Geo Notes Final

y
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
2ND Sem / AY 2022 - 2023
LECTURE NOTES
CE 3216 - GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING (SOIL

MECHANICS)
SUBMITTED BY:
MR. SACHI RAIN LICCUD
CE - 3 / 18-1619-398
SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. JUCAR B. FERNANDEZ, MSCE
INSTRUCTOR
LECTURES NOTES
RUBRICS
Incomplete Satisfactory Exemplary
Data (more than (Less
(More than 10 seen than 10 seen
Criteria Weightage 2 errors) errors) Score Instructor’s
discussions -All -All Remarks
were not discussion is discussion
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100% 4-5 6-8 9 -10
MS Word
Format 20%
(all are
type-
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The lecture
notes 70%
contents
The
reflection 10%
TOTAL SCORE
Checked by:
Engr, Jucar B. Fernandez, MSCE

Instructor
1
CE3216 - Geotechnical Engineering (Soil Mechanics)
LECTURES NOTES
Table of Contents
PRELIMS ......................................................................................................................... 3
PROPERTIES OF SOIL ..................................................................................................... 4
SAMPLE PROBLEMS ................................................................................................... 6
ATTERBERG LIMITS.......................................................................................................... 9
SAMPLE PROBLEMS ................................................................................................... 11
MIDTERMS ..................................................................................................................... 16
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL ............................................................................................... 17
SAMPLE PROBLEMS ................................................................................................. 20
FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS ............................................................................... 22
SAMPLE PROBLEMS ................................................................................................. 26
FLOW NET ..................................................................................................................... 33
SAMPLE PROBLEMS ................................................................................................. 34
FINALS .......................................................................................................................... 42
STRESSES IN SOIL MASS .............................................................................................. 43
SAMPLE PROBLEMS ................................................................................................. 46
^BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS .................................................................................... 52
SAMPLE PROBLEMS ................................................................................................. 56
SETTLEMENT ................................................................................................................. 59
SAMPLE PROBLEMS ................................................................................................. 62
REFLECTION .................................................................................................................. 64
2
LECTURES NOTES
PRELIMS
3
LECTURES NOTES
PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Phase Diagram of Soil

BASIC FORMULA
Unit weight of substance, 𝛾𝑠 = 𝐺𝛾𝑤
Weight of Water, 𝑊𝑤 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑉𝑤
Weight of substance, 𝑊𝑠 = 𝛾𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐺𝛾𝑤 𝑉𝑠
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Total weight of soil, 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑊 + 𝑊𝑆
Volume of voids, 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑤
Total volume, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣
𝑒 −𝑒
Reduction in thickness, ∆𝐻 = ( 1 2 ) ℎ
1+𝑒1
Void Ratio -is the ratio between the volumes of voids to the volume of solid of soil
𝑉
mass (e), 𝑒 = 𝑣
𝑉𝑠
Porosity -the ratio between the volume of voids to the total volume of soil mass (n),
𝑉
𝑛 = 𝑉𝑣
Relationship between e and n:
𝑒 𝑛
𝑛= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 =
1+𝑒 1−𝑛
Water content or Moisture Content (MC) -the ratio of weight of water to the weight
of the solid particles
𝑊𝑤
𝑀𝐶 = × 100
𝑊𝑠
Degree of saturation (S) -the ratio of volume of water to the volume of the voids, 𝑆 =
𝑉𝑤
𝑉
× 100
𝑉
Relationship between G, MC, S and E:
𝐺 × 𝑀𝐶 = 𝑆 × 𝑒
Unit weight of soil mass, 𝛾𝑚 :
𝐺 + 𝑆𝑒
𝛾𝑚 = 𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤
Dry unit weight, 𝛾𝑑 : for dry soils, S=0 and MC=0
4
LECTURES NOTES
𝑊𝑠 𝐺
𝛾𝑑 = = 𝛾
𝑉 1+𝑒 𝑤
Submerged or Buoyant Unit Weight, 𝛾𝑏 :
𝐺−1
𝛾𝑏 = 𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤
𝐺−1
Critical Hydraulic Gradient, 𝑖𝑐𝑟 =
1+𝑒
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑒
Relative Density, 𝐷 = 𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
Emax = void ratio of soil in loosest state
Emin = void ratio of soil in densest state
Max dry unit weight = dry unit weight in densest state
Min dry unit weight = dry unit weight in loosest state
Dry unit weight = dry unit weight in-situ site
I. Mass of water in kg/m3 to be added to reach full saturation:
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑚 = 𝛾𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑔
II. 𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 at zero air voids
𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑧𝑎𝑣 =
1
𝑀𝑐 +
𝐺𝑠
5
LECTURES NOTES
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A layer of soft clay having an initial void ratio of 2.0 is 10 m thick. Under a
compressive load applied above it, the void ratio decreased by one-half. Evaluate
the reduction in the thickness of the clay layer, in meters.
A. 3.5 C. 3.33
B. 3.74 D. 3.15
Solution:
𝑒1 + 𝑒2
∆𝐻 = ∗ℎ
1 + 𝑒1
2−1
∆𝐻 = ∗ 10
1+2
∆𝐻 = 3.33
∆𝐻 = 3.330
2. A soil sample has a water content of 20 percent and moist unit weight of 18 kN/m3.
The specific gravity of the solids is 2.65. Obtain the void ratio of the soil.
A. 0.407 C. 0.733
B. 0.635 D. 0.368
Solution:
𝑀𝐶 = 0.20
𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑚 = 18 3
𝑚
𝐺 = 2.65
𝐺𝑀𝐶 = 𝑆𝑒
𝐺 + 𝐺𝑀𝐶
𝛾𝑤 = 𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤
2.65 + 2.65(0.20)
18 = ∗ 9.81
1+𝑒
𝑒 = 0.733
Situation – A soil sample has a dry unit weight of 17 kN/m3 and a void ratio of 0.60.
3. Evaluate the specific gravity of the soil solids.
A. 2.44 C. 2.77
B. 2.65 D. 2.56
Solution:
𝐺
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤
𝐺
17 = ∗ 9.81
1 + 0.60
𝐺 = 2.77
4. Obtain the unit weight of the sample in kN/m3 when fully saturated.
A. 21.3 C. 20.7
B. 18.6 D. 19.
Solution:
6
LECTURES NOTES
𝐺+𝑒
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤
2.77 + 0.6
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ∗ 9.81
1 + 0.6
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 20.700
5. What is the hydraulic gradient at hydraulic condition?

A. 1.43 C. 1.35
B. 1.11 D. 1.28
Solution:
𝐺−1
𝐼𝑐𝑟 =
1+𝑒
2.77 − 1
𝐼𝑐𝑟 =
1 + 0.6
𝑖𝑐𝑟 = 1.110
SITUATION 14: A sample of sand above the water table was found to have a natural
moisture content of 15% and a unit weight of 120 pcf. Laboratory tests on a dried
sample indicated values of emin = 0.50 and emax = 0.85 for the densest and loosest
states respectively
6. Find the void ratio.
a. 0.587 b. 0.609 c. 0.645 d. 0.788
Solution:
𝑀𝐶 = 0.15
𝑙𝑏
𝛾𝑚 = 120 3
𝑓𝑡
𝐺 = 2.65
𝐺 + 𝐺𝑀𝐶
𝛾𝑚 = 𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤
2.65 + 2.65(0.15)
120 = ∗ 62.4
1+𝑒
𝑒 = 0.587
7. Find the degree of saturation.

a. 67.7 b. 70.4 c. 77.6 d. 81.5
Solution:
2.65(0.15) = 𝑆(0.587)
𝑆 = 67.700%
8. Find the density index.

