1.

ADVANCED TOPICS IN CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS

1.1 Introduction:
• What is consolidation?

• When a soil layer is subjected to a compressive stress, such as

during the construction of a structure, it will exhibit a certain
amount of compression.

• This compression is as a result of all or either of the ff:

– extrusion of the pore air
– extrusion of the pore water
– rearrangement of the soil solids

1
1.1 Introdution... Cont‘d
• According to Terzaghi (1943), a decrease of water content of a
saturated soil without replacement of the water by air is called
a process of consolidation.

• When saturated clayey soils are subjected to a compressive

stress, the pore water pressure will immediately increase.

• There will be a time lag between the application of load and

the extrusion of the pore water and, thus, the settlement.

• This phenomenon is called consolidation.

2
1.1 Introduction ... Cont‘d
• To understand the basic concepts of consolidation, consider a
clay layer of thickness Ht located below the GWT and between
two highly permeable sand layers.

• If a surcharge of intensity  is applied at the ground surface over a

very large area, the pore water pressure in the clay layer will
increase.
3
1.1 Introduction ... Cont‘d
• For a surcharge of infinite extent, the immediate increase of
the pore water pressure, u, at all depths of the clay layer will
be equal to the increase of the total stress, .
• Thus, immediately after the application of the surcharge,

• Since the total stress is equal to the sum of the effective stress
and the pore water pressure, at all depths of the clay layer the
increase of effective stress due to the surcharge (immediately
after application) will be equal to zero.

• In other words, at time t = 0, the entire stress increase at all depths

of the clay is taken by the pore water pressure and none by the soil
skeleton. 4
1.1 Introduction ....Cont‘d

Principles of consolidation 5
1.1 Introduction ... Cont‘d
• After application of the surcharge (t > 0), the water in the void
spaces of the clay layer will be squeezed out thereby reducing
the excess pore water pressure.
• This, in turn, will increase the effective stress by an equal
amount.

• Spring_model.docx
• This gradual process of increase in effective stress in the clay
layer due to the surcharge will result in a settlement that is 6
time-dependent.
1.2 Theory of Consolidation
• The theory for the time rate of one-dimensional consolidation
was first proposed by Terzaghi (1925).
• Basic assumptions:
1. The clay layer is homogeneous.
2. The clay layer is saturated.
3. The compression of the soil layer is due to the change in volume
only
4. Darcy’s law is valid.
5. Deformation of soil occurs only in the direction of the load
application.
6. The coefficient of consolidation C v is constant during the
consolidation.

7
1.2 Theory of Consolidation ... Cont‘d

• Consider an elemental soil mass with a volume of dx·dy·dz @ A.

• In the case of one-dimensional consolidation, the flow of water
into and out of the soil element is in one direction.
• Flow is unsteady flow 8
1.2 Theory of Consolidation ... Cont‘d

9
1.2 Theory of Consolidation

10
1.2 Theory of Consolidation

• IC and BC

11
1.2 Theory of Consolidation

• So far, no assumptions have been made regarding the

variation of ui with the depth of the clay layer.
• Several possible types of variation for ui are considered.

12
1.2 Theory of Consolidation

Constant ui with depth

13
• If ui is constant with depth (ui = u0)

• Note that the term 1−cosn in the above equation is zero

for cases when n is even; therefore u is zero.
• For the nonzero terms it is convenient to substitute n =
2m+1, where m is an integer

14
• At a given time the degree of consolidation at any depth z
is defined as:

• where is the increase of effective stress at a depth z

due to consolidation.

15
These curves are called isocrones
Variation of Uz with z/H and Tv 16
• Ex-1 Consider the case of an initial excess hydrostatic pore water that is
constant with depth and single drainage system. For Tv = 0.3, determine
the degree of consolidation at a depth H/3 measured from the top of the
layer.

• In most cases, however, we need to obtain the average degree of

consolidation for the entire layer.

• The average degree of consolidation is also the ratio of

consolidation settlement at any time to maximum consolidation
settlement.

• How is the plot of Uav vs Tv?

17
• Terzaghi suggested the following equations for Uav to
approximate the values obtained from the above Eq.

• Latter Sivaram and Swamee (1977) gave the following approx

single eqn for Uav varying from 0 to 100%:

• It must be pointed out that, if we have a situation of one-way

drainage, the above eqns would still be valid with the length
of the drainage path equals to the total thickness of the clay
layer.
18
 Linear variation of ui
• The linear variation of the initial excess pore water pressure,
as shown the fig below, may be written as

• This is identical to the previous eqn, which was for the case
where the excess pore water pressure is constant with depth
19
 Sinusoidal variation of ui
• The sinusoidal variation of the initial excess pore water
pressure, as shown in the fig below, may be written as

20
 1.2 Theory of Consolidation ... Cont‘d
• The average degree of consolidation is also the ratio of
consolidation settlement at any time to maximum consolidation
settlement.

