EFFECTIVE STRESS PRINCIPLE

Prof. G.V. Ramana

Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT/Delhi
STRESSES IN SOILS
 Stresses may act in soils as a result of an
external load and the volumetric weight of the
material itself.
 Soils, however, have a number of properties
that distinguish it from other materials.
 A special property is that soils can only transfer
compressive normal stresses, and no tensile
stresses.
 Shear stresses can only be transmitted if they are
relatively small, compared to the normal stresses.
 It is characteristic of soils that part of the stresses is
transferred by the water in the pores.
 Because the normal stresses in soils usually
are compressive stresses only, compressive
stresses are considered positive, and tensile
stresses are negative.
 The soil unit weight contributing to the total
vertical geostatic stress is total unit weight
(including free water above the ground
surface).
PORE PRESSURE
 Soil is a porous material, consisting of particles
that together constitute the grain skeleton. In
the pores of the grain skeleton a fluid may be
present: usually water.
 The pore structure of all normal soils is such
that the pores are mutually connected. The
water fills a space of very complex form, but it
constitutes a single continuous body.
 In this water body, pressure may be
transmitted, and the water may also flow
through the pores.
 The pressure in the pore water is denoted as
the pore pressure.
 If the water is at rest (i.e. when there is no
flow), the pressure in the water is
determined by the location of the point
considered with respect to the water surface.
 The water pressure on the bottom of a
container filled with water, depends only
upon the height of the column of water and
the volumetric weight of the water, and not
upon the shape of the container.
 u   wd
Fu   w dA

 The pore water pressure for every case is

then:

u  uv  u h   w  z w
 The container at the extreme right resembles
a soil body, with its pore space.
 Conclusion: The water in a soil satisfies the
principles of hydrostatics, provided that the
water in the pore space forms a continuous
body (saturated soil).
EFFECTIVE STRESS
 When a load is applied to a (saturated) soil
mass it produces a total stress s
 One part, u, acts in every direction with equal
intensity;
 The remaining part has its seat exclusively in the
solid phase of the soil. This fraction of the total
stress is called the effective stress, s '
 Effective stress is closely related to the
stress transmitted through the mineral
skeleton.
 For this reason, s' is often termed as
intergranular stress.
AN EQUIVALENT ANALOGY:

s ' s  u
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS TO THE PRINCIPLE:

 Assumptions:
 the particles are very stiff compared to the soil
as a whole, and also
 upon the assumption that the contact areas of
the particles are very small.
 These are reasonable assumptions for a
normal soil, but for porous rock they may
not be valid.
 For rock the compressibility of the rock must be
taken into account, which leads to a small
correction in the formula.
The actual contact
surface is wavy
surface, rather than
a horizontal cut.
The average contact
stress is the
intergranular
stress or effective
stress.
EFFECTIVE STRESS AND WATER FLOW
 A simple case: a homogeneous layer,
completely saturated with water.

s ' s  u
s '   t d   wd
s '  'd
(No flow)
NO FLOW CONDITION:

At Point B
s z   w H  ( t   w ) D
u  ( D  H ) w
s z '  'D

This clearly demonstrates that the effective

pressure sz' is independent of the depth of water
H above the submerged soil surface.
STEADY-STATE FLOW:
 For steady-state seepage in the vertical
direction, the pore-water pressure is:
u   w z   wh
du dh
 w w
dz dz
du
  w (1  iw )
dz
where iw is the assumed constant hydraulic
head of the occurring flow.
 The plus sign corresponds to a hydraulic
head increasing with depth and water
flowing upward (against gravity), whereas
the minus sign represents a hydraulic head
decreasing with depth and water flowing
downward (in the direction of gravity).
 For a hydrostatic condition: du dz   w
 Thus it is obvious that due to steady-state
seepage the change in stress with depth is
equal to iww, known as volumetric seepage
force.
FLOW IN DOWNWARD DIRECTION:

s z   w H  ( t   w ) D
u  ( D  H  h) w
s z '   ' D  h w

There is a decrease in pore water pressure when water

flows through the soil sample from top to bottom. It
may be understood that this decrease in pore water
pressure is not due to velocity of the flowing water.
In this case there is an increase in the effective
pressure at the bottom of the container. The
effective pressure at the top surface of the sample is
zero as in hydrostatic case.
FLOW IN UPWARD DIRECTION:

s z   w H  ( t   w ) D
u  ( D  H  h) w
s z '   ' D  h w

There is a decrease in the effective pressure due to

upward flow of water. At any depth z, zb is the
pressure of the submerged soil acting downward
and izb is the seepage pressure acting upward.
This indicates that there is a possibility for the
effective stress to be equal to zero. This will happen
when the submerged soil pressure and seepage
pressure are equal.
In the presence of an upward flow, a critical situation can be
generated, if anywhere the vertical effective stress is equal to
zero.

