 % fines
content) are compacted during the process of stone column installation.
• Reinforcement of the soil.
Column and soil form a reinforced matrix with instantly increased shear
resistance and stiffness modulus. The high friction angle of the column
material gives an immediate overall increase in shear strength to the
composite of soil and column.
• Drainage.
The columns accelerate drainage (consolidation) of the cohesive soil, i.e. the
columns work as vertical drains and thereby accelerate reduction of harmful
excess pore pressures.
 Stone Column Design

Design Principle in Ground Improvement

• Reinforcement into ground to reduce total and differential settlement

• Act a vertical drains to accelerate consolidation
• As reinforcement to increase FOS against stability
 Stone Column Basic Details
• Grids of compacted stone columns installed up to stiff
stratum
• Improves bearing capacity of the ground
• Columns acts as drainage path enabling faster
consolidation
• Spacing varies according to degree of improvement
required
• Limitation on very soft clay bulging effect due to low
constraint
Stone Column Basic Relationships
Unit Cell Concept
Equivalent Diameter & Tributary Area

De = 1.05S (Triangular spacing)

De = 1.13S ( Square Spacing)
Where S = spacing of columns

Area Replacement Ratio ( as)

as = As/(As + Ac)

Stress Concentration Factor, n

n = s/c
 = sas + c( 1-as)
Stress Concentration Factor

Adapted from Barksdale and Bachus, 1983

Stress Concentration Factor

Effect of Modular Ratio on Stress

Concentraction Factor
(Adapted from Barksdale and
Bachus, 1983.
Settlement of Composite Ground
 Settlement : Equilibrium Method
Equilibrium Method
1. Determine the Settlement Reduction Ratio (R)

𝟏
R = Uc =
𝟏+ 𝒏−𝟏 𝒂𝒔

Where n = stress concentration factor

as = area replacement ratio

2. Determine the Settlement of Untreated Ground ( So)

3. Settlement of treated ground or composite ground = R * So

 Settlement : Priebe Method

Basic Principle

• Load distribution and lateral support from the stone column & surrounding
stiffened ground on an area basis are considered to give an improvement
factor.
• The improvement factor indicates increase in deformation modulus of
composite ground which leads to reduction of the settlement.
• The design method refers to the improving effect of stone columns in a soil
which is otherwise unaltered in comparison to the initial state.
 Settlement : Priebe Method

The following assumptions are made:

• Column is supported on rigid layer.

• The column material in incompressible.
• Density of column and soil is neglected.

Which results to the following effects:

• Column cannot fail in bearing.

• Deformation due to bulging are constant over the entire length.
 Settlement : Priebe Method

Input Data:

• Embankment Geometry – Height, Width, Fill Slope Gradient

• Loadings – Density, Live load & Superimposed dead loads, Extent of loadings
• Subsoil Strata & Properties : Type, Constrained Modulus, Strength,
Compressibility
• Stone Column Properties : Diameter, spacing, Unit weight, Modulus, Friction
Angle
 Settlement : Priebe Method
Design Steps

1. Calculation of Basic Improvement Factor (no) using the following equation:

 Settlement : Priebe Method
Design Steps
2. Determine the Reduced Improvement Factor (n1) : Correction for
Compressibility
- The compressibility of the column material can be considered in using a reduced
improvement factor n1 which results from the formula developed for the basic
improvement factor, n0 when the given reciprocal area ratio A/AC is increased by an
additional amount of ∆(A/AC).
• Column material is compressible
➢ For Ac/A = 1, no = Dc/Ds and not infinite as per the formulae
➢ Find (Ac/A)1 where no = Dc/Ds
➢  (A/Ac) = 1/(Ac/A)1 - 1
➢ (Ac/A)corr = 1/(A/Ac +  (A/Ac)
➢ Determine n1
Settlement : Priebe Method
 Settlement : Priebe Method
Design Steps (con’t)

3. Correction for overburden

- The initial pressure difference between column and soil which causes the bulging
solely depend on the distribution of the foundation load . This leads to constant
bulging over the length.
- The pressure difference is a linear parameter in the derivations of the improvement
factor, the ratio of the initial pressure difference and the one depending on depth
expressed as depth factor fd - delivers a value by which the improvement factor n1
increases to the final improvement factor n2 = fd × n1.
Settlement : Priebe Method

Limiting Depth factor

fd (max) = (Dc/Ds)/(c/s)
Settlement Reduction Comparison
 Types of Settlement in Soft CLAY

1. Primary Consolidation Settlement

- Volume change in saturated cohesive soils because of the
expulsion of water from void spaces.

2. Secondary Settlement
- Plastic adjustment of soil fabric in cohesive soils which cause
settlement even after the pore pressure and effective stress
are about constant.
 Concept of Primary Consolidation

• As the time passes the water comes out of the soil voids and so the
volume of soil decreases, this is the cause of the settlement.
 Settlement-Void ratio Relation

• Equating the two expressions for average vertical strain,

consolidation change in void ratio

settlement
H e
=
Ho 1 + eo
initial void ratio
initial thickness of
clay layer
 1-D Consolidation Theory

