ECE 4103

Foundation Engineering

Consolidation in Soil

Dedan KimathiUniversity of Technology

Department of Civil Engineering
Dr. Thuo J. N.

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1.2 Soil Effective Stress

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Soil Effective Stress

'u

First proposed by Terzaghi (1925)

 Soil Effective Stress
The sum of the vertical components of the forces developed
at the points of contact of the solid particles per unit cross-
sectional area of the soil mass.
 Soil Effective Stress

The effective stress is a concept of average stress, not the

real contact stress between the surrounding soil particles.
However, people still can view the effective stress is
approximately the force per unit area carried by the soil
skeleton.

It is the most important concept in the geotechnical

engineering. It has been proofed the effective stress (not
total stress) in a soil mass controls its volume change and
strength. Increasing the effective stress induces soil to move
into a denser state of packing.
Soil Effective Stress

Total Pore water Effective

Stress,  pressure, u Stress, ’
 Soil Consolidation
Consider a clay layer subjected to surcharge Δσ

t=0,
Δσ’ = Δσ – Δu = 0

t=∞,
Δu = 0
Δσ’ = Δσ –Δu = Δσ –0= Δσ
 Consolidation

Building a house on top of soft marine clay without House crack due to consolidation-induced-
pre-consolidation differential settlement
 Soil Consolidation

To answer following to major questions:

1. What is the settlement subjected to
the applied loading?
2. What is the consolidation time for the
required degree of consolidation?
 Soil Consolidation
Initial Setting t=0
LVDT
Reality Model Valve closed

▪ Soil Cylinder

▪ Solid Spring
D=0
▪ Water Water
Du=0
D’=0
De=0
Pressure Gage
 [土壤力學試教:Consolidation觀念]
Soil Consolidation
中央大學第二次面試

1.Loading
t=0+ 2. Water Dissipates 3. Equilibrium
D t>0 t>∞
closed
D

D

D=D D=D D=D

Du=D Du<D Du=0
D’=0 D’>0 D’=D
De=0 De>0 De>0 11
 D Du D’

t=0
Beginning of
applying loading
D D D
D Du D’

0≤t ≤ ∞
Dissipation of pore
water pressure
D D D
D Du D’
t=∞
Completion of
consolidation

D D D
 1-D Consolidation Test
ASTM Test Designation D-2435
 Used to determine the consolidation settlement caused by various
incremental loadings.
 The test specimens are usually 63.5 mm (2.5 in.) in diameter and 25.4
mm (1 in.) in height.
 Specimens are placed inside a ring, with one porous stone at the top and
one at the bottom of the specimen
 A load on the specimen is then applied so that the total vertical stress is
equal to σ.
 Settlement readings for the specimen are taken periodically for 24 hours.
 After that, the load on the specimen is doubled and more settlement
readings are taken.
 At all times during the test, the specimen is kept under water.
 The procedure is continued until the desired limit of stress on the clay
specimen is reached
 1-D Consolidation Test
Odeometer

P
Dial gauge
measures Dh

Porous Stone
Ring

Soil h0

Porous Stone

ASTM Test Designation D-2435

 1-D Consolidation Test
• Based on the laboratory tests, a graph can be plotted showing the
variation of the void ratio e at the end of consolidation against the
corresponding vertical effective stress σ’. (On a semilogarithmic graph,
e is plotted on the arithmetic scale and σ’ on the log scale.)

• After the desired consolidation pressure has been reached, the specimen
gradually can be unloaded, which will result in the swelling of the
specimen.

From the e–log σ’ curve, three parameters necessary for calculating

settlement in the field can be determined. These are :
i. preconsolidation pressure, σ’c
ii. compression index, Cc,
iii. Swelling index, Cs.
e-logP’ Curve
Over consolidated Normal consolidated

Cr

Compression index
Cc

Preconsolidation pressure

De  Compression Index  Dlog

De
S  DH  H 0
1  e0
 Preconsolidation Pressure, σ’c
It is the maximum past effective overburden pressure to which the soil
specimen has been subjected

Graphical procedure (Casagrande,1936)

a) Determine the point O on the e–log σ’ curve that has the sharpest
curvature (i.e., the smallest radius of curvature).
b) Draw a horizontal line OA.
c) Draw a line OB that is tangent to the e–log σ’ curve at O.
d) Draw a line OC that bisects the angle AOB.
e) Produce the straight-line portion of the e–log s9 curve backwards to
intersect OC.
This is point D. The pressure that corresponds to point D is the
preconsolidation pressure σ’c.
 Preconsolidation Pressure, σ’c
Normally Consolidated  present effective overburden pressure σ’ = σ’0 is
equal to the preconsolidated pressure σ’c

Overconsolidated  present effective overburden pressure σ’0 < σ’c

Stas and Kulhawy (1984)

LI = Liquidity index
 Compression Index, Cc, (λo )
It is the slope of the straight-line portion (the latter part) of the loading curve

where e1 and e2 are the void ratios at the end of consolidation under effective
stresses σ’1 and σ’2 , respectively.

NOTE: The compression index, as determined from the laboratory e–log σ’

curve, will be somewhat different from that encountered in the field.

