Shimna Manoharan

GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING II
PATTERN
 External exam – 100marks
 Internal exam – 50 marks

Shimna Manoharan
 3 Internal exam
UNIT - 1

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION: Importance of exploration program, Methods of exploration: Boring, Seismic

refraction method of geophysical exploration, Types of samples - undisturbed, disturbed and representative samples,

Samplers, sample disturbance, area ratio, Recovery ratio, clearance, Stabilisation of boreholes - Typical bore log.

Number and depth of borings for various civil engineering structures, soil exploration report.

DRAINAGE AND DEWATERING: Determination of ground water level by Hvorselev’s method, Control of ground

water during excavation: Dewatering - Ditches and sumps, well point system, Vacuum method, Electro- Osmosis

method. 8 Hours

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UNIT - 2

STRESSES IN SOILS: Boussinesq’s and Westergaard’s theories for concentrated, circular and rectangular loads.

Comparison of Boussinesq’s and westergaard’s analysis. Pressure distribution diagrams, Contact pressure, Newmark’s

chart. 6 Hours
UNIT - 3

FLOWNETS: Laplace equation (no derivation) assumptions and limitations only, characteristics and uses of flownets,

Methods of drawing flownets for Dams and sheet piles. Estimating quantity of seepage and Exit gradient.

Determination of phreatic line in earth dams with and without filter. Piping and protective filter.5 Hours
UNIT - 4

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE: Active and Passive earth pressures, Earth pressure at rest. Rankine’s and Coulomb’s

Earth pressure theories-–assumptions and limitations,Graphical solutions for active earth pressure (cohesionless soil

only) – Culmann’s and Rebhann’s methods, Lateral earth pressure in cohesive and cohesionless soils, Earth pressure

distribution. 7 Hours
PART - B

UNIT - 5

STABILITY OF EARTH SLOPES: Types of slopes, causes and type of failure of slopes. Definition of factor of safety,
Stability of infinite slopes, Stability of finite slopes by Method of slices and Friction Circle method, Taylor’s stability
number, Fellineous method, 7 Hours

UNIT - 6

BEARING CAPACITY: Definitions of ultimate, net and safe bearing capacities, Allowable bearing pressure.
Terzaghi’s and Brinch Hansen’s bearing capacity equations -assumptions and limitations, Bearing capacity of footing

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subjected to eccentric loading. Effect of ground water table on bearing capacity. Field methods of evaluation of bearing
capacity - Plate load test, Standard penetration test and cone penetration test. 8 Hours

UNIT - 7

FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT: Importance and Concept of Settlement Analysis, Immediate, Consolidation and
Secondary settlements (no derivations, but, computation using relevant formula for Normally Consolidated soils),
Tolerance. BIS specifications for total and differential settlements of footings and rafts. 5 Hours

UNIT – 8

PROPORTIONING SHALLOW AND PILE FOUNDATIONS Allowable Bearing Pressure, Factors influencing the
selection of depth of foundation, Factors influencing Allowable Bearing Pressure, Factors influencing the choice of
foundation, Proportioning isolated, combined, strip and mat foundations, Classification of pile foundation, Pile load
capacity, Proportioning pile foundation. 6 Hours
CONTENTS
PART A PART B

 Unit I  Unit V
 Subsurface exploration  Stability of earth slopes

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 Drainage and dewatering  Unit VI
 Unit II  Bearing capacity
 Stresses in soil  Unit VII
 Unit III  Foundation settlement
 Flownets  Unit VIII
 Unit IV  Proportioning of shallow
 Lateral earth pressure and deep foundation
 UNIT I
 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION: Importance of exploration -
program, Methods of exploration: Boring, Seismic refraction-method
of geophysical exploration, Types of samples -undisturbed, disturbed

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and representative samples, Samplers, sample disturbance, area
ratio, Recovery ratio, clearance, Stabilization of boreholes - Typical
bore log. Number and depth of borings for various civil engineering
structures, soil exploration report.