When this occurs, the soil is fluidized, i.e. the velocity of the
water is so large that the drag forces on the soil particles
overcome the submerged weight of the particles that are no
longer resting in contact with each other.

This condition is called piping, if it occurs in localized

channels (the transport of particles usually occurs at the
ground surface and erosion regresses, forming a pipe-shaped
channel in the soil mass), or quicksand if it occurs over a
large area.
CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT:
 The effective pressure reduces to zero when the
hydraulic gradient attains a maximum value
which is equal to the ratio of the submerged
unit weight of soil and the unit weight of water.
 This gradient is known as the critical hydraulic
gradient ic.

s z '   ' z  iz w  0

' G 1
i  ic   ic 
w 1 e
 In such cases, cohesionless soils lose all of
their shear strength and bearing capacity
and a visible agitation of soil grains is
observed. This phenomenon is known as
boiling or a quick sand condition.
 Quick conditions are common in
excavations below the ground water table.
 This can be prevented by lowering the ground
water elevation by pumping before excavation.
 Quick conditions occur most often in fine
sands or silts and cannot occur in coarse
soils.
 The larger the particle size, the greater is the
porosity.
 Not possible unless a large quantity of water
can be supplied.
NEGATIVE PORE-WATER PRESSURE
 The upward flow into the voids of the soil is
attributed to the surface tension of the water.
 The height to which water rises above the water
table against the gravity is called capillary rise.
 The rise is greatest for very fine grained soils.
 The water that rises above the water table attains
the maximum height hc only in the smaller voids.
 A few large voids may effectively stop capillary rise
in certain parts of the soil mass.
 Thus, only a portion of the capillary zone above
the free water surface remains fully saturated
and the remainder is partially saturated.
 The water held in the pores of soil above the free
water surface is retained in a state of reduced
pressure. This reduced pressure is called capillary
pressure or soil moisture suction pressure.
d 2 hc w
dT cos  
4
4T cos 
hc 
d w

0.03
hc (mm) 
d (mm)
where T = surface tension force for water at 20 °C
(7510-8 kN/cm),  = 0 for moist glass, d = pore
opening size, hc = capillarity rise.
CAPILLARY SIPHONING:
 Capillary forces are able to raise water against
the force of gravity. Water may flow over the
crest of an impermeable core in a dam in spite
of the fact that the elevation of the free water
surface is below the crest of the core as shown.
 This process is known as capillary siphoning.
 Above the free-water level the hydrostatic
pressure in the water is negative. At an
elevation z it is:

u w   z w  u s
4T cos 
u w,min 
d
4T

d
s '  s  uw
 s  ( z w )  s  z w
 Note that the negative pore pressure increases
the effective stresses, so that moist sands can
exhibit an unconfined compressive strength.
 This strength accounts for the possibility to build
sand castles and also makes apparently stable
unsupported sides of excavations in silts and fine
sands.
 But flooding of the excavation or rain and slight
vibrations will suddenly prove the unstable
nature of these materials.
 This strength, arising from negative pore pressure,
cannot be considered a soil property.
 Open
Excavations

Sand
Castles
EFFECTIVE STRESS FOR UNSATURATED SOILS:
 In unsaturated soils, the
pressures present are:
 Total stress (s)
 Pore water pressure (uw)

 Air pressure (ua)

 The suction pressure

(matric suction) will be:
 ua  uw
SOIL BEHAVIOR AT UNSATURATED STATE:
 The ‘unsaturated’ state normally means states
at which soil pores are filled with water and
air. This arrangement makes the mechanics of
the system very complicated, because now we
have surface tension that works between the
fluid and gas phases, in addition to the inter-
particle forces (effective stress under saturated
conditions) and the pore water pressure.
 Unsaturated soils are usually encountered at
shallower part of ground above the ground
water level. In some cases, however, it can
exist to a significant depth.
UNSATURATED SOILS AND SUCTION:

 From force equilibrium:

Ts
ua  uw 
r
 In the two-disc analogy
(Kelvin’s model), the
inter-particle force, F, is
expressed as :
 D 
F  2(ua  u w )  r   cos   r 
 2 
 The inter-particle force is proportional to the
suction.
 It is this pressure that is pulling particles together
and giving additional strength.
 Total water potential controls water flow in any
porous media. Not all components have the
same effect.
 Matric/capillary potential (mainly affects
mechanical behavior).
 Osmotic potential (only in clay-rich materials)
 Gravitational potential (controls free depth of water
surface)
 Air potential (other than atmospheric)
Water-retention Curve
EFFECTIVE PRESSURE FOR UNSATURATED SOILS:
 How to express the effective stress and
deformation characteristics of unsaturated
soils is still a debated issue and under
extensive research.
 Bishop’s expression (1959):

s '  s  ua   (ua  u w )
 s' s ua (ua uw)
s ua Sr (ua uw)
s (1Sr )ua Sruw

where  is an empirical parameter.