• According to Terzaghi’s mathematical analysis of consolidation,

the time rate of compression of clay stratum depends on the:

– Thickness of clay layer

– Number of drainage faces
– Permeability of the soils
– Magnitude of the consolidating pressure acting on the layer.

21
1.3 Two and Three Dimensional Consolidation
 From the fundamental expression of flow in saturated
earth masses, the time rate of change of volume is
expressed as:
𝜕2 ℎ 𝜕2 ℎ 𝜕2 ℎ
𝑘𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑦 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝑘𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
 The time rate of volume change can also be given as:
𝜕 𝑒
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 1+𝑒
𝜕𝑡
 If a linear stress-strain relationship is considered, the
differential equation for three dimensional consolidation
may be derived to be:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝜕𝑡
= 𝑐ℎ𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝑐ℎ𝑦 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝑐𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2
𝑘
𝑐ℎ𝑥 = 𝛾𝑤𝑘.𝑚𝑥 .; 𝑐ℎ𝑦 = 𝛾𝑤 .𝑚𝑦 .
; 𝑐𝑣𝑧 = 𝑘𝑧
𝛾𝑤 .𝑚
ℎ𝑥 ℎ𝑦 ℎ𝑧 . 22
1.3 Two and Three Dimensional Consolidation

 If 𝑐𝑣 is assumed to be constant, then

𝜕𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝜕𝑡
= 𝑐𝑣 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2
+ 𝜕𝑧 2
• For 2-D consolidation in the x-z plane:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝜕𝑡
= 𝑐ℎ 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑣 𝜕𝑧 2
 The solution can be sought like:

𝑢 𝑥, 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑘𝑢𝑥 . 𝑥 . 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑘𝑢𝑧 . 𝑧 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑢𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑘𝑢𝑧 𝑧

 After some mathematical manipulations:

𝑐ℎ 𝑘𝑢𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑣 𝑘𝑢𝑧 2 =𝜔
2
23
1.3 Two and Three Dimensional Consolidation

𝑘𝑥 𝑐ℎ 𝑘𝑢𝑥
= = =𝑚
𝑘𝑧 𝑐𝑣 𝑘𝑢𝑧

2
𝜔
𝑐𝑣 𝑘𝑢𝑧 𝑚3 +1 =
2
With the relation 𝜔 = 2𝜋 𝑡
𝜋
𝑘𝑢𝑧 =
𝑐𝑣 𝑡 𝑚3 + 1

24
1.4 Consolidation by Sand Drains
• Normally the compression of clay deposits can generally take a long
time.
• In order to accelerate the process of consolidation settlement for
the construction of some structures, the useful technique of
building sand drains can be used.
• Sand drains are constructed by driving down casings or hollow
mandrels into the soil.
1.4 Consolidation by Sand Drains ... Cont‘d

• The holes are then filled with sand, after which the casings
are pulled out.
• When a surcharge is applied at ground surface, the pore
water pressure in the clay will increase, and there will be
drainage in the vertical and horizontal directions.
 1.4 Consolidation by Sand Drains ...cont‘d
• The horizontal drainage is induced by the sand drains.
• Hence the process of dissipation of excess pore water pressure
created by the loading (& hence the settlement) is accelerated.
• The basic theory of sand drains was presented by Rendulic
(1935) and Barron (1948) and later summarized by Richart
(1959.

Two fundamental cases:

1. Free-strain case: When the surcharge applied at the ground
surface is of a flexible nature, there will be equal distribution
of surface load and hence an uneven settlement at the
surface.
2. Equal-strain case: When the surcharge applied at the ground
surface is rigid, the surface settlement will be the same all
over. However, this will result in an unequal distribution of
stress.
1.4 Consolidation by Sand Drains ...cont‘d
• Effect of “smear”

Assumptions in the development of the above theories:

• Drainage takes place only in the radial direction.

• Null effect of smear zone.

 Free-strain consolidation with no smear
• For triangular spacing of the sand drains, the zone of influence of
each drain is hexagonal in plan.

• This hexagon can be approximated as an equivalent circle of

diameter de.

• Other notations used in this section are as follows:

1. re = radius of the equivalent circle = de /2.
2. rw = radius of the sand drain well.
3. rs = radial distance from the centerline of the drain well to the
farthest point of the smear zone.
• Note that, in the no-smear case, rw = rs.
 Free-strain consolidation with no smear
• The basic differential equation of Terzaghi’s consolidation theory for
flow in the vertical direction is given as:

r = radial distance measured from center of drain well

Cvr= coefficient of consolidation in radial direction
1. At t = 0, u(r,0) = ui(r).
2. At t > 0, u(rw,0) = 0.
3. At t > 0, ∂u∕∂r 𝑟=𝑟𝑒 = 0.