 DRAINAGE AND DEWATERING: Determination of groundwater

level by Hvorselev’s method, Control of ground water-during
excavation: Dewatering - Ditches and sumps, well point system,
Vacuum method, Electro- Osmosis method.
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
1. Importance of exploration –program

2. Methods of exploration: Boring, Seismic refraction-method of

geophysical exploration

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3. Types of samples -undisturbed, disturbed and representative
samples

4. Samplers, sample disturbance, area ratio, Recovery ratio, clearance

5. Stabilization of boreholes

6. Typical bore log. Number and depth of borings for various civil
engineering structures

7. Soil exploration report.

INTRODUCTION
 Site investigation refers to the methodology of determining

surface and subsurface features of the proposed area

Information on surface conditions is necessary for

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

 planning the accessibility of site

 for deciding the disposal of removed material (particularly in urban

areas)

 for removal of surface water in water logged areas

 for movement of construction equipment,

 other factors that could affect construction procedures.

 Information on subsurface conditions is more critical

requirement in

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 planning and designing the foundations of structures,

 dewatering systems,

 shoring or bracing of excavations,

 the materials of construction and

 site improvement methods.

SOIL EXPLORATION
 The field and laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the
necessary information about the surface and subsurface features
of the proposed area including the position of the ground water

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table
 Also termed as site investigation
 Important for safe and economical design of substructure
elements.
 Helps to
 Plan
 Decide
 Design, and
 Execute a construction project
 OBJECTIVES OF SOIL EXPLORATION PROGRAM
 To know the geological condition of rock and soil formation
 To establish the groundwater levels and determine the properties of
water
 To select the type and depth of foundation for proposed structure
 To determine the bearing capacity of the site

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 To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements
 To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining walls and
abutments
 To select suitable construction techniques
 To predict and to solve potential foundation problems
 To ascertain the suitability of the soil as a construction material
 To determine soil properties required for design
 Establish procedures for soil improvement to suit design purpose
 To investigate the safety of existing structures and to suggest the
remedial measures
 To observe the soil performance after construction
 To locate suitable transportation routes
 • define stratigraphy or geology
Design • to determine soil properties required for design
requirements • aid material selection
• to determine the type and depth of foundation

• to select suitable construction techniques

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Construction • define equipment and techniques needed
requirements • to locate suitable transportation routes

• checking a site prior to sale/purchase

Auditing • to establish procedures for soil
• improvement to suit design purpose

• to observe the soil performance after

construction
Monitoring • determine reasons for poor behavior
• document performance for future reference
SCOPE OF SOIL INVESTIGATION

 Depends upon
type size, and importance of the structure

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

 the client

 the engineer's familiarity with the soils at the site,

 local building codes

 PHASES OF SOIL INVESTIGATION

PHASE 1
Collection of available information such as a
 site plan, type, size, and importance of the structure, loading

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conditions

 previous geotechnical reports

 topographic maps, air photographs

 geologic maps, hydrological information and

 newspaper clippings
PHASE II
 Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to provide a
general picture of the topography and geology of the site

 Compare the information collected in phase I with the

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current conditions in field

 visual inspection is done to gather information on

 topography, soil stratification, vegetation,

 water marks, ground water level, and

 type of construction nearby

PHASE III
 Detailed soils exploration: detailed planning for soil
exploration in the form trial pits or borings, their spacing and
depth

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 The details of the soils encountered, the type of field tests
adopted and the type of sampling done, presence of water table if
met with are recorded in the form of bore log.

 The soil samples are properly labeled and sent to laboratory for
evaluation of their physical and engineering properties
PHASE IV
 Write a report: The report must contain a clear description of the
soils at the site,

 methods of exploration,
 soil profile,

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 test methods and results, and
 the location of the
 groundwater.

 This should include information and/or explanations of any

 unusual soil,

 Water bearing stratum, and

 soil and groundwater condition that may be troublesome

during construction.
SOIL EXPLORATION METHOD
 Soil exploration methods
 Trial pits or test pits

 Boring

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 Probes (in situ test) and geophysical methods

 Indian Standard recommendations

 Foundations of Multi-storeyed Buildings (IS: 1892, 1979)

 Earth and rock fill Dams (IS: 6955, 1973)

 Power House Sites (IS: 10060, 1981)

 Canals and Cross Drainage Works (IS: 11385, 1985)

 Ports and Harbours (IS: 4651 – Part 1, 1974)

 TRIAL PITS OR TEST PITS
 Applicable to all types of soils
 Provide for visual examination in their natural condition
 Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples can be obtained
 Depth of investigation: limited to 3 to 3.5 m.
 Advantages
 Cost effective

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 Provide detailed information of stratigraphy
 Large quantities of disturbed soils are available for testing
 Large blocks of undisturbed samples can be carved out from the pits
 Field tests can be conducted at the bottom of the pits
 Disadvantages
 Depth limited to about 6m
 Deep pits uneconomical
 Excavation below groundwater and into rock difficult and costly
 Too many pits may scar site and require backfill soils.

