Compressibility and

Consolidation
Introduction
• Structures are built on soils. They transfer loads to the subsoil
through the foundations. The effect of the loads is felt by the soil
normally up to a depth of about two to three times the width of the
foundation.
Importance
• If the settlement is not kept to tolerable limit, the desire use of the
structure may be impaired and the design life of the structure may be
reduced.
Compressibility
• The settlement is defined as the compression of a soil layer due to the
loading applied at or near its top surface.
• The total compression of soil under load is composed of three
components.
Three types of settlement
1. Immediate or Elastic Settlement
-caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and of moist and
saturated soils without change in the moisture content
2. Primary Consolidation Settlement
-volume change in saturated cohesive soils as a result of
expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces.
3. Secondary Consolidation Settlement
-volume change due to the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics
under a constant effective stress ( creep)
Consolidation
• The time-dependent settlement of fine grained soils resulting from
the expulsion of water from the soil pores.
• The rate of escape of water depends on the permeability of the soil
Consolidation Test
Three Stages
Initial Compression

Primary Consolidation

Secondary Consolidation
 Void Ratio- Pressure Plots
1. Calculate the height of solids, Hs in the
soil specimen.
𝑊
𝐻𝑠 = 𝑠
𝐴𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
2. Calculate the initial height of voids, Hv.
𝐻𝑣 = 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑠
3. Calculate the initial void ratio, eo of the
specimen.
𝐻𝑣
𝑒𝑜 =
𝐻𝑠
4. Calculate the change in the void ratio
∆𝑒1 .
∆𝐻1
∆𝑒1 =
𝐻𝑠
5. Calculate the new void ratio, 𝑒1 , after
consolidation caused by the pressure
increment 𝜎1 .
𝑒1 = 𝑒𝑜 − ∆𝑒1
Typical plot of void ratio against effective
pressure
Activity
• Following are the results of a laboratory consolidation test on a soil
specimen obtained from the field. Dry mass of specimen = 128 g,
height of specimen at the beginning of the test=2.54 cm, Gs=2.75 and
area of the specimen= 30.68 cm2 . Make necessary calculations and
draw an e versus log 𝜎 ′ curve.
Pressure, 𝜎 ′ ( ton/ft2) Final height of specimen at the end of
consolidation
0 2.540
0.5 2.488
1 2.465
2 2.431
4 2.389
8 2.324
16 2.225
32 2.115
Compressibility Parameters
1. Compression Index ( Cc)
𝑒1 − 𝑒2
𝐶𝑐 =
𝑃1
log( )
𝑃2
𝑒1 = void ratio at a pressure 𝑃1
𝑒2 = void ratio at a pressure 𝑃2

2. Coefficient of Compressibility
𝑒1 − 𝑒2
av=
𝑃1 − 𝑃2

av = coefficient of compressibility in m2/kN

Compressibility Parameters
3. Coefficient of volume compressibility
𝑒1 − 𝑒2
mv=
1+ 𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑒 ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )

𝑒1 + 𝑒2
𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
mv= coefficient of volume compressibility

4. Coefficient of Consolidation
𝐾
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑚𝑣 𝛾𝑤
𝐶𝑣 = coefficient of consolidation
𝐾= coefficient of permeability
𝑚𝑣 = coefficient of volume compressibility
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water
Compressibility Parameters
5. Time Factor
𝐶𝑣 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 =
(𝐻𝑑𝑟 )2
𝐶𝑣 = coefficient of consolidation
𝑡= time corresponding to degree of consolidation
𝐻𝑑𝑟 = half the thickness of the sample drained on both sides
𝐻𝑑𝑟 = thickness of the sample if drained on one side only

𝜋 𝑈% 2
For U = 0 to 60%, 𝑇𝑣 = ( )
4 100
For U > 60, 𝑇𝑣 = 1.781 − 0.933 log(100 − 𝑈%)
Compressibility Parameters
6. Degree of consolidation for the entire depth of clay layer at anytime “t”
𝑆𝑐𝑡
𝑈=
𝑆𝑐
𝑈= degree of consolidation
𝑆𝑐𝑡 = settlement of the layer at time “t”
𝑆𝑐 = ultimate settlement of the layer from primary consolidation