a. 0.50 b. 1.00 c. 0.60 d. 0.75
Solution:
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒
𝐷𝑟 =
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
0.85 − 0.587
𝐷𝑟 =
0.85 − 0.5
7
LECTURES NOTES
𝐷𝑟 = 0.750
1. The moist unit weight of a soil is 19.2 kN/m3. Given that Gs = 2.69 and water content
is 9.8%. Determine:
a.) Dry unit weight
b.) Void ratio
c.) Porosity
d.) Degree of saturation
Solution:
𝛾𝑚 19.2
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = =
1 + 𝑀𝐶 1 + 0.098
𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 17.486 3
𝑚
𝐺
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = ∗𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤
2.69
17.486 = ∗ 9.81
1+𝑒
𝑒 = 0.509
𝑒 0.509
𝑛= =
1 + 𝑒 1 + 0.509
𝑛 = 0.337
2.69(0.098) = 𝑆(0.509)
𝑆 = 51.792%
9. The dry density of a sand with a porosity of 0.387 is 1600 kg/m3. Determine the
following:
a.) Void ratio
b.) Sp.gr. of soil
c.) Saturated unit weight of soil in kN/m3
𝑛 0.387
𝑒= =
1 − 𝑛 1 − 0.387
𝑒 = 0.631
𝐺
1+𝑒 𝑤
𝐺
1600 = ∗ 1000
1 + 0.631
𝐺 = 2.610
𝐺+𝑒
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ∗𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤
2.610 + 0.631
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ∗ 9.81
1 + 0.631
𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 19.434 3
𝑚
8
LECTURES NOTES
ATTERBERG LIMITS
Swedish scientist Albert Atterberg was the first person to define the limits of soil
consistency for the classification of fine-grained soils and later, they were refined
by Arthur Casagrande
SOIL INDICES
I. Plasticity (Strength, compressibility and compatibility)
II. Liquidity (compressibility and stress rate)
III. Shrinkage (shrinkage potential)
IV. Activity of the clay (swelling potential
Consistency:
Condition of Soil based on Liquidity Index

𝐿𝐼 < 0 (𝑆𝑒𝑚𝑖 − 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑)
0 < 𝐿𝐼 < 1 (𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐)
𝐿𝐼 > 1 (𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑)
Condition of Soil based on Plasticity index:
PI Classification of
Soil
0 Non-plastic
1-5 Slightly plastic
5.1-10 Low plasticity
10.1-20 Medium
plasticity
20.1-40 High plasticity
𝑃𝐼 > 40 Very high
plasticity
𝑀𝐶 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝐿𝐼 = ( )
𝑃𝐼
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑆𝐼 = 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿
𝑃𝐼
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦, 𝐴𝑐 =
𝜇
𝜇 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 0.002 𝑚𝑚 (𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒)
9
LECTURES NOTES
2∆𝑀𝐶
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 − (
𝑀2
(log 𝑀1)
(𝑀𝐶1 − 𝑀𝐶2 )
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝐹𝐼 =
𝑁
(log 𝑁2 )
1
𝑀1 − 𝑀2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡, 𝑆𝐿 = ( )−( ) ∗ 𝜌𝑊
𝑀2 𝑀2
1 𝑚2
𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑆𝑅 = ∗
𝜌𝑤 𝑣2
1
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑, 𝐺 =
1 𝑆𝐿
𝑆𝑅 − 100
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑀𝐶
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝐶𝐼 =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐼
Condition of Soil for Potential Swell Classification

LL PI POTENTIAL
SWELL
CLASSIFICATION
< 50 < 25 LOW
50.1-60 25.1-35 MEDIUM
> 60 > 35 HIGH
𝑃𝐼
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = <1
𝐹𝐼
The toughness index varies between 0 to 3. This gives us an idea of the shear strength
of soil at its plastic limit. When the toughness index is less than 1, the soil said to be
friable which means it can be easily crushed at the plastic limit.
10
LECTURES NOTES
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Problem #1
Solution:
Regression Mode
Mode:3
X Y
20 42.3
28 38.6
32 37.5
25 Y
Step 2: AC
Step 3: Shift+1
Step 4: 25y
𝐿𝐿 = 39.846
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
𝑃𝐼 = 40 − 21 = 18.846%
𝑀𝐶 − 𝑃𝐿 38 − 21
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝐿𝐿 = =
𝑃𝐼 19
𝐿𝐿 = 0.902
𝑀𝐶1 − 𝑀𝐶2
𝐹𝐼 = = 17.938
𝑁
log 𝑁2
1
11
LECTURES NOTES
PROBLEM #2
Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg Limits Test in Figure 01.8. Plot the water
content versus the cone penetration in Figure 01.9.
a) Determine the nearest value to the Liquid Limit of the soil.
b) Determine the nearest value to the Plastic Limit oft h e soil.
c) Determine the nearest value to the Liquidity Index of the soil
Solution:
LL=
X Y
18 39.977
28 50.000
𝐿𝐿 = 20𝑦 = 42.367
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
𝑃𝐼 = 12.378
𝑀𝐶 − 29.989
𝐿𝐼 =
12.378
𝐿𝐼 = −0.99 = −1.000
𝐿𝐼 = −1.00
12
LECTURES NOTES
PROBLEM #3
A silty clay has a plastic limit of 25 and a plasticity index of 30. If the clay has a
liquidity index of 0.20.
1. Compute the water content of the clay.
2. Compute the degree of saturation if the Gs of the clay is 2.70 and a void ratio
of 0.92.
3. Compute the moist unit weight of the clay is the void ratio is 0.92, Gs = 2.70
Solution:
𝑃𝐿 = 25
𝑃𝐼 = 30
𝐿𝐼 = 0.2
𝑀𝐶 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐿𝐼 =
𝑃𝐼
𝑀𝐶 − 25
0.2 =
30
𝑀𝐶 = 31.000
#2
𝑆𝑒 = 𝐺𝑀𝐶
𝑆(0.092) = 2.70(31)
𝑆 = 90.978%
#3
𝐺 + 𝑆𝑒
𝛾𝑊 = ( )𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤
2.7 + (0.90978)(0.92)
𝛾𝑤 = ∗ 9.81
1 + 0.92
𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑤 = 18.072 3
𝑚
PROBLEM #4
Following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:
Initial volume of soil in a saturated state = 26.6 cm3
Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9 cm3
Initial mass of soil in a saturated state = 44 g
Initial mass of soil in a dry state = 30.1 g
Gs = 2.70
1. Shrinkage limit of the soil
2. Saturated unit weight if e = 0.467
3. Dry unit weight
𝑀! − 𝑀2 100 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 100
𝑆𝐿 = ( ) −( )
𝑀2 𝑀2
44 − 30.100 ∗ 100 26.6 − 15.9 ∗ 100
𝑆𝐿 = ( )−( )
30.1 30.1
𝑆𝐿 = 10.631
13
LECTURES NOTES
#2
𝐺+𝑒
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ∗𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤
𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 21.178 3
𝑚
𝐺
1+𝑒 𝑤
𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 18.755 3
𝑚
PROBLEM #5
A saturated 100 cm3 clay sample has a natural water content of 30%. It is found that
the shrinkage limit occurs when the water content is 19%. If the sp.gr. of soil is 2.70.
a. Compute the shrinking ratio.
b. Compute the volume of sample when the water content is 15%.
c. Compute the mass of dry soil sample
Solution:
1 𝑀2 𝑀2
𝑆𝑅 = ∗ =
𝜌𝑊 𝑉2 𝜌𝑊 𝑣2
1
𝐺𝑠 = = 2.70
1 𝑆𝐿
𝑆𝑅 − 100
(𝑀! − 𝑀2 ) ∗ 100 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) ∗ 100
𝑆𝐿 = ( )−( )
𝑀2 𝑀2
(100 − 𝑉2 )
19 = 𝑆𝐿 = 𝑀𝐶 − ( ∗ 1000
𝑀2
1
2.7 = = 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒
1 19
−
𝑆𝑅 100
𝑆𝑅 = 1.780
𝑀2
𝑆𝑅 = 1.785 =
𝑉2 𝜌𝑊
(100 − 𝑉2 ) ∗ 100
19 = 30 −
1.785 ∗ 𝑉2
(100 − 𝑉2 ) ∗ 100
30 − 19 =
1.785𝑉2
19.635𝑣2 = 10000 − 100𝑉2
119.635𝑉2 = 10000
𝑉2 = 83.588 𝑐𝑚3
𝑚2 = 1.785𝑉2
𝑚2 = 149.205 𝑔
PROBLEM #6
14
LECTURES NOTES
A saturated soil has the following characteristics.

