Unit #2

Geotechnical Engineering II

Consolidation of Soils
 Introduction to consolidation
 Comparison of compaction and consolidation
 Spring Analogy
 Terzaghi’s one dimensional consolidation theory
 Degree of consolidation
 Consolidation test
 Compressibility parameters
 co-efficient of consolidation
 Pre-consolidation pressure and its determination
 Normally, over and under consolidated soils.
 Methods of computation of Settlement and its rate
 Coefficient of consolidation for layered soil
 Total and differential Settlement.
 Consolidation (Soil Engineering)
The compression of a saturated soil under a steady static pressure
depending upon the permeability of soil is known as consolidation. It is
entirely due to expulsion of water from void.
A study of consolidation characteristics is extremely useful for
forecasting the magnitude and time of the settlement of the structure.

Causes of consolidation
 Lowering of the ground water table
 External static loads from structure
 Self weight of recently placed soils
 desiccation
 Compaction & Consolidation
Load
Load

Compaction
Consolidation

“A decrease of water content of a saturated soil without replacement of the water by air is called a process
of consolidation.”, Trzaghi
 Stages of Consolidation
• Decrease in volume
due to expulsion and
compression of air voids • Expulsion of water from
just after application of
loads. It is mainly for
saturated soils.
Initial
Primary
• Continuous and
infinitesimal reduction in
volume due to plastic
voids causing a readjustment of the
hydraulic gradient and solid particles and
reduction in volume. adsorbed water to a
Effective stresses are new system
increased
Secondary
(Creep)
 Spring analogy for primary consolidation
Consolidation is explained with an
idealized system composed of a
spring, a container with a hole in
its cover, and water. In this system,
the spring represents the
compressibility of the soil, and the
water which fills the container
represents the pore water in the
soil.
 ……Spring analogy

PW= load taken by

water
Ps = Load taken by
Dissipation of excess Final Loading spring
Initial loading
Water Pressure Water dissipated P = total pressure
Water takes load
Soil (i.e.spring) has Water Dissipating Soil has load
no load Soil starts to teke load
Terzaghi’s one dimensional consolidation theory

Terzaghi (1925) gave a theory for the determination of

the rate of consolidation of a saturated soil mass
subjected to static, steady load. According to him When
saturated clayey soils-which have a low coefficient of
permeability-are subjected to a compressive stress due to
a foundation loading, the ore water pressure will
immediately increase; however, due to the low
permeability of the soil, there will be a time lag between
the application of load and the extrusion of the pore
water and, thus, the settlement.
 Assumption and validity of Terzaghi’s 1-D theory
 The clay layer is homogeneous and isotropic (No discernible effect)
 The clay layer is fully saturated. (No discernible effect)
 The compression of the soil layer is due to the squeezing out of water
from the void spaces. (No discernible effect)
 Darcy’s law is valid throughout. (Generally Satisfied\Likely to hold)
 Deformation and drainage of soil occurs only in the vertical
direction. (Not fully justified)
 The coefficient of consolidation is constant during the consolidation.
(Not fully satisfied)
 The time lag in consolidation is due to permeability only. (Huge
discernible effect)
 Coefficient of compressibility and coefficient of volume change are
constant (Huge discernible effect)
Basic Differential equation of 1-D Theory
𝜕2𝑢ത 𝜕𝑢ത
𝑐𝑣 2 =
Where,
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝑘 𝑘
𝑐𝑣 = coefficient of consolidation 𝛾 𝑚 𝑔𝑝 𝑚
= =
𝑤 𝑣 𝑤 𝑣

𝑢ത = hydrostatic excess pressure (a function of depth and time ie. 𝒖

ഥ = 𝒇𝟏 𝒛 . 𝒇𝟏 𝒕 )
z = depth
t = time
d = drain path length

Solution using Fourier Series

∞
4𝑢ഥ𝑖 1 (2𝑁 + 1)𝜋𝑧 −(2𝑁+1)2 𝜋2 𝑇 Τ4
𝑢ത = ෍ × sin 𝑒 𝑣
𝜋 (2𝑁 + 1) 2𝑑
𝑁=0
𝒄𝒗 𝒕
𝑇𝑣 = a non dimensional parameter known as time factor 𝑻𝒗 = ൗ 𝟐
𝒅
Average degree of consolidation U
𝟐𝒅
𝟏
𝑼=𝟏− න 𝒖 ഥ . 𝒅𝒛 = 𝒇(𝑻𝒗 )
𝟐𝒅ഥ
𝒖𝒊 𝟎
U

Open layer isochrones

Half closed layer isochrones

 Pressure
Distribution

U Tv Tv Tv
0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.1 0.008 0.003 0.047
0.2 0.031 0.009 0.100
0.3 0.071 0.024 0.158
0.4 0.126 0.048 0.221
0.5 0.196 0.092 0.294
0.6 0.287 0.160 0383
0.7 0.403 0.270 0.500
0.8 0.567 0.440 0.665
0.9 0.848 0.720 0.940
1.0 ∞ ∞ ∞

Variation of U with TV
 Empirical formula for U (as a ratio)
𝜋 2
𝑇𝑣 = 𝑈
4

𝑇𝑣 = −0.933 log10 1 − 𝑈 − 0.085

(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑈 < .60)

or 𝑇𝑣 = 1.781 − 0.933 log10 100 − 𝑈%

Determination of coefficient of consolidation

 Square root time method given by Taylor, utilises the

theoretical relationship between U and Tv

 Logarithm of time method given by Casagrande,

utilises the theoretical relation between U and Log Tv
 Square root of time method
10
𝑅𝑐 − 𝑅100 = (𝑅𝑐 − 𝑅90 )
9

Using T=0.848 for U=90 % we get

𝑻𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝟖𝒅𝟐 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝟖𝒅𝟐
𝒄𝒗 = = 𝟐
=
𝒕 ( 𝒕𝟗𝟎 ) 𝒕𝟗𝟎
Square root of time plot
 Logarithm of time method

1 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝒅𝟐
𝑅𝑐 − 𝑅50 = (𝑅𝑐 − 𝑅100 ) 𝒄𝒗 =
𝒕𝟓𝟎
2
Pre-consolidation pressure
The maximum pressure to which an over consolidated soil had been
subjected in the past is known as pre-consolidation pressure or over-
consolidated pressure 𝝈𝒄

Causes
 Due to overburden which had been later removed by erosion
 Due to loads of demolished structures
 Due to melting of glaciers
 Due to past capillary pressure
 Desiccation of clay deposits
 Due to seepage forces
 Due to tectonic forces
 Determination of Pre-consolidation pressure

 Determine the point E on the

curve where the curvature is
maximum
 Draw the tangent EF to the
curve at E
 Draw a horizontal line EG at E
 Bisect angle GEF and draw
bisector EH
 Produce back CD to meet EH
at P
 Draw vertical at P to get pre-
consolidation pressure 𝜎𝑐
Determination of 𝝈𝒄
Consolidation test
Standard Test Methods
for One-Dimensional
Consolidation Properties
of Soils Using
Incremental Loading
In business, consolidation or amalgamation is the merger
and acquisition of many smaller companies into much
larger ones.
Memory consolidation is a category of processes that
stabilize a memory trace after its initial acquisition.
Vacuum Consolidation
Jet Grouting
Surface Improvement
 Queries

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imagination and marks real advance in science’ , Albert Einstein