Consolidation

GLE/CEE 330 Lecture Notes

Soil Mechanics

William J. Likos, Ph.D.

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Wisconsin-Madison
 Construction
(1173-1399)

Higher
compressibility

CPT Tip Resistance

Profiles for North and
South Sides of Tower

grout injection- Ground water

(361 holes) pumping

(Burland et al., 1998)

Lead weights on North side
(~1993)

Loading…
• 33 tons of soil were excavated
from under the north side
• Moved further toward vertical by
17.72 in.
• Now exhibits a 5-degree tilt
• Rate of subsidence reduced to
less than a couple of millimeters
per year

Soil Extraction
(1999-2001)
 Soil Settlement and Compression
1) Immediate Settlement
• Elastic deformation, undrained compression (sands, gravels)

2) Primary Consolidation
• Time dependent settlement in saturated soil as water is squeezed
from voids due to increase in vertical effective stress (clays)

3) Secondary Consolidation
• Particle reorientation, creep, organic decay; does not involve
expulsion of water (highly plastic clays, organics)

4) Distortion Settlement
• Lateral movements near edges of loaded area
 Changes in Vertical Effective Stress

1) Fill Placement
gfill Hfill

sz’

2) External Loading
P

Loading…
sz’
sz’

3) Water Table Changes

4) Combinations of 1, 2, and 3

(e.g., water table lowering)

sz’
 Subsidence from Water Table Lowering
Example:

Initial GWT
g = 120pcf
5’
Final GWT
5’
A

USGS
 Primary Consolidation:

Piston-Spring Analogy

1. The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is closed. (Fully saturated soil)

2. A load is applied onto the piston, while the hole is still unopened. At this stage, only the water
resists the applied load. (Development of excessive pore water pressure)

3. As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through the hole and the spring
shortens. (Drainage of excessive pore water)

4. After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring alone resists the
applied load. (Full dissipation of excessive pore water pressure. End of consolidation)
 P Flow

• Spring is analogous to effective stress (stress carried by soil skeleton)

• Initially, the pore water takes up the change in total stress so effective stress does not change
• As excess pore water pressure drains, the effective stress increases (skeleton takes up load)
• Consolidation is complete when excess pressure dissipates and flow stops

• So consolidation is TIME DEPENDENT because it is a pressure dissipation (flow) process!

• Depends on hydraulic conductivity (k) and length of drainage path (Hdr)
Example 11.2 (Coduto, 1999)

Before Fill:

Short Term After Fill: Long Term After Fill:

 Consolidation (Oedometer) Testing
1-D consolidation test:
• Undisturbed saturated soil (clay, silt) – representative of in-situ stratum
• Typical specimen size: h = 1”, diam. = 2”-3”
• Specimen confined in rigid ring (no lateral deformation, “plane strain”)
• Drainage allowed on top and bottom via porous stones
• Apply increment of load and measure 1-D compression with time
 Trimming Procedures

Loading…

(Bardet, 1997)
 Assumptions
1) All compression occurs due to change in void ratio
• i.e., the grains do not compress
• Thus, we can relate change in void ratio (e) to change in volume

2) All strains are vertical (1-D)

DH
H0
e0
 Procedures for Incremental Consol Testing
1) Trimming
2) Specimen set up and initialization (seating load, s’v0)
3) Apply an increment of vertical load (s’v = P/A)
4) Record DH with time, compute De with time

5) Monitor until volume change ceases (~24 h)

6) Repeat 3-5 to generate load-compression curve
aka “e-log p” curve
s’v0 s’v1 s’v2 s’vn
log s’v
e0 e0
1st increment
e1 e1
~24h 2nd
e2 e2
nt
h
en en
We will use this data to predict We will use this data
rate of consolidation to predict magnitude
of consol settlement
time
 The “e-log p” curve

Loading
Loading

Unloading

Unoading

San Francisco Bay Mud (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

 OC
• Divide e-log p curve into linear segments Compression
• OC = Overconsolidated (stiff response)
• NC = Normally Consolidated (soft response)
• OC and NC portions separated by s’p B
• s’p = “maximum past pressure” A
• Cr = Recompression Index (slope of OC)
Cr
• Cc = Compression Index (slope of NC)
• Cs = Swell Index (slope of unload response) Virgin (NC)
Compression

Cc

0.01 ~ Cr ~ 0.5 D
C

0.1 ~ Cc ~ 2.6 Cs

s’p
(Bardet, 1997)
 Stress History
Maximum past pressure (s’p ) quantifies
The “stress history” of the soil – it is the OC
largest magnitude of effective stress the soil
has been consolidated to in the past. B
A Cr
Overconsolidation Ratio (OCR) quantifies the
magnitude of a soil’s existing state of stress
relative to its maximum past stress.