With the above BCs, the solutions for the excess pore water pressure
u(r,t) is obtained interms of Bessel functions of 1st & 2nd kind and of
zero & 1st order, and interms of the time factor, ∂𝑇𝑟 = 𝑐𝑣𝑟 𝑡 𝑟𝑒 2
• The average degree of consolidation Ur can be determined as:
Free strain—variation of degree of consolidation Ur with time factor Tr

n= re/rw
 Equal-strain consolidation with no smear
• The problem of equal-strain consolidation with no
smear rw = rs was solved by Barron (1948).
• The excess pore water pressure at any time t and
radial distance r is given by

The average degree of consolidation due to radial drainage is

• The average degree of consolidation of a given clay layer
due to radial flow, Ur, and the degree of consolidation for
a vertical flow, Uz, are inter-related to give the total
degree of consolidation, U. (Carrillo)

1
• 𝑈 % = 100 − 100 − 𝑈𝑧 % (100 − 𝑈𝑟 % )
100

𝐶𝑣 𝑡
• Observe that as 𝑇𝑣 = is the time factor for 1-D flow,
𝐻𝑑𝑟 2
𝐶𝑣𝑟 𝑡
𝑇𝑟 = is for the radial flow.
4𝑅 2
2. SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS

 Total settlements are contributed from:

1. immediate or distortion settlement Si,
2. primary consolidation settlement Sc, and
3. secondary or creep settlement Ss.
S = S i + Sc + Ss 2.1

35
2. SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS

• Immediate settlement:
• It is a component of the total settlement that occurs
essentially just after application of the superimposed
pressure.

• It is as a consequence of the distortion of the foundation

soil without volume change.

• It is often calculated based on elastic theory.

• How is the reliability of the theory in cohesive soils?

36
2. SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS

Primary Consolidation Settlement:

 a result of the gradual expulsion of water from the pore
space under the applied pressure.

 time dependent and will assume its ultimate value when

the applied pressure is fully transformed into effective
stress.

37
2. SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS
Secondary (Creep) Settlement:
 The compression of the soil after the excess porewater
pressure is fully dissipated.

 It occurs under the sustained constant effective stress that

equals the superimposed pressure.

 Non-linear time function.

 Presumably contributed from a combination of:

 deformation of the adsorbed water,
 deformation of the soil skeleton, &
38
 further rearrangement of the grains
2. SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS
 Transition from the primary consolidation to the
secondary settlement …

 The three components of settlement follows a

chronological order and occur at varying rates with time.

 The relative contribution of each component varies with

the nature of the soil.

 Granular/ inorganic clays/organic soils

39
2.1 Immediate Settlement
 Theory of elasticity is commonly employed for the
calculation of stresses in soil masses.

 Stress-strain relationship in soils

 Single layer/ stratified soil deposit

 Soil type – elastic modulus

40
2.1.1 Immediate Settlement of Cohesive Soils
 Linear elasticity theory is used

 Shares only a small proportion of the total settlement.

 Natural soil profiles are assumed to possess homogeneity and

isotropy so that only two material parameters are used.

 If foundation yielding is expected under the given loading, then

the elastic theory can’t predict the settlement with the
required accuracy.

41
2.1.1 Immediate Settlement of Cohesive Soils
o What is the importance of immediate settlement in such
types of soils?

Burland (1977) made the following observations:

 For NC cohesive soils; (P > Pc), the immediate settlement seldom
exceeds 10% of the consolidation settlement, indicating that its
relative importance may be negligible.

 For stiff (OC) soils (P < Pc), the immediate settlement can constitute
50 to 60% of the total settlement. This amount is found to decrease
with thickness of deposit. It is, however, unlikely that it exceeds
70%.

42
2.1.1 Immediate Settlement of Cohesive Soils
 According to Hooke’s law, the vertical strain in a homogenous
isotropic half space is given by:
1
εz = [σ − 𝑣 σ𝑟 + σθ ] 2.2
E z
– E is the modulus of elasticity in the undrained condition &
–  is the Poisson’s ratio of the soil.

 The expressions for the three normal components of the stress

tensor for the given loading and boundary condition are
inserted in Eqn. (2.2) and integrated to get the settlement at
depth z.
∞
𝑠𝑖 𝑧 = 𝜀 𝑑𝑧′
−∞ 𝑧′
2.3
 Some common surface loading cases are briefly considered below.
43
2.1.1 Immediate Settlement of Cohesive Soils
o Common loading cases
1. Vertical point load at the surface:
 Boussinesq’s problem: we use Boussinesq’s solution in Eqn. (2.3)
and evaluate the definite integral to get the settlement at depth z
due to the force  as:
𝑃 (1+𝑣)𝑧 2 2(1−𝑣 2 )
𝑠𝑖 = + 2.4
𝑧 2𝐸 3
𝑟 2 +𝑧 2 2 𝑟 2 +𝑧 2
1
2

 The settlement at the surface is:

𝑃
(𝑆𝑖 )𝑧=0 = (1 − 2 ) 2.5
𝑟

44
2.1.1 Immediate Settlement of Cohesive Soils
2. Uniform Load on Flexible Circular areas:
 Ahlvin and Ulery (1962) solved the strain problem for this leading
case and gave the following expression:

(1+) 𝑧 ′
(𝑆𝑖 )𝑧 = 𝑞𝑏 𝐴 + 1 − 𝑣 𝐼2 2.6
 𝑏

 The settlement at the surface becomes

(1−2)
(𝑆𝑖 )𝑧=0 = 𝑆𝑖 = 𝑞𝑏 𝐼 2.7
 2

 q - uniform load, b - the radius of the loaded circular area,

 A’ and 2 function dependent on 𝑧 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 𝑏
 s lateral distance from the center of the circle to the vertical
projection of the point of interest. 45
2.1.1 Immediate Settlement of Cohesive Soils
 At the center of the circle (𝑧 𝑏 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 𝑏= 0), 2 is read as 2.0
 At the edge 𝑧 𝑏 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 𝑏=1, 2 is read as 1.27.

 The averaged value of 2 over the radius b becomes 𝐼2 =1.70.

 Thus the surface settlements at the center and edge of the

loaded area on a saturated clay (  0.5), for example, together
with the average settlement become

𝑞𝑏
𝑆𝑖,𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 =1.5( ) 2.8

𝑞𝑏
𝑆𝑖,𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 =0.95( ) 2.9

𝑞𝑏
𝑆𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 =0.85𝑆𝑖,𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 =1.275( ) 2.10 46

2.1.1 Immediate Settlement of Cohesive Soils
Effect of Foundation Rigidity:
• The above results given for circular and rectangular loaded
areas are based on the assumption of flexible foundations.

• According to Schleicher (1926), the elastic settlement of a

rigid footing is about 7% less than the settlement of the
corresponding flexible footing.

47
2.1.1 Immediate Settlement of Cohesive Soils
Effect of Layering:
• It is more the rule than the exception to encounter layered
soils than uniform.

• If the thickness of the top layer is large relative to the

dimensions of the loaded area, the elastic settlement can be
well predicted by the assumption of homogenous half space.

• The effect of layering becomes, however, important, if this is

not the case. A common case encountered in practice is the
case of a softer layer overlying the bedrock. A layer of finite
thickness underlain by a rigid base can model this special
problem.
48
2.1.1 Immediate Settlement of Cohesive Soils
Effect of Layering:
 In such a case, the immediate settlement can be
calculated as:
(𝑆𝑖 )𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (𝑆𝑖 )𝑧=0 −(𝑆𝑖 )𝑧=𝐻 2.15

49
2.1.1 Immediate Settlement of Cohesive Soils
Determination of the Elastic Parameters
• The elastic parameters needed in the above Eqns are the
Poisson’s ratio,  and the stress-strain modulus, E.
• The magnitude of the elastic settlement is not highly
sensitive to moderate changes in the Poisson’s ratio.

50
2.1.1 Immediate Settlement of Cohesive Soils
Determination of the Elastic Parameters
• Elastic settlement is rather sensitive to variation in the
stress-strain modulus, E, the evaluation of which is more
difficult.

• The initial tangent modulus of the stress-strain curve from

an unconfined compression or triaxial test.

• The secant modulus corresponding to the stress level

expected in the field could also be used.

• Laboratory tests under estimate of its magnitude.

51
Cont...
Determination of the Modulus of Elasticity
Relationship between undrained modulus and OCR (After Dunchan
and Buchignani, 1976)
Bowles, 1996 suggestion
• normally consolidated sensitive clay:
𝐸𝑠
= 200 − 500
𝜏𝑓
• Normally consolidated insensitive and lightly consolidated clay:
𝐸𝑠
= 750 − 1200
𝜏𝑓
• Heavily consolidated clay:
𝐸𝑠
= 1500 − 2000
𝜏𝑓
2.1.2 Immediate Settlement of Granular Soils
• Two sources
– Distortion without volume change
– Compression due to volume change
• Factors that influence the compressibility of Granular soils
– Relative density (Dr: 0.1-0.7, Dr: > 0.7)
– Stress history
• Theory of elasticity can well predict the magnitude
in GS
• Factors that influence the compressibility of cohesionless
soils
– Stress-strain history (NC vs OC )
• Schmertmann‘s Empirical Approach for normally loaded
sands
– Empirial in nature but has a rational basis from theory of
elasticity
– Strain distribution in grnular soil deposit is similar to linear elastic
medium
– Axisymmetric and plane-strain conditions
∆𝑞
𝜀𝑧 = 𝐼 2.20
𝐸 𝑧
• Magnitude of surface settlement...
• Determination of stress-strain modulus
– CPT /SPT correlations
– Axisymmetric and plane-strain conditions
• According to Schmertmann, the variation of E with depth can
be accounted for.

• The distribution of strain within loaded granular masses is

found to be very similar in form to that for a linear elastic
medium.

• This observation was based on displacement measurement of

model footings and non-linear finite element analysis.