The primary reason is that the soil remolds itself to some degree during the
field exploration
 Compression Index, Cc
The nature of variation of the e–log σ’ curve in the field for a normally
consolidated clay, generally referred to as the virgin compression curve,
approximately intersects the laboratory curve at a void ratio of 0.42eo
(Terzaghi and Peck, 1967).

eo = void ratio of the clay in the field

Knowing the values of eo and σ’c, you can easily construct the virgin curve and
calculate its compression index by substituting in:
 Compression Index, Cc
Empirical Equations:

(Rendon-Herrero,1983)

(Nagaraj and Murty,1985)

(Park and Koumoto, 2004)

no =in situ porosity of soil

(Wroth and Wood, 1978)

(Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990)

If a typical value of Gs = 2.7
 Swelling Index, Cs (ko )
It is the slope of the unloading portion of the e–log σ’ curve

The swelling index is also referred to as the recompression index.

The determination of the swelling index is important in the estimation of

consolidation settlement of overconsolidated clays.
 Swelling Index, Cs
In the field, depending on the pressure increase, an overconsolidated clay
will follow an e–log σ’ path abc,
Note that point a, with coordinates σ’0 and eo,
corresponds to the field conditions before
any increase in pressure.

Point b corresponds to the preconsolidation

pressure (σ’c) of the clay. Line ab is
approximately parallel to the laboratory
unloading curve cd (Schmertmann, 1953).

Hence, if you know eo, σ’0 , σ’c , Cc, and Cs,

you can easily construct the field
consolidation curve.
 Swelling Index, Cs
Empirical Equation (Kulhawy and Mayne,1990)


Settlement Calculation using e-logP’ Curve
Primary consolidation settlement
Cr Case I : 0  D  c
De  C r log(0  D)  log 0 
H0
Cc DH  C r log(0  D)  log 0 
1  e0

0
Case I Case II
Case II : 0  D  c
De  C r log c  log 0   C c log(0  D)  log c 
H0
DH  C r log c  log 0   C c log(0  D)  log c 
1  e0
 Time Rate of Consolidation
Terzaghi (1925) 1-D Consolidation Theory
Assume:
1. The clay-water system is homogeneous
2. Full Saturation
3. Compressibility of water is negligible
4. Compressibility of soil grains is negligible
(but soil grains rearrange)
5. The flow of water is in one direction along
the direction of compression
6. Darcy’s law is valid

Governing Equation
Rate of water outflow - Rate of water inflow= Rate of volume change

u  2u where :
 Cv
t z 2 u : excess pore water pressure at time t
t : consolidation time
z : depth
C v : coefficient of consolidation
(a) Clay layer undergoing consolidation;
(b) flow of water during consolidation
 Time Rate of Consolidation

Coefficient of consolidation, Cv
 Time Rate of Consolidation
The average degree of consolidation, U

Sc(t) = settlement of a clay layer at time t after the load is applied

Sc(max) = maximum consolidation settlement that the clay will undergo
under a given loading
 Time Rate of Consolidation
The average degree of consolidation

Sc(t) = settlement of a clay layer at time t after the load is applied

Sc(max) = maximum consolidation settlement that the clay will undergo
under a given loading
中央大學第二次面試 [土壤力學試教:Consolidation觀念] 大地組助理教授候選人 楊國鑫

Estimate the Required Time for Consolidation

Dimensional time factor Length of drainage path
2
Tv H dr
t
Cv
Coefficient of Consolidation
Two-way drainage

Average degree of consolidation, U(%)  U% 2

One-way drainage

Tv  ( ) (for U = 0 to 60%)
4 100

Tv  1.78  0.933 log(100  U%)

One-way drainage

(for U >60%)

Dimensional time factor, Tv

Variation of average degree of consolidation
with time factor, Tv at u0 constant with depth
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中央大學第二次面試 [土壤力學試教:Consolidation觀念] 大地組助理教授候選人 楊國鑫

Drainage condition for consolidation

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Triaxial Compression Test

(a) Apply confining pressure; (b) Apply deviator stress

Modeling soil shear Modeling structural loading

strength increase with
the increase of depth

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 Triaxial Shear tests
 Consolidated-Drained Test (CD Test)
 Consolidated-Undrained Test (CU Test)
 Unconsolidated-Undrained Test (UU Test)
 Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

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 Triaxial Compression Test
1st Phase 2nd Phase
Test 3 d Abbreviation Soil Parameter Target Soil

Consolidated- Drained Drained CD (Slow) Effective c’, f’ Frictional soil

Drained

Consolidated- Drained Undrained

CU Total c, f
(Rapid) Cohesive soil
Undrained CU Effective c’, f’
Unconsolidated- Undrained Undrained UU (Quick) Total c, f Cohesive soil
Undrained
(most of time Su)

Modeling soil shear

strength increase with the
increase of depth
Modeling soil shear strength
changing with time (long and
short term stability)

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 Total and Effective Stress Analyses
Soil Effect of pore water pressure
Analysis
Parameter or groundwater table
Total stress analysis Total c, f Should be Ignored in the design/analysis,
(Short-term stability) (most of time Su) because the effect of water has been
included in the total stress parameter

Effective stress analysis Effective c’, f’ Should be considered in the design/analysis,

(Long-term stability) because the effect of water has not been
included in the effective stress parameter

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