Cc NC

If OCR = 1, then s’p = s’ and the soil is

“normally consolidated” (soft response – D
virgin compression) C

If OCR > 1, then s’p > s’ and the soil is “over Cs

consolidated” (stiff response – it has been
precompressed)

Sources of Overconsolidation: s’p

• Extensive erosion
• Past glacial activity
• Removed structures
• Risen water table
• Evaporation
 Disturbance & Empirical Correlations
Disturbance “erases” stress history
For NC or undisturbed specimens:

For OC or disturbed specimens:

(Disturbance decreases virgin compressibility)

In general:
 Load-Rebound Behavior
Maximum past stress (aka preconsolidation
Stress) is a plastic yield stress.

If unloading occurs at a stress less than s’p, A

then the soil rebounds elastically. eA

If unloading occurs at a stress greater than

s’p, then a new s’p results and the soil
rebounds plastically.

Similar to elastic-plastic response you

learned about in Mechanics of Materials
ec B
C

yield
s stress

s’p s’B

s’A =
s’C

plastic e
deformation
Casagrande Construction for s’p

(Coduto, 1999)
 Calculating Consolidation Settlement
1) Site characterization to quantify thickness of
compressible layer.

2) 1-D laboratory consolidation testing to

determine stress history and compression
indices (s’p, Cc, Cr, Cs). Will also need cv for rate
prediction. Fill gfill

3) Divide compressible layer into sublayers. 1 H1

4) Calculate initial (preconstruction) effective Soft 2 H2
vertical stress at midpoint of each sublayer (s’i). Clay
3 H3

5) Calculate final post-construction effective

4 H4
vertical stress at midpoint of each sublayer (s’f).

6) Calculate consolidation settlement for each Rock

sublayer (DH) and sum for total settlement.
Where did that equation come from? OC

e0
Cr
De comes from compression in the
OC range and in the NC range. De
For OC portion: NC
Cc
ef

For NC portion:
Cs

s’i s’p s’f

So,
What if s’f < s’p ? OC
e0
In other words, what if we put a load on a
highly overconsolidated deposit? (maybe ef Cr
significant past glacial activity).

Consolidation will result solely from NC

recompression. Cc
Settlement will be relatively small because
response is stiff.

Equation must be modified:

Cs
s’f
s’i s’p
What if s’i = s’p ? OC

In other words, what if we put a load on a e0

normally consolidated (NC) deposit? Cr

NC
Cc
Consolidation will result solely from virgin
compression.
ef
Settlement will be relatively large because
response is soft.
Cs
Equation must be modified:
s’i = s’p s’f
Example – Fill Placement Prop. A B
Cc 0.25 0.20
Cr 0.08 0.06
e0 0.66 0.45
s’p 101 kPa 510 kPa

4.5 m
•See Coduto for solution using 7 layers
A •Let’s try using two layers (A and B)

9m
Compare to max past stress:
B
60 101 233
Log s’

Need both terms

 Prop. A B
Cc 0.25 0.20
Cr 0.08 0.06
e0 0.66 0.45
s’p 101 kPa 510 kPa

Now for layer B:

Compare to max past stress:

188 510
Log s’
Compare to solution for 7
361 layers…. DHtot = 0.83 m
e

Only need
Cr term
http://www.prenhall.com/coduto/html/Geotechnical/Software.htm
 Rate of Consolidation Settlement
Recall that consolidation is volume change due to pore water being squeezed out
Dissipation of excess pore pressure
So consolidation takes time!!! – depends on:
Hydraulic conductivity (k)
Drainage boundaries (max length of drainage path, Hdr)

Static + Excess = Transient

Pressure Pressure Profile
us u u
Fill gfill

k +
Soft
Clay Hdr

Rock Long Immediate

z z z Term
Consider a case of double-drainage (like an oedometer test)

Ds

Top porous disk

z
Saturated
H0
Clay

Loading…
Bottom porous disk Ds
So there is a hydraulic gradient from middle of sample to boundaries
The magnitude of the gradient decreases with time
So flow rate decreases with time
So rate of volume change decreases with time
Volume

We want to be able to plan for this!