7. Relation of time and degree of consolidation

𝑡1 𝑈1 2
=
𝑡2 𝑈2 2

𝑈1 = degree of consolidation at time 𝑡1

𝑈2 = degree of consolidation at time 𝑡2
Example 1:
• The estimated primary consolidation settlement of a clay layer having
a thickness of 4.5 m is 300 mm. The clay layer is drained at the top
only.
1. Compute the average degree of consolidation for the clay layer
when the settlement is 75 mm.
2. How long will it take for 50% consolidation to occur if the
coefficient of consolidation is 0.004 cm2/sec.
3. If the 4.5 m clay layer is drained on both sides, how long will it take
for 50% consolidation to occur?
Consolidated Settlement
• Settlement of Foundations
Total Settlement
• St= Sc + Ss + Se
Where:
St= Total settelement
Sc= primary consolidation settlement
Se= immediate or elastic settlement
Consolidated Settlement
A. Primary Consolidation Settlement
1. Normally Consolidated Clays
𝐶𝑐 𝐻 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
Sc= log( )
1+ 𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑜

𝐶𝑐 = compression index
𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(LL-10) (undisturbed clays)
𝑒𝑜 = in situ void ratio
𝐻=thickness of clay layer
∆𝑃= average increase of effective stress on clay layer
𝑃𝑜 = average effective stress at the mid-height of clay layer
Consolidated Settlement
2. Over Consolidated Clays
• When 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃 < 𝑃𝑐

𝐶𝑠 𝐻 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
S c= log( )
1+ 𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑜
𝑃𝑐= preconsolidation pressure
1 1
𝐶𝑠 = swell index (ranges from to of 𝐶𝑐 )
5 10

• When 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃 > 𝑃𝑐
𝐶𝑠 𝐻 𝑃𝑐 𝐶𝑐 𝐻 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
S c= log + log( )
1+ 𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑜 1+ 𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑐
Consolidated Settlement
B. Secondary Settlement
𝐶𝛼 𝐻 𝑇2
S s= log ( )
1+ 𝑒𝑝 𝑇1

𝑒𝑝 = 𝑒𝑜 − ∆𝑒
𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 log ( )
𝑃𝑜
Ss= secondary settlement
𝐶𝛼 = secondary compression index
𝑇2 = time after completion of primary settlement
𝑇1 = time for completion of primary settlement
𝑒𝑝 = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation
Consolidated Settlement
C. Immediate or Elastic Settlement
1− 𝜇 2
Se= 𝐶𝑠 𝑞 𝐵 ( )
𝐸𝑠
( 1− 𝜇2 )
Se = 𝑞 𝐵 𝐼𝑝
𝐸𝑠
Where:
𝐶𝑠 = shape and foundation rigidity factor
𝐵= width of foundation or diameter of circular foundation
𝑃
𝑞= (net vertical pressure applied)
𝐵2
𝜇= Poissons ratio of soil
𝐸𝑠 = modulus of elasticity of soil
𝐼𝑝 = influence factor
 A soil formation shown in the figure has
Example 2 ∆𝑃 = 40 𝑘𝑃𝑎 its ground water table located at 2m
below the ground surface. The ground
surface is subjected to a uniformly
Sand distributed load of 40 kPa.
2m 𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 17.66 kN/m3 1. Compute the primary compression
index.
2. Compute the primary consolidation
Sand
3m 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 20.93 kN/m3
settlement of the normally
consolidated clay layer.
3. Compute the secondary settlement of
the clay layer 5 yrs after the
clay
𝑒𝑜 = 0.60 PL= 20%
completion of primary consolidation
5m w= 40% settlement. Time for completion of
Gs= 2.60 LI= 0.64 primary settlement is 1.5 years.
Secondary compression index is 𝐶𝛼 =
0.02.