Magnitude of settlement calculated by the classical

1-D consolidation theory
q kPa
  0 '+  '  Cc
S c = H 0 .CR. log  CR =
 0'  1 + e0
=q
H
 Virgin Consolidation Line

original
state
virgin consolidation line
eo

void ratio

p’ log v’

vo’
 Settlement computations
~ computing e using e-log v’ plot
If the soil is normally consolidated,

the entire loading path is along the virgin

compression line.
 vo '+  '
eo
initial
e = Cc log
e
 vo '

vo’ vo’+ 
 Settlement computations

If an overconsolidated clay becomes normally

consolidated by the end of consolidation,

 p'  vo '+  '

e = Cr log + Cc log
initial
 vo '  p'
eo

e

VCL
vo’ p’ vo’+ 
 Settlement computations

ELASTIC SETTLEMENT METHOD

S = mv *  * H

Where mv = 1/D where D = Constrained Modulus

 = Stress Increase

H = Consolidating Layer
 Settlement Computation
Determine the final settlement of composite ground by using the final
improvement factor or settlement reduction factor on the total untreated
settlement calculated from :
➢ 1-Dimensional Consolidation Theory.
➢ Elastic Method
Settlement of composite ground , S = So/n or So * R
 Time Rate Settlement
Using Modified Coeff of Consolidation proposed by Jie Han & Shu-Lin Ye ( 2001)
Time Rate Settlement

Using Modified Coeff of Consolidation

Jie Han & Shu-Lin Ye ( 2001)
 Time Rate Settlement
Time Rate Settlement

Time rate settlement is calculated from Modified Coefficient of Consolidation.

Time vs Settlement with Stone Column Treatment
TIME (days)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
0

100
TIME RATE SETTLEMENT

200

300
SETTLEMENT (mm)

400

500

600

700

800
 Stability of Composite Ground

Three Methods

1.Profile Method

2.Average Shear Strength Method

3.Priebe Method
Profile Method
Average Shear strength Method

c avg = c (as)

𝑠𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑠+ 𝑐𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐
(tan) avg = 𝑎𝑣𝑔

If c = 0

(tan) avg = as tans

 Priebe Method

Determine Composite shear strength for stability analysis from the following
equation.

m’ = proportion of total load on stone column

n = improvement factor
Bearing Capacity of Single Stone Column
Bearing Capacity of Single Stone Column
Bearing Capacity of Single Stone Column
Bearing Capacity of Single Stone Column

q ult = cNc

Where Nc : 18 to 22

Bulging Failure
Bearing Capacity of Group Stone Columns
 Installation Methods

INSTALLATION METHODS

1. VIBRO-REPLACEMENT METHOD
➢ DRY METHOD
➢ WET METHOD

1. VIBRO COMPOZER METHOD : SAND COMPACTION PILE

2. CASED BOREHOLE METHOD OR RAMMED COLUMNS

 Vibro Replacement :Dry Method (Bottom Feed)

• Slightly expensive than

Wet Method (RM 110 -
120/m)
• Lesser/no contamination
to surrounding
• Higher vibration compared
to wet method
Vibro Replacement :Dry Method (Bottom Feed)
Vibro Replacement :Dry Method (Bottom Feed)
 Vibro Replacement : Wet Method (Top Feed)

• Slightly cheaper than Dry

Method (RM95 – 105/m)
• Water/sludge can
contaminate surrounding.
Requires retention pond for
silt trap & maintenance.
• Lesser vibration compared
to dry method.
Vibro Replacement : Wet Method (Top Feed)
 Vibro Replacement : Stones Specification
Stone Requirements

Dry Method
Wet Method
Vibro Replacement : Stones Specification
Vibro Replacement : Typical Installation Record

Figure 7 Keller’s
Quality Control
(M3 / M4 Com

Automated Real Time

Quality Control
Vibro Replacement : Quality Control Measurements

Tolerances
Vibro Compozer Method (Casing Method)
Cased Borehole Method
 Load Test on Stone Columns

Three (3) Main Load Tests ( Euro Execution Standard)

1. Single Column Test or Proof Load Test

➢ Individual column plate placed concentrically on individual column
➢ To check the workmanship and quality of columns
➢ Random tests on production columns
➢ Jack against crane or stone column installation rig
➢ Compute the capacity of the columns from bulging failure
➢ Single loading cycle : 10 equal increments and max load maintained for
12hrs, 4 unloading increments
Proof Load Test on Single Stone Columns
 Load Test on Stone Columns

Three (3) Main Load Tests

2. Group Column Test or Large Plate tests

➢ Large rigid bearing slab on group of 4 columns including the tributary
area.
➢ To check the short term bearing capacity of the columns
➢ Pre- selected columns
➢ Require proper kentledge system similar to pile testing
➢ May be done for two cycles
 Load Test on Stone Columns

Three (3) Main Load Tests

3. Zone Load Tests

➢ Loading large area of treated ground ( 20m by 20m)
➢ Simulate the actual loading conditions
➢ Can be done as trial embankment
➢ With full instrumentation
▪ Road settlement gauge
▪ Incinometers
▪ Settlement markers
▪ Electric or pneumatic piezometers
Load Test on Stone Columns
 Case Studies on Stone Columns
Projects
1. Seremban- KL Double Track Project
2. Express Rail Link KL – KLIA
3. Guthrie Corridor Expressway
4. Alor Setar Airport Upgarding Works
5. Rawang to Ipoh Double Track Project
6. Alor Setar to Padang Besar Double Track Project
Seremban – KL Double Track Project
 Rawang to Ipoh EDT Project

1. Emb : 2 to 11m
2. Ex-tin mine tailings
3. Loose Sand & Soft CLAY/SILT
4. 6m to 24m treatment
5. 500,000m of columns installed
6. Dia : 0.8m & 1.0m
7. Dry & Wet method used
Alor Setar Airport Upgrading Works

1. Extension of Taxiway, Runway & Turn Pad

2. Soft Subsoil : 8 to 12m thick with intermittent sand
3. Vibro Replacement Method : Dry bottom Feed
4. 50,000 lim .m of columns
5. 1m diameter
Alor Setar Padang Besar EDT Project
Alor Setar Padang Besar EDT Projects
THANK YOU

GCU