Time
 Drainage Path Length, Hdr
Flow rate (rate of consolidation) depends on k and dht/dL

Double
Single Drainage Drainage
Ground surface, Ground surface,
sand layer, etc. sand layer, etc.

Hdr = ½ H0
Saturated Saturated
Clay Hdr = H0 Significantly
Clay
decreases
time for
consolidation

Impervious Rock, Pervious layer,

Aquitard, etc. sand, etc.
Sand Drains at Kansai Intnl. Airport
 1-D Consolidation Theory
We seek a solution for excess pressure a function of location and time
Dissipation of excess pressure is a diffusion process governed by 1-D PDE

cv = “Coefficient of Consolidation”
(determined from lab or field testing)

Ds

z Saturated
Clay
H0

Ds
 Units of cv = L2/T (e.g., m2/year)

s’

“Coefficient of compressibility”
av
e
or in terms of strain.…..

s’

“Coefficient of mv
volume compressibility” e
 Solution of the Consolidation Equation
Assumptions:
Darcy’s Law is valid
Soil solids and fluid are incompressible
Sr = 100%
Linear compressibility (const av or mv)

Boundary Conditions:

Saturated Initial Conditions:

Clay H0
z
Solution is infinite Fourier series:

(“Time Factor”)
 How Can We Apply This Solution?
Consider Kansai Airport….How much consolidation for given time?
Define “Percent Consolidation” U

St = consol settlement at any time t

S∞ = consol settlement at end of primary

Note that U only depends on time (T) – Percent

consolidation is independent of load!!!
Example 1: How long for 90% consolidation?

From figure, T = 0.848

Clay 20’
cv = 0.05 ft2/day

Sand
If S∞ = 4.0’, how long for 2’ of settlement?

Clay 20’
From figure, T = 0.196 cv = 0.05 ft2/day

Sand
If bottom boundary is impervious, how long for 90% consolidation?

Clay 20’
From figure, T = 0.848 cv = 0.05 ft2/day

Impervious Rock
Compute total consolidation settlement and time for 95% consolidation

OCR = 1, so clay is NC.

Prop. fill 20’
g= 100pcf
Analyze using Point A at midpoint of clay
25’
Clay
k = 10-6 cm/s 50’
e0 = 1.2 A
Cc = 0.40
G = 100 pcf
OCR = 1

Impervious Rock
Not given cv, so need to calculate…

Prop. fill 20’

g= 100pcf

25’
Clay
k = 10-6 cm/s 50’
e0 = 1.2 A
Cc = 0.40
G = 100 pcf
OCR = 1

If U = 95%, T = 1.129 Impervious Rock

(Bardet, 1997)
 Log-Time Method for Determining cv
(Bardet, 1997)

e0

e1 plot deformation
vs. log time

e2

en

time

1) Select some point near U = 50% (tb, db) (this is an estimate of d50)
2) Find ta such that tb = 4ta
3) Calculate (db – da) and find d0 = da – (db – da)
4) Find d100 graphically with two tangent lines
5) Calculate actual d50 as ½(d0 + d100); find corresponding t50
6) Calculate cv using t50 and time factor T
 Square-Root-Time Method for Determining cv

(Bardet, 1997)

*Preferred method in practice (don’t need to wait for t100)

1) Extrapolate linear portion backward to find d0
2) Measure length of segment AB (linear portion)
3) Draw AC such that AC = 1.15(AB)
4) Draw line through d0 and C to find d90 and
5) Calculate cv using t90 and time factor T
 Secondary Compression

Ca = secondary compression index

Cae = mod. secondary compression index
ts = time of start of secondary comp.
t = time

• Additional time-dependent compression after primary consolidation

• Not due to dissipation of excess pore pressure (expulsion of water)
• Relatively small amount of volume change
• Creep, particle reorientation, organic decomposition
Secondary Compression