 Limitations
 Undisturbed sampling is difficult
 Collapse in granular soils or below ground water table
EXPLORATORY BORINGS

 Boring is carried out in the relatively soft and

uncemented ground which is normally found close to
ground surface.

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 Location, spacing and depth of borings
 Type of structure

 Size of the structure

 Weight coming from the structure

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GUIDELINES FOR LOCATION AND DEPTH OF
BORE HOLES

 Boreholes are generally located at

 The building corners

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 The center of the site

 Where heavily loaded columns or machinery pads are

proposed.

 At least one boring should be taken to a deeper stratum,

probably up to the bedrock if practicable

 Other borings may be taken at least to significant stress

level
 SPACING OF BORE HOLES – CODAL
RECOMMENDATIONS
 According to IS 1892 (1979) Code of practice for
subsurface investigation:

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 For a small building one bore hole or test pit at the center
can give necessary data

 For a building covering not more than 4000 sq.m, one bore
hole or test pit at each corner and one at center is
adequate.

 For a large project, the number will depend on its geological

features and variation of strata.
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DEPTH OF BORE HOLES
 The depth of investigation depends on
 The size and type of proposed structure
 Sequence of proposed strata.

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 The depths of boreholes should cover the zone of soil
that will be affected by the structural loads
 The depths of boreholes are governed by
 experience based on the geological character of the ground
 the importance of the structure,
 the structural loads, and the
 availability of equipment
 GUIDELINES FOR DEPTH OF INVESTIGATION
 At least one boring should be taken to deeper stratum up to the bedrock

 Borings should penetrate at least 3 m into rock.

 Other borings may be taken at least to significant stress level.

 In compressible soils such as clays, the borings should penetrate at least

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between I and 3 times the width of the proposed foundation or until the stress
increment due to the heaviest foundation load is less than 10%, whichever is
greater.

 In very stiff clays, borings should penetrate 5-7 m to prove that the thickness of
the stratum is adequate.

 Borings must penetrate below any fills or very soft deposits below the proposed
structure.

 The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6 m unless bedrock or very dense

material is encountered.
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 METHODS OF BORING

 Auger boring – preferred for shallow depths , low ground

water table

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 Wash boring: high water table, deeper soil deposit

 Rotary drilling: high quality boring, also for rock drilling

 Percussion drilling: fast drilling, not taking samples,

gravel
AUGER BORING
 Soil auger’ is a device that is useful for advancing a bore hole
into the ground.
 Augers may be hand-operated or power-driven; the
former are used for relatively small depths (less than 3 to 5

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m), while the latter are used for greater depths.
 The soil auger is advanced by rotating it while pressing it
into the soil at the same time.
 It is used primarily in soils in which the bore hole can be
kept dry and unsupported.
 As soon as the auger gets filled with soil, it is taken out and
the soil sample collected.
Manually operated auger – boring upto 6m

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Power driven auger

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WASH BORING
 Soil exploration below the ground water table is usually very difficult
to perform by means of pits or auger-holes

 Wash boring relies on relatively little drilling action and can form a
hole primarily by jetting.

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 very convenient method provided the soil is sand, silt, or clay

 This can be undertaken with light equipment without the need for a
drilling rig.