Initial volume = 25 cm3 ;
Final volume = 16 cm3 ;
Mass of wet soil = 45 g ;
Mass of dry soil = 31 g
a. Determine the shrinkage limit of soil.
b. Determine the shrinkage ratio.
c. Determine the sp.gr. of soil
Solution:
(𝑀1 − 𝑀2 ) ∗ 100 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) ∗ 100
𝑆𝐿 = − ∗ 𝜌𝑊
𝑀2 𝑀2
(45 − 31) ∗ 100 (25 − 18) ∗ 100
𝑆𝐿 = −
31 31
𝑆𝐿 = 16.129
𝑀2 𝜌𝑑𝑟𝑦
𝑆𝑅 = = = 𝐺𝑑𝑟𝑦
𝑉2 𝜌𝑊 𝜌𝑊
31
𝑆𝑅 =
16(1)
𝑆𝑅 = 1.938
1
𝐺𝑠 =
1 𝑆𝐿
𝑆𝑅 − 100
𝐺𝑠 = 2.819
15
LECTURES NOTES
MIDTERMS
16
LECTURES NOTES
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
According to WIKI:
The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is a soil classification system used in
engineering and geology to describe the texture and grain size of soil. The
classification system can be applied to most unconsolidated materials, and is
represented by a two-letter symbol. Each letter is described below (with the
exception of Pt).
Major Divisions of Unified Soil Classification System
1. Coarse-Grained Soil
2. Fined-Grained Soil
3. Highly organic soil
17
LECTURES NOTES
18
LECTURES NOTES
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The AASHTO Classification System is based on the Public Roads Classification System
that was developed from the results of extensive research conducted by the Bureau
of Public Roads, now known as the Federal Highway Administration. Several revisions
have been made to the system since it was first published. The system has been
19
LECTURES NOTES
described by AASHTO as a means for determining the relative quality of soils for use
in embankments, subgrades, subbases, and bases
𝐺𝐼: 𝐴 − 1 − 𝑎 (𝐺𝐼)
𝐺𝐼 = 0
𝐴−1−𝑎
𝐴−1−𝑏
𝐴−2−4
𝐴−2−5
𝐴−3
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥:
𝐴−2−6
𝐴−2−7
𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹200 − 35)(0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)) + ((𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)(0.01))
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM #1
Classify the following soils by the AASHTO classification system
Solution:
𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐴, 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 200 = 20%
𝐴 − 1 − 𝑏 (𝐺𝐼)
𝐴 − 1 − 𝑏 (0)
1 1
𝐺𝐼 = ((86 − 35)(( + (70 − 40)) + ((86 − 15)(0.01)(32 − 10))
5 200
𝐺𝐼 = 33.470
𝐴 − 7 − 5 (33)
PROBLEM #2
Classify the following soils by the AASHTO classification system
20
LECTURES NOTES
Solution:
For Soil A:
% 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #200 = 21.9% < 35%
Therefore, soil is in between A-1, A-3, and A-2
% 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #10 = 68.5 > 50
Therefore, soil is not in A-1-a
% 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #40 = 36.1 < 50 (𝑜𝑘𝑎𝑦!)
% 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #200 = 21.9 < 25 (𝑜𝑘𝑎𝑦!)
Therefore, the soil is A-1-B, GI=0 since it belongs to the group
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝐴 − 1 − 𝐵 (0)
For Soil B:
% 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #200 = 54.3% > 35%
Therefore, soil is in between A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7
% 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #10 = 79.5% (𝑤𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔)
% 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #40 = 69.0% (𝑤𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔)
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 53.5 − 31.6
𝑃𝐼 = 21.9
Since LL=53.5
Therefore, the soil is between A-7-5 or A-7-6
Since PL>30%
The soil is A-7-5
𝐺𝐼 = [(54.3 − 35)(0.2 + 0.005(53.5 − 40)] + [(54.3 − 15)(21.9 − 10)(0.01)]
𝐺𝐼 = 9.83945~10
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝐴 − 7 − 5 (10)
For Soil C:
% 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #200 = 4.5% < 35%
Therefore, soil is in between A-1, A-3, and A-2
% 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #10 = 59.1 (𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝐴 − 1 − 𝑎)
% 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #40 = 38.5% < 50% (𝑜𝑘𝑎𝑦!)
The soil is A-1-B, GI=0 since it belongs to the group
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝐴 − 1 − 𝐵 (0)
21
LECTURES NOTES
FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS
Darcy's law governs the flow of water through soils. Darcy (1856) proposed that the
average flow velocity through soils is proportional to the gradient of the total head.
The flow of velocity is:
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖
𝑣
𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛
22
LECTURES NOTES
Where:
ℎ
𝑖= = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑙
𝑚 𝑚
𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑜𝑟
𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
The flow of water is:
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability
1. Constant Head Test

- The constant-head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability
of coarse-grained soils
𝑉𝐿
𝑘=
𝑡𝐴ℎ
Where:
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2. Falling-head test
- The falling-head test is used for fine-grained soils because the flow of water
these soils is too slow to get reasonable measurement from the constant-
head test.
23
LECTURES NOTES
-
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= ln
𝐴(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) ℎ2
Where:
𝑎 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
ℎ1 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡1
ℎ2 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡2
EMPIRICAL RELATONS FOR HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY (k)
1. Hazen formula
𝐾 = 𝐶(𝐷10 )2
2. Casagrande
𝐾 = 1.4𝑒 2 𝑘0.85
3. Kozeny-Carman Equation
𝑒3
𝐾 = 𝐶1 ∗
1+𝑒
4. Samaransinhe, Huang, and Drnevich
𝑒𝑛
𝐾 = 𝐶3 ∗
1+𝑒
Continuity Equation:
24
LECTURES NOTES
For the entire system:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝐻1 + 𝐻2
ℎ!
𝑖=
𝐻1 + 𝐻2
𝐻 ℎ
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐾: ( =∑
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘
𝐻1 + 𝐻2 𝐻1 𝐻2
= +
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘1 𝑘2
Total Flow:
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝐴
At point A:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝐻 = ℎ2
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝐿 = 𝑦1
ℎ2
𝑖𝐴 =
𝑦1
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑘1
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑞𝐴 = 𝑘1 𝑖𝐴 𝐴
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑞𝐴 = 𝑞
At point B:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑, ℎ = ℎ3
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝐿 = 𝐻1 + 𝑦2
ℎ3
𝑖𝐵 =
𝐻1 + 𝑦2
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝐵:
𝐻1 + 𝑦2 𝐻1 𝑦2
= +
𝑘𝑒𝑞𝐵 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑞𝐵 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞𝐵 𝑖𝐵 𝐴
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑞𝐵 = 𝑞𝐴 = 𝑞
25
LECTURES NOTES
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM #1
Refer to Figure 03.24. Given that H1 =300 mm, H2=500 mm, and h1 =600 mm, and that
at z=200mm, h=500mm. It is required to determine h at z=600 mm.
a) What is the ratio of k1/k2?
b) What is the value of h at z=600mm?
c) If k1 5x10-6cm/s, what is the equivalent k of soils1 and 2
Part a:
For the entire system of soil:
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝐴
𝐻 ℎ
=∑
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘
0.8 0.3 0.5
= +
0.8 0.3𝑘2 + 0.5𝑘1
=
𝐻
𝑖=
𝐿
0.6
𝑖= = 0.75
0.8
0.8𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑞= (0.75)𝐴
0.3𝑘2 + 0.5𝑘1
0.6𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑞=
0.3𝑘2 + 0.5𝑘1
At point A:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝐻 = 0.1
26
LECTURES NOTES
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐿 = 0.2

𝑦 0.1
𝑖1 = = = 0.5
𝑧 0.2
𝑞1 = 𝑘1 (0.5)𝐴
𝑞1 = 0.5𝑘1 𝐴
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑞1 = 𝑞(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛0
0.6𝑘1 𝑘2
0.5𝑘1 𝐴 = 𝐴
0.3𝑘2 + 0.5𝑘1
0.3𝑘2 + 0.5𝑘1 = 1.2𝑘2
0.5𝑘1 = 0.9𝑘2
𝑘1
= 1.8
𝑘2
Part b:
At point B:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑, ℎ =?
𝐿 = 0.3 + 0.3
𝐿 = 0.6
′
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝐸𝑞 :
0.6 0,3 0.3
′ = +
0,6 0.3 0.3
′ = +
𝑘𝐸𝑞 1.8𝑘2 𝑘2
0.6 0.4667
′ =
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘2
′
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 1.2857𝑘2
′
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 0.7143𝑘1
′
𝑞2 = 𝑘𝐸𝑞 𝑖𝐿
′
𝑞1 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝐿
𝐻
0.7143𝑘1 ( ) 𝐴 = 0.5𝑘1 𝐴
0.6
𝐻 = 0.42
0.6 − ℎ = 0.42
ℎ = 0.18𝑚 = 180𝑚𝑚
ℎ = 180 𝑚𝑚
Part c:
𝑐𝑚
𝑘1 = 5 × 10−6
𝑠
𝑘1
𝑘2 =
1.8
𝑐𝑚
𝑘2 = 2.778 × 10−6
𝑠
0.8𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑘𝑒𝑞 =
0.3𝑘2 + 0.5𝑘1
27
LECTURES NOTES
0.8(5 × 10−6 )(2.778 × 10−6 )

𝑘𝑒𝑞 =
0.3(2.778 × 10−6 ) + 0.5(5 × 10−6 )
𝑐𝑚
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 3.33 × 10−6
𝑠
PROBLEM #2
For a normally consolidated clay soil, the following values are given:
Void Ratio K (cm/sec)
1.1 0.302 × 10−7
0.9 0.120 × 10−7
Used k of Samarasinhe, huang and Drnevich equation.
a) Determine Th e value of n.
b) Determine the value of C3.
c) Estimate the hydraulic conductivity of the clay at a void ratio of 0.75
Part a:
𝑒𝑛
𝑘 = 𝐶3 ∗
1+𝑒
𝑒1𝑛
𝑘1 𝐶3 ∗ 1 + 𝑒1
=
𝑘2 𝑒𝑛
𝐶3 ∗ 1 +2𝑒
2
𝑒1𝑛
𝑘1 1 + 𝑒1
=
𝑘2 𝑒2𝑛
1 + 𝑒2
𝑘1 𝑒! 𝑛 1 + 𝑒2
=( ) ∗
𝑘2 𝑒2 1 + 𝑒1
0.302 × 10−7 1.1 𝑛 1 + 0.9
=( ) ∗
0.12 × 10−7 0.9 1 + 1.1
𝑛 = 5.100
Part b:
𝑒𝑛
𝑘 = 𝐶3 ∗
1+𝑒
1.15.1
0.302 × 10−7 = 𝐶3 ∗
1 + 1.1
𝐶3 = 0.39 × 10−7
Part C:
0.755.1
𝑘 = 0.39 × 10−7 ∗
1 + 0.75
−8
𝑐𝑚
𝑘 = 0.514 × 10
𝑠
PROBLEM #3
For a constant head laboratory permeability test on a fine sand, the following
values are given: (Refer to Figure)
28
LECTURES NOTES
Length of specimen, L= 10 inches

Diameter of specimen = 2.5 inches
Head difference, h = 22 inches
Water collected in 2 min =0.044 in3
The void ratio of the specimen is 0.34
a) Determine the conductivity, k, of the soil in in/min.

b) Determine the discharge velocity through the soil in in/min.
c) Determine the seepage velocity in in/ min.
Part A:
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
𝑣 0.044
𝑄= =
𝑡 2
0.044 22 𝜋
= 𝑘 ( ) ( (2.5)2 )
2 10 4
𝑖𝑛
𝑘 = 2.037 × 10−3
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
Part B:
𝑄
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 =
𝐴
22
𝑣 = (2.037 × 10−3 ) ( )
10
−3
𝑖𝑛
𝑣 = 4.481 × 10
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
Converting to day:
𝑖𝑛 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 24ℎ𝑟𝑠
4.482 × 10−3 × ×
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 1ℎ𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑖𝑛
𝑣 = 6.454
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Part C:
𝑉
𝑉𝑠 =
𝑛
29
LECTURES NOTES
0.34
𝑛=
1 + 0.34
𝑛 = 0.2537313433
4.481 × 10−3
𝑉𝑆 =
0.2537313433
𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑆 = 0.018
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
PROBLEM #4
A soil sample 10 cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1 m long.
A constant supply of water is allowed to flow into one end of the soil at A and the
outflow at B is collected by a beaker, as shown in Figure. The average amount of
water collected is 1cc for every 10 seconds. The tube is inclined as shown.
a) Determine the average velocity of flow through the soil in cm/s.
b) Determine the seepage velocity (velocity through the void spaces) in cm/s.
c) Determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil in cm/s.
Solution:
𝑑 = 10𝑐𝑚
ℎ = 1𝑚
𝑐𝑚3
𝑄 = 0.1
𝑠
𝑒 = 0.6
Part A:
𝑄 0.1
𝑣= =𝜋
𝐴 (10)2
4
𝑐𝑚
𝑣 = 1.273 × 10−3
𝑠
Part B:
0.6
𝑛=
1 + 0.6
𝑛 = 0.375
30
LECTURES NOTES
𝑉 1.273 × 10−3
𝑉𝑠 = =
𝑛 0.375
𝑉𝑠 = 3.395 × 10−3
Part C:
2 − 0.8
𝑖=
1
𝑖 = 1.2
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
𝜋
0.1 = 𝑘 (1.2 × (10)2 )
4
𝑐𝑚
𝑘 = 1.061 × 10−3
𝑠
PROBLEM #5
A falling-head permeability test was run on a soil sample 9.6 cm in diameter and 10
cm long. The head at the start of the test was 90 cm. The coefficient of permeability
of the soil was found to be 5 × 10-6 cm/s.
The diameter of the stand pipe was 1cm.
a) Determine the flow at the start of the test, in cm'/hr.
b) Determine how much head was lost during the first 30min
c) Determine the flow after 30 minutes, in cm/hr.
Solution:
𝑑 = 9.6𝑐𝑚
𝐿 = 10𝑐𝑚
ℎ1 = 90𝑐𝑚
𝑐𝑚
𝑘 = 5 × 10−6
𝑠
𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 1 𝑐𝑚
Part A:
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
90 𝜋
𝑞 = (5 × 10−6 ) ( ) ( (9.6)2 )
10 4
31
LECTURES NOTES
𝑐𝑚 60𝑠 60𝑚𝑖
𝑞 = 3.527 × 10−3 × ×
𝑠 1𝑚𝑖 1ℎ𝑟
𝑐𝑚
𝑞 = 11.725
ℎ𝑟
Part B:
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= ln ( )
𝐴(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) ℎ2
𝜋 1
𝑎 = (1)2 = 𝜋 𝑐𝑚2
4 4
𝜋 2
576
𝐴 = (9.6) = 𝜋
4 25
ℎ1 = 90𝑐𝑚
60𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠
𝑡2 = 30𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 × = 1800𝑠
1𝑠
𝑡1 = 0
𝐿 = 10𝑐𝑚
1
𝜋 × 10 90
−6
5 × 10 = 4 ln ( )
576 ℎ2
𝜋(1800 − 0)
25
ℎ2 = 82.836 𝑐𝑚
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 90𝑐𝑚 − 82.836
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 7.164𝑐𝑚
Part C:
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
82.836 𝜋
𝑄 = 5 × 10−6 ( ) ( (9.6)2 )
10 4
𝑐𝑚3 60𝑠 60𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠
𝑞 = 2.997929883 × ×
𝑠 1𝑚𝑖𝑛 1ℎ𝑟
𝑐𝑚3
𝑞 = 10.793
ℎ𝑟
32
LECTURES NOTES
FLOW NET
Seepage losses through the ground or through earth dams and levees and the
related flow pattern and rate of energy loss, or dissipation of hydrostatic head,
are frequently estimated by means of a graphical technique known as flow net.
A flow net must meet the following criteria:

1. The boundary conditions must be satisfied.
2. Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at right angles.
3. The area between flow lines and equipotential lines must be curvilinear squares. A
curvilinear square has the property that an inscribed circle can draw to touch each
side of the square and continuous bisection results, in the limit, in a point.
.4 The quantity of flow through each flow channel id constant.
5. The head loss between each consecutive equipotential line is constant.
6. A flow line cannot intersect another flow line.
7. An equipotential line cannot intersect another equipotential line
The flow of water through Isotropic Soil:
𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐻 ∗
𝑁𝑑
The flow of water through anisotropic soil:
𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = 𝐻 ( ) √𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑧
𝑁𝑑
Where:
𝐻 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑦
𝑁𝑓 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑠
𝑁𝑑 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠
𝑁𝑓 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑁𝑑 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠 1
𝑁𝑓
= 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑁𝑑
Dupuit Method:
(ℎ12 − ℎ22 )
𝑞=𝑘∗
2𝐿
33
LECTURES NOTES
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM #1
The section of a cofferdam is as shown in Figure 03.26. If the coefficient of
permeability of the soil is k = 5× 10-3 m/s, determine the seepage into the ditches per
meter length of the cofferdam.
Solution:
𝑚3
𝑞= 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑠
𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐻 ( )
𝑁𝑑
𝑚 3
𝑞 = (5 × 10−3 ) (20) ( ) × 2
𝑠 7
𝑚3
𝑞 = 0.086 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑠
PROBLEM #2
The section of a sheet pile is shown in Figure 03.27. The coefficient of permeability of
the soil is k= 4.2 ×10-3 m/s. Determine the seepage into the downstream side per meter
length of the sheet pile
34
LECTURES NOTES
Solution:
𝑁𝑓 = 4
𝑁𝑑 = 8
𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐻 ( )
𝑁𝑑
4
𝑞 = (4.2 × 10−3 )(5) ( )
8
𝑚3 1000𝐿
𝑞 = 0.105 ×
𝑠 𝑚3
𝐿
𝑞 = 10.500
𝑠
PROBLEM #3
For masonry dam shown in the figure k = 5 m /day. Determine the following:
a. The seepage flow per meter width of dam in L/min
b. The uplift pressure at A and B in kPa
c. The uplift force per meter of dam. Assume that the uplift pressure under the
dam varies uniformly.
35
LECTURES NOTES
𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ
Part a:
4 1 𝑚3 1000𝐿
𝑞 = 5(18) ( ) ( )∗ ∗
9 1440 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑚3
𝐿
𝑞 = 27.778
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠
Part b:
𝐻 18
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = = = 2𝑚
𝑁𝑑 9
𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑎 = 9.81 (ℎ)
𝑚3
𝑃𝑎 = (18 − 2(1)) ∗ 9.81
𝑃𝑎 = 156.960 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑏 = (18 − 2(8)) ∗ 9.81
𝑃𝑏 = 19.620 𝑘𝑃𝑎
1
= (156.960 + 19.62) ∗ 30
2
𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 2648.700 𝑘𝑁
PROBLEM #4
From the figure shown
kx = 0.3 m /day
kz = 0.4 m /day
Determine the ff:
36
LECTURES NOTES
A. Uplift pressure at C, in kPa

B. Uplift force per unit length along the axis of the weir, kN/m
C. Rate of the seepage through the foundation, m3/day
Solution:
𝐻 12
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = =
𝑁𝑑 6
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 2𝑚
𝑃𝑐 = (12 + 2 − 2(3)) ∗ 9.81
𝑃𝑐 = 78.480 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Part B:
ℎ𝑎 = (12 + 2 − 2(1)) ∗ 9.81 = 12𝑚
ℎ𝑏 = (12 + 2 − 2(2)) ∗ 9.81 = 10𝑚
ℎ𝑑 = (12 + 2 − 2(4)) ∗ 9.81 = 6𝑚
ℎ𝑒 = (12 + 2 − 2(5)) ∗ 9.81 = 4𝑚
𝑃𝐴 = (9.81)(12) = 117.72 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑏 = (9.81)(10) = 98.1 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑑 = (9.81)(6) = 58.86 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑒 = (9.81)(4) = 39.24 𝑘𝑃𝑎
37
LECTURES NOTES
1
𝐴1 = (117.72 + 98.1)(3) = 323.13 𝑘𝑁
2
1
𝐴2 = (98.1)(78.48)(3) = 264.87 𝑘𝑁
2
1
𝐴3 = (78.48 + 58.86)(3) = 206.01 𝑘𝑁
2
1
𝐴4 = (58.86 + 39.24)(3) = 147.15 𝑘𝑁
2
𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + 𝐴4
𝐴 𝑇 = 941.16 𝑘𝑁
Part C:
𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = 𝐻( ) √𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑧
𝑁𝑑
4
𝑞 = 12 ( ) √0.3(0.4)
6
𝑚3
𝑞 = 2.771
𝑑𝑎𝑦
PROBLEM #5
Compute the seepage flow under the foundation of the dam shown
k=0.002 m /s
38
LECTURES NOTES
Solution:
𝑁𝑓 5
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐻 ( ) = 0.002(20) ( )
𝑁𝑑 14
𝑚3
𝑞 = 0.014 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑠
PROBLEM #6
For the given base of the weir shown and the given exponential lines, compute the
following:
a. Uplift pressure at A
b. Uplift pressure at B
c. The uplift force per unit length measured along the axis of the weir
Solution:
𝑁𝑓 = 0
𝑁𝑑 = 6
12
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = = 2𝑚
6
𝑃𝑎 = (12 + 1.5 − 2(1)) ∗ 9.81 = 112.815 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑏 = (12 + 1.5 − 2(5)) ∗ 9.81 = 34.335 𝑘𝑃𝑎
1
𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = (112.815 + 34.335) ∗ 12
2
39
LECTURES NOTES
𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 882.900 𝑘𝑁
PROBLEM #7
An earth dam on a pervious but strong earth foundation has the cross section shown.
The core of the dam with a thin layer of gunite or splash grout.
Determine the :
a. Seepage though the dam
b. Seepage through the foundation
c. Total seepage
d. What min permeability is required to drain B to prevent the saturation from
rising in to the random fill zone.
Shotcrete or Gunite - is a concrete or mortar conveyed through a hose projected at

high velocity onto a surface.
Solution:
3.5
𝑞1 = 0.002(30) ( )
6
𝑚3
𝑞1 = 0.035 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝑎𝑦
3
𝑞2 = 0.3(30) ( )
8
𝑚3
𝑞2 = 3.375 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝑎𝑦
40
LECTURES NOTES
𝑞𝑇 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2
𝑚3
𝑞𝑇 = 3.410 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝑎𝑦
(ℎ12 − ℎ22 )
𝑞𝑇 = 𝑘 ∗
2𝐿
(1.52 − 02 )
3.410 = 𝑘 ∗ )
2(45
𝑚
𝑘 = 136.400
𝑑𝑎𝑦
41
LECTURES NOTES
FINALS
42
LECTURES NOTES
STRESSES IN SOIL MASS