• On the basis of observations of results, a triangular distribution

of Iz is suggested extending to a depth of 2B for axisymmetric
problems (L/B=1) and 4B for plane strain problems (L/B greater
than 10).

• The limited depth (2B or 4B) of the soil mass is assumed to

contribute to the settlement.
• .
• For intermediate values of L/B, Iz may be linearly interpolated.
The surface settlement is found by integration as:

2𝐵,4𝐵 𝐼𝑧
𝑆𝑖 = ∆𝑞 0
𝑑𝑧 2.21
𝐸

• The above relationship can be written in a summation form by

subdividing the influence zone into n finite number of strata.
𝑛 𝐼𝑧
𝑆𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝐶2 ∆𝑞 𝑖=1 𝐸 ∆𝑧𝑖 2.22
𝑖

• In which ∆𝑧𝑖 is the thickness of the ith sublayer; C1 is a factor

that accounts for strain relief due to excavation down to the
foundation level; and C2 is supposed to account for some time-
dependent increase in settlement (consolidation).
 ′
𝜎𝑣𝑜
𝐶1 = 1 −  0.5 2.23 a
2∆𝑞
t
𝐶2 = 1 − 0.2log( ) 2.23 b
0.1

• Suggested equations for the determination of the stress-

strain modulus in terms of the bearing capacity qc based
on the static Dutch Cone Penetrometer test (CPT).

• Axisymmetric conditions (L/B=1): 𝐸𝑠 = 2.5𝑞𝑐 2.24

• Plane strain conditions (L/B10): 𝐸𝑠 = 3.5𝑞𝑐 2.25
• The above described procedure is applicable to normally
loaded sands.
• As a tentative measure, Schmertmann suggested that the
settlement estimated by Eqn 2.22 be halved for preloaded
or compacted granular soils.

• However, this reduction is believed to be still conservative.

With this understanding, Jamiolkowski et al. (1988)
presented results for Es that depend on OCR, Dr, and
effective normal stress (Holtz 1991).
• The above approach is based on CPT results

• Based on laboratory tests: 𝐸𝑠 = 7.5 + 0.8𝑁 2.19a

• Based on back analysis of 30 case histories of foundations
with width of 1m to 4m:
𝐸𝑠 = 4.8 + 1.25𝑁 2.19b
𝐸𝑠 (Mpa)
2.2 Primary Consolidation Settlement
• Analysis of volumetric compression
– Sketches of different plots
2.2 Primary Consolidation Settlement
– Virgin compression curve
2.2.1 Estimation of Preconsolidation Pressure
• Casagrande‘s Method
2.2.2 Field Compression Curve
o
2.3 Settlement from Seconday Consolidation
• It is a time-dependent settlement that essentially occurs under
the action of a constant effective stress.
• However, the exact mechanism is unknown yet.
• Analysis of this type of settlement is based on laboratory data
from common Oedometer test.

69
2.3 Settlement from Seconday Consolidation
• The secondary compression index, 𝑐𝛼 , is defined as
∆𝑒
𝑐𝛼 =
∆𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡
• In which e is taken in the lower straight portion of the
curve
• t = time range between any two instants 𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2 on the
lower straight portion.
∆𝐻 ∆𝑒
= , 𝑒0 = 𝑒𝑝
𝐻 1+𝑒0
∆𝐻
⟹ ∆𝑒 = (1 + 𝑒𝑝 )
𝐻

70
2.3 Settlement from Seconday Consolidation
• The secondary compression index is time dependent
𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑒 1 𝑑𝑒
𝑐𝛼 = = = . = 2.3𝑡
𝑑𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡 𝑑(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 2.3 1 𝑑𝑡
. 𝑑𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Or
𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝛼
= ⟹ 𝑒 diminishes with time.
𝑑𝑡 2.3𝑡

𝑐𝛼
𝑠𝑠 = . 𝐻0 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡𝑡2)
1 + 𝑒𝑝 1

71
2.3 Settlement from Seconday Consolidation
• If it is found not convenient to determine 𝑐𝛼 from tests,
then the following suggested ranges of values may be used
at least for preliminary estimation purposes.

 Soft inorganic clays: 𝑐𝛼 ≅ 0.04 ± 0.01

 Highly organic clays: 𝑐𝛼 ≅ 0.05 ± 0.01
 Peat :𝑐𝛼 ≅ 0.035 𝑡𝑜 0.085
 Organic :𝑐𝛼 ≅ 0.035 𝑡𝑜 0.06
 In any case 𝑐𝛼 < 0.1

72
2.4 Skempton-Bjerrum Modification for Consolidation
Settlement
• 1D – Consolidation

• 2D / 3D - condition
• Circular footing

73
2.4 Skempton-Bjerrum Modification for Consolidation
Settlement
• Circular footing

74
2.4 Skempton-Bjerrum Modification for Consolidation
Settlement
• Leonardo (1976) considered the correction for 3D consolidation
effect in the field for circular foundation located over OC clay.