 The motive power for a wash boring is either mechanical or man

power
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 The hole continued by the use of a chopping bit fixed at the end
of a string of hollow drill rods.
 A stream of water under pressure is forced through the rod and
the bit into the hole which loosens the soil and as the water flows
up around the pipe, the loosened soil in suspension in water is

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discharged into a tub.
 The soil in suspension settles down in the tub and the clean
water flows into a sump which is reused for circulation.
 Whenever an undisturbed sample is required at a particular
depth, the boring is stopped, and the chopping bit is replaced by
a sampler.
 The sampler is pushed into the soil at the bottom of the hole and
the sample is withdrawn.
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ROTORY DRILLING

 Bore hole advanced by rotating a hollow drill rod

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 Has cutting end at lower end

 Consist of rotary mechanism and an arrangement for

applying downward pressure

 CORE DRILLING
 a cutter bit or a core barrel with a coring bit attached
to the end of a string of drill rods is rotated by a
power rig

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 Coring bits cut an annular hole around an intact core which enters
the barrel and is retrieved.

 Core barrel is used primarily in rocky strata to get rock samples

 Drilling fluid serves the dual function of

 cooling the bit as it enters the hole and

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 removing the cuttings from the bottom of the hole as it returns to the
surface

 When boring in soil, the drill bit is removed and replaced by a

sampler when sampling is required,

 But in rocky strata the coring bit is used to obtain continuous rock
samples.

 Coring bits
 diamond, carbide insert, and saw tooth
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 PERCUSSION DRILLING

 Percussion drilling is a manual drilling technique in

which a heavy cutting or hammering bit attached to a
rope or cable is lowered in the open hole or inside a

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temporary casing

 Percussion drilling is suitable for unconsolidated and

consolidated formations: Sand, silt, stiff clays,
sandstone, laterite and gravel layers.

 Manual percussion drilling is generally used up to

depths of 25 meters.
 SOIL SAMPLING
 Need of soil sampling
 Sampling is carried out in order that soil and rock description,
and laboratory testing can be carried out.

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 Sample collected should be representative of the ground from
which they are taken.

 Laboratory tests typically consist of:

 Index tests (for example, specific gravity, water content)
 Classification tests (for example, Atterberg limit tests on
clays); and
 Tests to determine engineering design parameters (for
example strength, compressibility, and permeability).
 Soil Sample

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Non
Representative
Representative

Disturbed Undisturbed
 NON-REPRESENTATIVE SOIL SAMPLES
 Non-Representative soil samples are those in which
neither the in-situ soil structure, moisture content
nor the soil particles are preserved.

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 They are not representative

 They cannot be used for any tests as the soil particles

either gets mixed up or some particles may be lost.

 Ex- Samples that are obtained through wash boring

or percussion drilling.
 DISTURBED SOIL SAMPLES
 Disturbed soil samples are those in which the in-situ soil
structure and moisture content are lost, but the soil
particles are intact.

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 They are representative

 They can be used for grain size analysis, liquid and plastic
limit, specific gravity, compaction tests, moisture content,
organic content determination and soil classification test
performed in the lab

 Ex: obtained through cuttings while auguring, grab, split

spoon (SPT), etc.
UNDISTURBED SOIL SAMPLES
 Undisturbed soil samples are those in which the in-situ soil
structure and moisture content are preserved.

 They are representative and also intact

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 These are used for consolidation, permeability or shear
strengths test (Engineering properties)

 More complex jobs or where clay exist

 In sand is very difficult to obtain undisturbed sample

 Obtained by using Shelby tube (thin wall), piston sampler,

surface (box), vacuum, freezing, etc.
NON-REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES

 Non-Representative soil samples are those in which

neither the in-situ soil structure, moisture content
nor the soil particles are preserved.

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 They are not representative
 They cannot be used for any tests as the soil
particles either gets mixed up or some particles may
be lost.
 Ex- Samples that are obtained through wash boring
or percussion drilling.
 Samplers

Thick wall sampler Thin wall sampler

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Split spoon sampler Shelby tubes
 SPLIT SPOON SAMPLER
 The split spoon sampler is basically a thick-walled steel tube, split
length wise. The sampler as per BIS (IS: 2131-1986—Standard
Penetration Test for soils)

 A drive shoe attached to the lower end serves as the cutting edge

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 Compute the area ratio of a thin walled tube samples having an
external diameter of 6 cm and a wall thickness of 2.25 mm. Do you
recommend the sampler for obtaining undisturbed soil samples ?
Why ?

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STABILIZATION OF BORE HOLE OR BORE
HOLE SUPPORT

 necessary to prevent cohesion less soils against

caving while drilling bore hole.