Intergranular Stress, 𝑝𝑒 (EFFECTIVE STRESS)
- Intergranular or effective stress is the stress resulting from particle-to-
particle contact of soil
𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝𝑇 − 𝑝𝑊
Pore Water Pressure, 𝑝𝑊 (NEUTRAL STRESS)
- Pore water pressure or neutral stress is the stress-induced water pressure.
𝑝𝑊 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤
Note: For soils above the water table, 𝑝𝑤 = 0
Total Stress, 𝑝𝑇
- The sum of the effective and neutral stresses
𝑝𝑇 = 𝑝𝐸 + 𝑝𝑊
Stress in Soil Without Seepage
Consider the layer shown below:
At point A:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑝𝑇 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ4 = 𝑞
𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑝𝑤 = 0
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑝𝐸 = 𝑝𝑇 − 𝑝𝑊
At point B:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑝𝑇 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡1 ℎ3 + 𝛾𝑚 ℎ1 = 𝑞
𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑝𝑤 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ5
𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝐸 = 𝛾𝑏1 ℎ5 + 𝛾𝑚 ℎ1 + 𝑞
At point C:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑝𝑇 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡3 ℎ3 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡1 ℎ2 + 𝛾𝑚 ℎ1 + 𝑞
𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑝𝑤 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ6
𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝐸 = 𝛾𝐵2 ℎ3 + 𝑦𝑏1 ℎ2 + 𝛾𝑚 ℎ1 + 𝑞
Stress in Soil with seepage, Upward Seepage
43
LECTURES NOTES
Hydraulic Gradient
ℎ
𝑖=
𝐻2
ℎ
ℎ1 = 𝑖 × 𝑧1 = 𝑖 × ( )
𝐻2
At point A:
𝑝𝑇 = 𝛾𝑊 𝐻1
𝑝𝑤 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1
𝑝𝐸 = 𝑝𝑇 − 𝑝𝑊 = 0
At point B:
𝑝𝑇 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑧1 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1
𝑝𝑊 = 𝛾𝑤 (𝑧1 + 𝐻1 + ℎ1 )
𝑝𝐸 = 𝑝𝑇 − 𝑝𝑤 = 𝛾𝑏 𝑧1 − 𝛾𝑤 ℎ1
At point C:
𝑝𝑇 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐻2 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1
𝑝𝑤 = 𝛾𝑤 (𝐻2 + 𝐻1 + ℎ)
𝑝𝐸 = 𝑝𝑇 − 𝑝𝐸 = 𝛾𝑏 𝐻2 − 𝛾𝑤 ℎ
The seepage force per unit volume of soil is:
𝐹 = 𝑖 × 𝛾𝑤
Stress in Soil with seepage, Downward Seepage
44
LECTURES NOTES
Hydraulic Gradient
ℎ
𝑖=
𝐻2
ℎ
ℎ1 = 𝑖 × 𝑧1 = 𝑖 × ( )
𝐻2
At point A:
𝑝𝑇 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1
𝑝𝑤 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1
𝑝𝐸 = 𝑝𝑇 − 𝑝𝑤 = 0
At point B:
𝑝𝑇 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑧1 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1
𝑝𝑤 = 𝛾𝑊 (𝑧1 + 𝐻1 − ℎ1 )
𝑝𝐸 = 𝑝𝑇 − 𝑝𝑊 = 𝛾𝑏 𝑧1 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ1
At point C:
𝑝𝑇 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐻2 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1
𝑝𝑤 = 𝛾𝑤 (𝐻2 + 𝐻1 − ℎ)
𝑝𝐸 = 𝑝𝑇 − 𝑝𝐸 = 𝛾𝑏 𝐻2 + 𝑦𝑤 ℎ
45
LECTURES NOTES
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Problem #1
A clay layer 4m thick rest beneath a deposit of submerged sand 8m thick. The top of
the sand is located 3m below the surface of the lake. The saturated unit weight of
sand is 25 kN/m3 and of clay 20 kN/m3. Determine the total vertical pressure P at
mid-height of the clay layer.
Solution:
𝑝𝑇 = ∑ 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤
𝑝𝑇 = 20(2) + 25(8) + 9.81(3)
𝑝𝑇 = 269.430 𝑘𝑃𝑎
PROBLEM #2
The soil has void ratio of 0.50 and G=2.70, h1=1.5m and h2=3m
Solve for the following:

1. What is the effective unit weight of sand in kN/m3?
𝐺−1
𝛾𝑏 = ( ) ∗ 𝛾𝑤
1+𝑒
46
LECTURES NOTES
2.7 − 1
𝛾𝑏 = ∗ 9.81
1 + 0.5
𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑏 = 11.118 3
𝑚
2. What is the effective stress at point A in kPa?

𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝛾𝑆𝑎𝑡 ℎ2 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ1
𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (20.928)(3) + 9.81(1.5)
𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 77.499 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑝𝑤 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤
𝑝𝑤 = 9.81(3 + 1.5)
𝑝𝑤 = 44.145 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑝𝐸 = 𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑝𝑤
𝑝𝐸 = 77.7499 − 44.145
𝑝𝐸 = 33.354 𝑘𝑃𝑎
3. What is the critical hydraulic gradient of sand (for quick sand condition)?
𝐺−1
𝑖𝑐𝑟 =
1+𝑒
2.7 − 1
𝑖𝑐𝑟 =
1 + 0.5
𝑖𝑐𝑟 = 1.133
PROBLEM #3
A ground profile consist of 2m of silty sand underlain by 3m of clay. The ground
water table is 3m below the ground surface. The sand has a unit weight of 14 kN/m3.
The clay has a unit weight of 16 kN/m3 above the water table and 20 kN/m3 below the
water table. Determine the total stress at the bottom of the clay layer.
Solution:
𝑝𝑇 = 𝛾𝑐𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑠𝑎𝑡 + 𝛾𝑐 ℎ𝑐 + 𝑦𝑠 ℎ𝑠
𝑝𝑇 = 20(2) + 16(1) + 14(2)
𝑝𝑇 = 84.000 𝑘𝑃𝑎
47
LECTURES NOTES
PROBLEM #4
1. Compute the effective stress immediately below A.

𝐺
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = ( ) ∗ 𝛾𝑤
1+𝑒
2.66
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = (9.81)
1 + 0.5
𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 17.3964 3
𝑚
𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 17.3964(1.5)
𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 26.0946 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑝𝑤 = 1.75(9.81)(0.42)
𝑝𝑊 = −7.21035
𝑝𝐸 = 𝑝𝑡 − 𝑝𝑤
𝑝𝑒 = 26.0946 − (−7.21035)
𝑝𝐸 = 33.305 𝑘𝑃𝑎
2. Compute the effective stress at B.

𝐺 + 𝑆𝑒
𝛾𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 = ( ) ∗ 𝛾𝑤
1+𝑒
2.71 + (0.42)(0.75)
𝛾𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 = ( ) ∗ 9.81
1 + 0.75
𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 16.95728571 3
𝑚
𝑝𝐸 = 𝑝𝑡
𝑝𝑇 = 1.5(𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 ) + 1.75(𝛾𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 )
𝑝𝑡 = 1.5(17.3964) + 1.75(16.95728571)
𝑝𝑡 = 55.770 𝑘𝑃𝑎
48
LECTURES NOTES
3. Compute the effective stress at C.

𝐺+𝑒
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ( ) ∗ 9𝛾𝑊
1+𝑒
2.72 + 0.95
𝛾𝑆𝐴𝑇 = ∗ 9.81
1 + 0.95
𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 18.4629308 3
𝑚
𝑝𝑒 = 3(18.4629308 − 9.81) + 55.76985
𝑝𝐸 = 81.730 𝑘𝑃𝑎
PROBLEM #5
Given soil formation and corresponding properties of soil in each latter. To
consolidate the ground, a load is added at the top shown or dewatering are being
considered.
Solution:
1. With the load only, what is the increased in stress at midyear of the bottom
soil assuming a trapezoidal stress distribution of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical?
49
LECTURES NOTES
𝑃
∆𝑃 = 𝑆 =
𝐴
1200
∆𝑃 =
(16.5)2
∆𝑃 = 4.408 𝑘𝑃𝑎
2. With dewatering of 2m, what is the stress increased at the mid layer at the
bottom of soil as water is lowered down?
𝑆𝑎 = 14.72(2) + 19.075(3) + 20.48(8.5) − 11.5(9.81)

𝑆𝐴 = 147.930 𝑘𝑃𝑎
50
LECTURES NOTES
3. How much water level be lowered to be more effective than the load added at
the top?
𝑆𝐴𝑑𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 14.72(4) + 19.075 + 20.48(8.5) − 9.5(9.81)

𝑆𝐴𝑑𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 158.840 𝑘𝑃𝑎
∆𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝐴 − 𝑆𝐴𝑑𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 158.840 − 147.930
∆𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 10.910 𝑘𝑃𝑎
51
LECTURES NOTES
^BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS

TERMS:
1. Foundation -is that part of a structure which transmits the building load
directly into the underlying soil. If the soil conditions at the site are
sufficiently strong and capable of supporting the required load, then
shallow spread footings or mats can be used to transmit the load.
2. Footing -is a foundation consisting of a small slab for transmitting the
structure load to the underlying soil.
3. Ultimate bearing capacity (𝑞𝑢 ) -is the maximum pressure that the soil can
support.
4. Ultimate net bearing capacity (𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 ) -is the maximum pressure that the soil can
support above its current overburden pressure
5. Overburden pressure (𝑞) -is the pressure (effective stress) of the soil removed
to place the footing
6. Factor of safety (FS) -is the ratio of the ultimate net bearing capacity to the
allowable bearing capacity or the applied maximum vertical stress. In
geotechnical engineering, a factor of safety between 1.5 and 5 is used to
calculate the allowable bearing capacity.
Types of Foundation:
1. Isolated Footing
2. Combined Footing
52
LECTURES NOTES
3. Mat or Raft footing
4. Wall Footing
53
LECTURES NOTES
Ultimate Soil Bearing capacity:

In general, the ultimate bearing capacity of soil is given by:
𝑞𝑢 = 𝐾𝑐 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝐾𝑞 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 𝐾𝑦 𝛾𝑒 𝐵𝑁𝛾
Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Equations:
Long Footings (Wall, Strip, and Continuous)
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝑐 𝐵𝑁𝛾
Square Footings (Isolated)
𝑞𝑢 = 1.3𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.4𝛾𝑐 𝐵𝑁𝛾
Circular Footings (Isolated)
𝑞𝑢 = 1.3𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.3𝛾𝑐 𝐵𝑁𝛾
Where:
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝛾𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑐𝑓
𝐵 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝑁𝛾 = 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑁𝑐 = 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑁𝑞 = 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑞 = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝐾𝑐 , 𝐾𝑞 , 𝐾𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
54
LECTURES NOTES
55
LECTURES NOTES
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM #1
A footing 6 m square carries a total load, including its on weight of 10,000 kN. The
base of the footing at a depth of 3 meters below the ground surface. The soil strata
at the site consist of a layer of stiff saturated clay of 27.5 m thick overlaying dense
sand. The average bulk density of the clay is 1920 kg/m^3 and its average shear
strength determined from the undrained tri axial test is 130 kN/m2 and phi = 0 deg.
Used the Terzaghi Ultimate Bearing Capacity for square footings.
Solution:
𝑁𝑐 = 5.7
𝑁𝑞 = 1.0
𝑁𝛾 = 0
𝑞𝑢 = 1.3𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞
𝑐 = 130 𝑘𝑃𝑎
1920(9.81) 𝑘𝑁
𝛾 = 𝑝𝑔 = = 18.8352 3
1000 𝑚
𝑞 = 𝛾𝐵𝑓 = 18.8352(3)
𝑞 = 56.5056 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Determine the gross foundation pressure in kilopascal:

𝑃 10000 𝑘𝑁
𝑞𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐴 62 𝑚 2
𝑞𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 277.778 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Determine the net foundation press:

𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑞
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 277.778 − 56.5056
56
LECTURES NOTES
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 221.272 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Determine the factor of safety of the foundation against complete shear failure
under the undrained condition (both gross and net). Side cohesion on the foundation
may be neglected.
𝑞𝑢 = 1.3𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑄
𝑞𝑢 = 1.3(130)(5.7) + 56.5056(1.0)
𝑞𝑢 = 1019.8056 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑞𝑢 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 1019.8056 − 56.5056
𝑞𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 963.300 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑞𝑢 1019.8056
𝐹𝑆𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑞𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 277.778
𝐹𝑆𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 3.671
𝑞𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑡 963.300
𝐹𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡 = =
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 221.272
𝐹𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 4.352
PROBLEM #2
A continuous footing is shown in Figure 9.12. Use the bearing capacity equation
Unit weight of soil = 115 pcf

C =500 psf
phi = 25
Df = 2 ft
B = 2.5 ft
Factor of safety =2
Determine the following:

1. Gross allowable load per unit area that the footing can carry
2. Net allowable bearing capacity with the factor of safety of 2, in psf
3. Gross Allowable bearing capacity with a factor of safety of 2, in psf with
respect to shear failure
57
LECTURES NOTES
Solution:
1. Gross allowable load per unit area that the footing can carry
𝑁𝑐 = 25.13
𝑁𝑞 = 12.72
𝑁𝛾 = 8.34
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
𝑐 = 500 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝑞 = 115 𝑝𝑐𝑓(2)
𝑞 = 230 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝑞𝑢 = 500(25.13) + 230(12.72) + 0.5(115)(2.5)(8.34)
𝑞𝑢 = 16,689.475 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝑞𝑢 𝑞𝑢 16689.475
𝐹𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = , 𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙 = =
𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐹𝑆 2
𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 8344.738 𝑝𝑠𝑓
2. Net allowable bearing capacity with the factor of safety of 2, in psf
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑞𝑢 − 𝑞 16689.475 − 230

𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = =
𝐹𝑆 2 2
𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 8229.738 𝑝𝑠𝑓
3. Gross Allowable bearing capacity with a factor of safety of 2, in psf with

respect to shear failure
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾

𝑐 500
𝑐𝑑 = = = 250
𝐹𝑆 2
tan 𝜑 tan 25
tan 𝜑𝑑 = =
𝐹𝑆 2
𝜑𝑑 = 13.124°
Using linear interpolation to solve for 𝜑𝑑 :

14 − 13 12.11 − 11.41 4.02 − 3.63 1.26 − 1.04
= = =
13.124 − 13 𝑁𝑐 − 11.41 𝑁𝑞 − 3.63 𝑁𝛾 − 1.04
𝑁𝑐 = 11.4968
𝑁𝑞 = 3.67836
𝑁𝛾 = 1.06728
𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑐𝑑 𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 250(11.4968) + 230(3.67836) + 0.2(115)(2.5)(1.06728)
𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 3873.644 𝑝𝑠𝑓
58
LECTURES NOTES
SETTLEMENT
Foundation settlement causes
Direct causes:
• cause of foundation settlement is the weight of building including dead load
and live load
Indirect causes:
• Failure of collapsible soil underground infiltration
• Yielding of excavation done adjacent to foundation
• Failure of underground tunnels and mines
• Collapse of cavities of limestones
• Undermining of foundation while flood
• Earthquake induced settlement
• Finally, due to extraction of ground water and oil
Components of total settlement of foundations:

Immediate settlement
• It is also called short term settlement.
• Immediate settlement take place mostly in coarse grained soils of high
permeability and in unsaturated fine-grained soils of low permeability.
• Lastly, it occurs over short period of time which about 7 days. So, it ends
during construction time.
Primary Settlement
• It also termed as primary consolidation
• Take place over long period of time that ranges from 1 to 5 years or more
• Primary settlement frequently occurs in saturated inorganic fine grain soil.
• Expulsion of water from pores of saturated fine grain soil is the cause of
primary settlement.
Primary Settlement
• Normally consolidated fined grained soil
• Over consolidated fined grained soil
Secondary Settlement
• Secondary settlement is the consolidation of soil under constant effective
stress.
• Frequently, it occurs in organic fine grain soil.
• It continues over the life span of foundation structure similar to creep in
concrete.
59
LECTURES NOTES
Basic Settlement Formula:
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑠 + 𝑒𝐻𝑠
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑠 (1 + 𝑒)
∆𝐻 =?
𝐻
𝐻𝑠 =
𝐻𝑒
′
𝐻
𝐻 = (1 + 𝑒 ′ )
1+𝑒
∆𝐻 = 𝐻 − 𝐻 ′
𝐻
∆𝐻 = 𝐻 − (1 + 𝑒 ′ )
1+𝑒
𝑒 − 𝑒′
∆𝐻 = 𝐻 ( )
1+𝑒
∆𝑒
∆𝐻 = 𝐻 ( )
1+𝑒
Where:
H=thickness of stratum
𝑒𝑜 =void ratio before the vertical load is applied
e'=void ratio after the vertical load is applied
Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils

𝐶𝑐 𝑝𝑓
∆𝐻 = 𝐻 ( ) log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑝𝑜
Where:
H=thickness of stratum
𝐶𝑐 =compression index
𝑒𝑜 =initial void ratio
𝑝𝑜 =initial vertical effectiveness soil stress
𝑝𝑓 =final vertical effective soil stress
𝑝𝑓 = 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝
60
LECTURES NOTES
PRIMARY Consolidation Settlement of Over consolidated Fine-Grained Soils
When 𝑝𝑓 < 𝑝𝑐
𝐶𝑠 𝑝𝑓
∆𝐻 = 𝐻( ) log
When 𝑝𝑓 > 𝑝𝑐
𝐶𝑆 𝑝𝑐 𝐶𝑐 𝑝𝑓
∆𝐻 = 𝐻( ) log + 𝐻( ) log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑝𝑜 1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑝𝑐
Where:
𝐶𝑠 =swell index
𝑝𝑐 =pre-consolidation pressure
Over consolidation Ratio

𝑝𝑐
𝑂𝐶𝑅 =
𝑝𝑜
Where:
𝑝𝑐 =presconsolidation stress (past maximum vertical effective stress)
𝑝𝑜 =overburden effective stress (current vertical effective stress)
If OCR=1, the soil is normally consolidated soil
Compression Index, 𝐶𝑐
Skempton:
𝐶𝑐 = 0.007(𝐿𝐿 − 7%)
For undisturbed clay:
𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10%)
Rendon-Herreo:
1.2
1 + 𝑒𝑜 2.38
𝐶𝑐 = 0.141𝐺 ( )
𝐺
Nishida:
𝐶𝑐 = 1.15(𝑒𝑜 − 0.27)
Swell Index, 𝐶𝑆
Nagaraj and Murty

𝐿𝐿%
𝐶𝑠 = 0.0463( )×𝐺
100
General Value:
1 1
𝐶𝑆 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝐶𝑐
3 10
61
LECTURES NOTES
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
A soil profile shown in the figure, a uniformly distributed load, delta P = 50 kPa is
applied at the ground surface. Assume Cs = ( 1/5 ) Cc
Determine the settlement of the clay layer cause by primary consolidation if:
i. The clay is normally consolidated

ii. The pre-consolidation pressure is 210 kPa
iii. The pre-consolidation pressure is 150 kPa
Solution:
𝐶𝑐 𝑝𝑓
∆𝐻 = 𝐻( ) log
𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10)
𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(50 − 10)
𝐶𝑐 = 0.36
0.36 186.9
∆𝐻 = 8 ( ) log
1 + 0.95 136.90
∆𝐻 = 0.2𝑚
∆𝐻 = 200 𝑚𝑚
𝑝𝑜 = 4(19) + 18.5(6) + 16(3) − 9.81(10)
𝑝𝑜 = 136.90
𝑝𝑒 = 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑊
𝑝𝑓 = 136.90 + ∆𝑃
𝑝𝑓 = 136.90 + 50
𝑝𝑓 = 186.90
210 = 𝑃𝑜
136.90 = 𝑃𝑜
186.90 = 𝑃𝑓
62
LECTURES NOTES
𝑝𝑓 > 𝑝𝑐
𝐶𝑠 𝑝𝑓
∆𝐻 = 𝐻 ( ) log
1+𝑒 𝑝𝑜
0.072 186.9
∆𝐻 = 8 ( ) log
1 + 0.95 136.9
0.36
𝐶𝑠 =
5
𝐶𝑠 = 0.072
∆𝐻 = 0.0399 ≈ 0.04 𝑚
∆𝐻 = 40 𝑚𝑚
63
LECTURES NOTES
REFLECTION
Why should I pass this course?
Geotechnical designing assumes a significant part in the development and

improvement of framework projects. It centers around grasping the way of
behaving of soil and rock materials, evaluating their dependability, and
giving successful answers for geotechnical challenges. The purpose of this
essay is to emphasize the advantages and significance of passing the
geotechnical engineering course for those pursuing engineering careers.
Students gain a solid understanding of the properties and behavior of soils
and rocks upon passing the geotechnical engineering course. It furnishes them
with fundamental information on soil mechanics, geotechnical examination,
and plan standards. Building foundations, slope stability analysis, and
retaining structures are just a few of the engineering projects that require
a thorough comprehension of geotechnical issues. Numerous career
opportunities in civil engineering and geotechnical consulting are available
to students who successfully complete the geotechnical engineering course.
Geotechnical engineering expertise is highly valued by employers because it
is necessary for the safe and effective design and construction of
infrastructure projects. Individuals demonstrate their capacity to evaluate
site conditions, investigate the behavior of soil, and propose appropriate
geotechnical solutions by passing this course. Passing the geotechnical
designing course is fundamental for people trying to add to geotechnical
innovative work. This course lays the preparation for additional
examinations in geotechnical designing and related disciplines. It gives the
essential information and abilities to investigate progressed points, for
example, soil-structure communication, geotechnical tremor designing, and
geotechnical instrumentation. By passing this course, individuals can open
the door to further education, research, and the development of novel
geotechnical solutions. The wide range of practical applications of
geotechnical engineering make passing the class invaluable. For structures
to remain stable and safe, it is essential to have an understanding of how the
materials of soil and rock behave. Individuals who pass this course are able
to design suitable foundations, conduct geotechnical investigations, and
examine the properties of soil. In a variety of engineering projects, such as
building construction, transportation infrastructure, and geotechnical
hazard assessment, these skills are essential. In conclusion, a successful
engineering career requires passing the geotechnical engineering course. It
offers information, vocation open doors, and pragmatic abilities in
geotechnical examination and plan.
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y

CE 3216 - GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING (SOIL

Engr, Jucar B. Fernandez, MSCE

Phase Diagram of Soil

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

5. What is the hydraulic gradient at hydraulic condition?

7. Find the degree of saturation.

8. Find the density index.

Condition of Soil based on Liquidity Index

Condition of Soil for Potential Swell Classification

A saturated soil has the following characteristics.

AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

1. Constant Head Test

For the entire system:

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐿 = 0.2

0.8(5 × 10−6 )(2.778 × 10−6 )

Length of specimen, L= 10 inches

a) Determine the conductivity, k, of the soil in in/min.

A flow net must meet the following criteria:

A. Uplift pressure at C, in kPa

𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 882.900 𝑘𝑁

Shotcrete or Gunite - is a concrete or mortar conveyed through a hose projected at

STRESSES IN SOIL MASS

Stress in Soil with seepage, Upward Seepage

Stress in Soil with seepage, Downward Seepage

Solve for the following:

2. What is the effective stress at point A in kPa?

1. Compute the effective stress immediately below A.

2. Compute the effective stress at B.

3. Compute the effective stress at C.

𝑆𝑎 = 14.72(2) + 19.075(3) + 20.48(8.5) − 11.5(9.81)

𝑆𝐴𝑑𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 14.72(4) + 19.075 + 20.48(8.5) − 9.5(9.81)

^BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS

3. Mat or Raft footing

Ultimate Soil Bearing capacity:

𝑞𝑢 = 𝐾𝑐 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝐾𝑞 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 𝐾𝑦 𝛾𝑒 𝐵𝑁𝛾

Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Equations:

Long Footings (Wall, Strip, and Continuous)

𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝑐 𝐵𝑁𝛾

Square Footings (Isolated)

𝑞𝑢 = 1.3𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.4𝛾𝑐 𝐵𝑁𝛾

Circular Footings (Isolated)

𝑞𝑢 = 1.3𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.3𝛾𝑐 𝐵𝑁𝛾

Determine the gross foundation pressure in kilopascal:

Determine the net foundation press:

𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 221.272 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Unit weight of soil = 115 pcf

Determine the following:

2. Net allowable bearing capacity with the factor of safety of 2, in psf

𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑞𝑢 − 𝑞 16689.475 − 230

3. Gross Allowable bearing capacity with a factor of safety of 2, in psf with

𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾

Using linear interpolation to solve for 𝜑𝑑 :

Components of total settlement of foundations:

Basic Settlement Formula:

Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils

PRIMARY Consolidation Settlement of Over consolidated Fine-Grained Soils

Over consolidation Ratio

Nagaraj and Murty

i. The clay is normally consolidated

Why should I pass this course?

Geotechnical designing assumes a significant part in the development and