75
2.5 Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
• Logarithm-of-Time Method

76
2.5 Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
• Logarithm-of-Time Method

77
2.5 Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
• Square root-of-Time Method

78
2.6 Mechanical Models
• The word viscoelastic is derived from the words viscous +
elastic.

• A viscoelastic material exhibits both viscous and elastic

behavior (a bit like a fluid and a bit like a solid.

• One can build up a model of linear viscoelasticity by

considering combinations of the linear elastic spring and
the linear viscous dash-pot.
• These are known as Rheological Models or Mechanical
Models.
2.6.1 The Linear Elastic Spring

• The constitutive equation for a material which responds as a linear

elastic spring of stiffness E is given as:

• The response of this material to a creep-recovery test is to undergo

an instantaneous elastic strain upon loading, to maintain that strain
so long as the load is applied, and then to undergo an instantaneous
de-straining upon removal of the load.
2.6.2 The Linear Viscous Dash-pot
• Imagine next a material which responds like a viscous dash-pot; the
dash-pot is a piston-cylinder arrangement, filled with a viscous fluid.

• A strain is achieved by dragging the piston through the fluid. By

definition, the dash-pot responds with a strain-rate proportional to
stress:

• η is the viscosity of the material. This is the typical response of

many fluids; the larger the stress, the faster the straining.
2.6.2 The Linear Viscous Dash-pot ...
• The strain due to a suddenly applied load σ0 may be obtained by
integrating the constitutive equation given above.
• Assuming zero initial strain, one has
2.6.2 The Linear Viscous Dash-pot ...
• The linear relationship between the stress and strain during the
creep-test may be expressed in the form:

• J is the creep (compliance) function ( J = 1/ E for the elastic spring).

2.6.3 The Maxwell Model
•

• One can divide the total strain into one for the spring ( ε1 ) and one
for the dash-pot ( ε2 ).
• Equilibrium requires that the stress be the same in both elements.
• One thus has the following three equations in four unknowns:

• (Maxwell Model)
2.6.3 The Maxwell Model …
Creep-Recovery Response
• Consider now a creep test. Physically, when the Maxwell model is
subjected to a stress σ0 , the spring will stretch immediately and the
dash-pot will take time to react.

• Thus the initial strain is ε(0) =σ0 /E. Using this as the initial condition,
an integration of

leads to ---
2.6.3 The Maxwell Model …
• The creep-response can again be expressed in terms of a creep
compliance function:

• The Maxwell model predicts creep, there is the elastic response and
permanent strain.
2.6.3 The Maxwell Model …
Stress Relaxation
• In the stress relaxation test, the material is subjected to a constant
strain ε0 at t = 0 .
• The Maxwell model then leads to

• Analogous to the creep function J for the creep test, E(t) is called the
relaxation modulus function.

• The parameter tR is called the relaxation time of the material and is

a measure of the time taken for the stress to relax; the shorter the
relaxation time, the more rapid the stress relaxation.
2.6.4 The Kevin (Voigt) Model

• Consider next the other two-element model, the Kelvin (or Voigt)
model, which consists of a spring and dash-pot in parallel.

• It is assumed there is no bending in this type of parallel

arrangement, so that the strain experienced by the spring is the
same as that experienced by the dash-pot.

• Here,
2.6.4 The Kevin (Voigt) Model …
Creep-Recovery Response
• If a load σ0 is applied suddenly to the Kelvin model, the spring will
want to stretch, but is held back by the dash-pot, which cannot
react immediately.

• Since the spring does not change length, the stress is initially taken
up by the dash-pot.

• The creep curve thus starts with an initial slope σ0 /η.

2.6.4 The Kevin (Voigt) Model …
• Some strain then occurs and so some of the stress is transferred
from the dash-pot to the spring.
• The slope of the creep curve is now σ2 /η, where σ2 is the stress in
the dashpot, with σ2 ever-decreasing.
• In the limit when σ2 = 0 , the spring takes all the stress and thus the
maximum strain is σ0/E .
• Solving the first order non-homogeneous differential equation with
the initial condition ε (0) = 0 gives:

• which agrees with the above physical reasoning, the creep

compliance function is now
2.6.4 The Kevin (Voigt) Model …
• The parameter tR , in contrast to the relaxation time of the Maxwell
model, is here called the retardation time of the material.

• It is a measure of the time taken for the creep strain to accumulate.

• The shorter the retardation time, the more rapid the creep straining.
 2.7 Terzaghi/Fröhlich Visco-elastic models for 1-D
consolidation
• Terzaghi’s 1D theory of consolidation is based on the
assumption that the effective stress and the volumetric
strain can be described by linear elasticity.
• The compression modulus of the soil correlates the
effective stress to the strain as a result of expulsion of
water only.
• However, this does not includes other contributions like:
– possible deformation of the adsorbed water
– Further rearrangement of the solid grains- creep
• The compression due to creep is called secondary
consolidation.
• With the intention of accounting for these contributions to the
total strain, a number of researchers attempted to study 1D
consolidation of soils using Viscoelastic models.
• Barden (1965, 1968) used the ff Viscoelastic model.