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 Steel casing – hydraulically pushed

 Drilling mud – Circulation bentonite slurry

 STABILIZATION OF BORE HOLES USING DRILLING MUD
 Bentonite mud or Drilling mud’ is a thin mixture of water and
bentonite clay, which can be mixed in powder form to the
drilling water to create higher density suspension

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 Bentonite is an absorbent aluminium phyllosilicate clay consisting
mostly of montmorillonite

 Advantages  Disadvantages
 More viscous  Difficult to dispose
 Cake the edges of borehole  Unmixed dry bentonite
 Cake increases the borehole causes clogging of core barrel
stability
 IN SITU TESTING
 There is a wide variety of different tests that can be used for
evaluating the properties of the ground
 It is often preferable to do an in situ test in an attempt to
measure a particular parameter, rather than obtain a sample and do

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a laboratory test
 sampling results in disturbance (reduces strength and stiffness)
 sometimes only best (strongest) material is recovered, and is not
representative of overall in situ material
 Parameters obtained from In Situ Testing
 strength
 stiffness
 permeability
 relative density
 Advantages
 Tests are carried out in the natural environment
without sampling disturbance
 Continuous profiles of stratigraphy and
engineering properties/characteristics
 Detection of planes of weakness and defects are
more likely and practical
 Methods are usually fast, repeatable, produce
large amounts of information and are cost
effective
 Tests carried out in soils that are either
impossible or difficult to sample without the use
of expensive specialized methods
 large volume of soil may be tested than is
normally practicable for laboratory testing.
 more representative of the soil mass.
Disadvantages
 Samples are not obtained
 fundamental behaviour of soils during testing is not
well understood.
 Drainage conditions during testing are not known
 Consistent, rational interpretation is often difficult
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and uncertain
 stress path imposed during testing may bear no
resemblance to the stress path induced by full-scale
engineering structure
 Most push-in devices are not suitable for a wide
range of ground conditions
 Some disturbance is imparted to the ground by the
insertion or installation of the instrument
 no direct measurement of engineering properties.
Empirical correlations usually have to be applied
IN SITU TEST
 Standard penetration test (SPT)
 Cone – penetration test (CPT)

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 Piezo-cone penetration test (CPTU) (

 Field vane shear test (FVT)

 Pressure meter test (PMT) (vi) Dilatometer test

(DMT)
 Becker Penetration Test (BPT)

 Iowa Bore hole shear test (BHST)

 Plate load test

STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)

 the most popular and economical means to obtain

subsurface information (both inland and offshore).

the advantage of low cost,

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

 applicability to many soil types,

 samples are obtained (although disturbed) and a

 large database from which many useful correlations

have been developed.
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 TYPICAL BORE LOG
 Information on subsurface conditions obtained from the
boring operation is typically presented in the form of a boring
record, commonly known as “boring log”.

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 A continuous record of the various strata identified at various
depths of the boring is presented.
 Description or classification of the various soil and rock types
encountered, and data regarding ground water level have to
be necessarily given in a pictorial manner on the log.
 A “field” log will consist of this minimum information, while a
“lab” log might include test data presented alongside the
boring sample actually tested.
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 SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD
 When a shock or impact is made at a point on or in the earth, the
resulting seismic (shock or sound) waves travel through the surrounding
soil at speeds related to their elastic characteristics.

 A shock may be created with a sledge hammer hitting a strike plate

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placed on the ground or by detonating a small explosive charge at or
below the ground surface.

 The radiating shock waves are picked up by detectors, called ‘geophones’,

placed in a line at increasing distances, d1, d2, ..., from the origin of the
shock

 The geophone is actually a transducer, an electromechanical device that

detects vibrations and converts them into measurable electric signals

 The time required for the elastic wave to reach each geophone is
automatically recorded by a ‘seismograph’.
 Direct or primary waves - picked up first by the geophone

 Refracted waves - primary waves travel downwards to the lower

layer and get refracted as the surface

 If the underlying layer is denser, the refracted waves travel much

faster.

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 The distance of the point at which the primary and refracted waves
reach the geophone simultaneously is called the ‘critical distance’
which is a function of the depth and the velocity ratio of the strata.