• The applied stress at any time during the consolidation process

is shared among the linear spring, the pore water, and the
nonlinear viscous dashpot.
• The last term is the nonlinear pressure that accounts for the
secondary compression after full dissipation of the water
• Experiments showed that the secondary compression
takes place at a gradually decreasing rate hence nonlinear
time rate under the constant effective stress.

• The applied stress at any time during the consolidation

process is shared among the linear spring, the pore water,
and the nonlinear viscous dashpot.
• The strain can be given by a power–law relation:

• The degree of consolidation is:

• Let

define: - structural vicosity

 is a nonlinear DE
Barden formulated the ff two linear PDE for simultaneous
solution. and
Observations can be made concerning this plot:
• The beginning of secondary consolidation is assumed to
start after the midplane excess pore water pressure falls
below an arbitrary value of u = 0.01 
• Primary & secondary consolidation are continuous
processes and depend on the structural viscosity (R or Ts).
• The proportion of the total settlement associated with the
secondary consolidation increases with the increase of R.
• In the conventional consolidation theory of Terzaghi, R = 0.
Thus, the average degree of consolidation becomes equal
to 100% at the end of primary consolidation.
• As defined earlier

– The term b is a complex quantity and depends on the

electrochemical environment and structure of clay.
– The value of b increases with the increase of effective pressure
on the soil.
3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS
– Introduction
– Stresses due to different loading types
– Contact Pressure under Rigid Footings
– Stress Distribution in non-homogeneous soils
– Stress Distribution in non-linear soils
– Approximate Method of Determining Vertical Stress

99
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
1. Stresses due to Vertical Point Load
Boussinesq (1883)

100
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
1. Stresses due to Vertical Point Load
Boussinesq (1883)

101
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
2. Vertical stress due to Line Load

102
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
3. Vertical stress due to Line Load of Finite Length

103
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
4. Vertical stress due to Strip Load

104
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
4. Vertical stress due to Strip Load

105
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
4. Vertical Stress below a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area

106
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
4. Vertical Stress below a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area

107
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
4. Vertical Stress below a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
For the radial stress increment:

108
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
5. Vertical Stress below a Uniformly Loaded Rectangular
Area

109
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
5. Vertical Stress below a Uniformly Loaded Rectangular
Area
At the center, the stress increment is
Given by:

110
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
5. Vertical Stress below a Uniformly Loaded Rectangular
Area

111
3.2 Stress due to Different Loading Types
6. Triangular loading on rectangular area

112
3.3 Contact Pressure under Rigid Footings
• Most footings possess a definite rigidity.
• Boussinesq analysis:

𝑃
 Vertical deformation( point load, P): 𝜔 = 1 − 𝑣2 𝐸
𝜋𝑅
 Vertical deformation( arbitrary loaded area, p): 𝜔 =
1−𝑣 2 𝑝 − 𝑑𝑑
𝜋𝐸
(𝑥− )2 +(𝑦−)2

With an absolutely rigid foundation, all points on the surface of

contact will have the same vertical displacement. Thus, the condition
of absolute rigidity of a foundation is,
1−𝑣 2 𝑝 − 𝑑𝑑
𝜔𝑧 = = constant
𝜋𝐸
(𝑥− )2 +(𝑦− )2
113
3.3 Contact Pressure under Rigid Footings
• The solution of the integral equation for an absolutely rigid circular
footing with central load gives the contact pressure at the point M
as:
𝑝𝑚
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) =
2 1 − ( 𝑎)2
a- radius of foundation base
= distance from the center of base to a given point ( ≤ 𝑎)
pm=mean pressure per unit area of the base
Check the contact pressure at the edge ( = 𝑎)and at the center ( =
0).
• For a strip footing, the contact pressure at the point M is given by:
2𝑝𝑚
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) =
𝜋 1 − (𝑦 𝑏)2
y - horizontal distane of point M ffrom the center of footing
b- half width of footing 114
3.3 Contact Pressure under Rigid Footings
• the distribution of contact pressure for an absolutely rigid footing
on an elastic half space will have a saddle like shape with infinite
pressure at the ends.
• However, in actual practice, there is redistribution of stresses over
the base (the stresses at the edge of footing can not exceed the
bearing capacity of the soil) and the contact pressure at the base of
a rigid footing tends to become more uniform.
•

115
3.3 Contact Pressure under Rigid Footings
• For foundation of finite rigidity, the contact pressure can be
obtained by solving the integral above together with the differential
equation for bending of plates.
• Using such an approach, Borowicka obtained the contact pressure
distribution for a uniformly loaded circular /strip footing on a semi-
infinite elastic mass. The shearing stress along the base of the
foundation was assumed to be zero. It was found that the
distribution of contact pressure is strongly dependent on a
dimensionless factor, termed as flexibility factor, of the form:
1 1−𝜇𝑆 2 𝐸𝐹 𝑇 3
𝑘= ( )( )
6 1−𝜇𝐹 2 𝐸𝑆 𝑏
𝜇𝑆 - Poisson‘s ratio of soil
𝜇𝐹 - Poisson‘s ratio of footing material
𝐸𝐹 , 𝐸𝑠 - Young‘s Modulus of footing material and soil, respectively
b- radius of circular footing
T- Thickness of footing 116
3.3 Contact Pressure under Rigid Footings
• It should be noted that for an elastic footing, the distribution of
contact pressure depends on the elastic properties of supporting
medium, on the flexural rigidity of the footing, and on the
distribution of loads on the footing.

• The nonuniform distribution of contat pressure influences stress

distribution in the soil only upto a small depth from the base, and
the pressure bulb is slightly affected. As a result, the influence of
rigidity of footing on settlement is relatively small.

• Concept of Interfacing

117
3.4 Non-homogeneous/Non-isotropic Soils
• The engineering properties of a soil are not generally uniform thru
out its mass.
• This variation could be spatial and direction wise variation of E.
• The variation of soil properties with depth may be due to many
factors: clay underlain by sand or rock.
• If the underlying stratum is well below the surface of the clay
relative to the size of the loaded area, its influence may be
marginal.
• But still even in a deep layer of apparently homogeneous material,
the rigidity of the soil generally increases with depth due to the
increase in effective overburden pressure.
• In dealing with the first type of non-homogenity mentioned above,
a subsoil is often considered as a layered system. (design of
pavements and runways).
118
3.4 Non-homogeneous Soils
Two layer system
Often encountered in the case of pavements where stiffer layers are
placed on a soft subgrade. However, in foundations, the situation is
often reversed and one may encounter a layer of soft soil overlying a
stronger deposit.

119
3.4 Non-homogeneous Soils
Two layer system (Burmister, 1963)
• Genera case for a circular load, the stresses depend on the values
of v1 and on the two parameters:
b- radius of loaded area
h- thickness of the top layer
E1,2- Elastic moduli of top and bottom.

120
 Stress Distribution in non-linear soils
• How do to deal with such problems?

121
3.5 Approximate Methods for Computing Vertical Stress
• Two approximate methods are generally used for computing
stresses in a soil mass below loaded areas.

1. Use of the point load formulas such as Boussinesq's equation.

122
3.5 Approximate Methods for Computing Vertical Stress
2. 2:1 method- an average vertical stress z at any depth z is computed.

123
3.5 Approximate Methods for Computing Vertical Stress
 Westergaard’s (1938) equations are
more appropriate for the prediction
of stress magnitudes, though they
are not frequently used in practice.
 The Westergaard’s equation for the
vertical stress due to a concentrated
vertical force P at the surface is
given by:
𝑃 𝜇
𝜎𝑧 =
2𝜋𝑧 2 (𝜇𝑧 2 + 𝑟 2 )3 2
1 − 2𝜇
𝜇=
2 − 2𝜇
 This can be rewritten as:
𝜎𝑧
= 𝐼𝑤
𝑃
𝑧2 124
3.5 Approximate Methods for Computing Vertical Stress
𝜇
𝐼𝑤 = 3
2𝜋[𝜇 − (𝑟 𝑧)2 ]2

125
 4. STRESS PATHS
4.1 Introduction
• An element of a soil will experience changes in its state of stress or
strain as the lab test progresses or loaded in service.

• Mohr circle may be employed to analyse the state of stress/strain at

a particular instant during loading.

• We may however, need to trace the history of the changes in the

state of stress or strain.

• Behaviour of a perfectly elastic material (loaded or unloaded with in

elastic range) is independent of the route taken during the loading
process. Only depends on the initial and final states.

• This is not true with soils!

126
4.1 Introduction …
• Results of triaxial tests can be represented by diagrams called Stress
paths.

• A stress path is a line that connects a series of points each of which

represents a successive stress state experienced by a soil specimen
during the progress of a test.

127
4.2 Stress Path Representation
• Lambe (1964) q‘ vs p‘

𝑝′ = 𝜎′1 +𝜎′3
2
; 𝑞′ = 𝜎′1 −𝜎′3
2

CD test

M-C Kf
q

‘1, ‘3, or p‘

128
4.2 Stress Path Representation
• The stress path gives information about the stress state of the soil
starting from the application of the deviator stress.

• For different applications of the deviator stress, p‘ and q‘ vary and

hence different plots can be drawn as shown above.

‘
Kf
′=ASIN(tan())

q

‘1, ‘3, or p‘

129
4.2 Stress Path Representation
CU test

130
4.2 Stress Path Representation
Axially symmetric Plane strain

3D 2D

131
4.2 Stress Path Representation

132
4.2 Stress Path Representation

133
4.2 Stress Path Representation

134
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