 It relates to the wetted cross-sectional area.
It could also be defined as the area over
which pore water pressure is effective.
Effective stress from shear strength data:

s '  s  ua   (ua  u w )

m
 (u a  u w ) 
  
 (u a  u w ) b 
By curve fitting method:
(Khalili & Khabbaz, 1998)

0.55
 (ua  u w ) 
  
 (ua  u w ) b 
REFERENCES:
 Holtz R.D. and Kovacs W.D. “An Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering.” Prentice Hall, 1981.
 Lambe T.W. and Whitman R.V. “Soil Mechanics.” Wiley, 1969.
 Lancellota, Renato. “Geotechnical Engineering.” 2nd ed, 2009.
 Mitchell J.K. “Fundamentals of Soil Behaviour.” Wiley, 1976.
 Murthy, V.N.S. “Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and
Practices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.”
Marcel Dekker, 1999.
 Skempton A.W. “The pore pressure coefficients A and B.”
Géotechnique, 4, 143–147; 1954.
 Terzaghi K., Peck R.B. and Mesri G. “Soil Mechanics in
Engineering Practice.” 3rd ed. Wiley; 1996.
 Verruijt, A. “Soil Mechanics.”, Delft University of Technology,
Dordrecht, 2001.
 CVL 222
SOIL MECHANICS
G. V. RAMANA
Effective Stress Under Steady
State One-dimensional Flow
Overview
Engineering property of a soil are a function of effective stress
Variation of effective stress under hydrostatic condition
σ’ = σ – u
Darcy’s Law :
Q
or, Q
where, , hydraulic gradient
 Effective stress under flowing water
SEEPAGE FORCE:
Drag force applied by the water when it flows through the soil

Horizontal movement:
Seepage force acts horizontally and if
strong enough water can displace soil
particles laterally, leading to the
development of channels in soil called
Piping. e.g. In case of dams
 Effective stress under flowing water
Vertical movement: (a) Seepage force adds to effective stress if it flows in downward direction
(b) Reduces effective stress if it flows upward

Total Total Total

stress, stress, stress,
σ σ σ

Effective Pore water Effective Pore water Seepage force Effective Pore water Seepage force
stress, σ’ pressure, u stress, σ’ pressure, u pressure, u
stress, σ’
(a) WATER FLOWING (a) WATER FLOWING
HYDROSTATIC CONDITION DOWNWARD UPWARD
Hydrostatic

Total stress PWP Effective stress

• At top of the soil, • At top of the soil, • At top of the soil,
σT=ϒwx(100mm) = 1kN/m3 uT= ϒwx(100mm) = 1kN/m3 σ’T = σT – uT = 0kN/m3
• At bottom of the soil, • At bottom of the soil, • At bottom of the soil,
σB=ϒwx(100mm)+ϒtx(300mm) uB= ϒwx(400mm) = 4kN/m 3 σ’B = σB – uB = 3kN/m3
= 7kN/m3
Downward flow
• Total head difference between top and bottom of the
soil is 400mm using standpipe
• Total stress distribution will remain same as that of
hydrostatic condition as overburden pressure is same
• Pore water pressure will no longer be hydrostatic
since water is flowing in downward direction
• We know how much rise would be there at top
because constant water head is present i.e. 100mm
• So, at Top of soil water rise is 100mm PWP =
1kN/m2
Downward flow
• We also know rise at bottom because it is open and in
contact with atmosphere. So we would not find any rise
at bottom
• Therefore at Bottom of soil water rise is 0mm PWP =
0kN/m2
• Pore water pressure is distributed linearly over the
length of sample
• Implies that at Middle of soil water rise would be 50mm
PWP = 0.5kN/m2
• No change in total stress, reduction in PWP and
corresponding increase in effective stress

As water flows downward it tends to produce a drag in the

downward direction, Seepage force produced add to the
component due to weight resulting in increase of Effective stress
Upward flow and Critical gradient
• Consider point A where effective stress (σ’A) is to be
calculated
• Total stress at A (σA) = ϒtL
• Water rise in stand pipe at A = L+ΔH
• Pore water pressure at A (uA) = ϒw(L+ΔH)

σ’A = σA – ua
for σ’A = 0 ⇒ σA = uA
or, ϒtL = ϒw(L+ΔH)
ϒtL – ϒwL = ϒbL = ϒwΔH where, ϒt – ϒw = ϒb

ϒ
= ϒb = 𝑖 ≈1
w

𝑖 = Critical hydraulic gradient

Upward flow and Critical gradient
An upward flow of water reduces the effective stress
Effective stress reduces to zero when water is flowing upward under a hydraulic gradient equal
to ratio of buoyant unit weight of soil to the unit weight of water. This gradient is called Critical
Gradient.
Soil becomes Quick sand. Upward drag of flow balances the weight of soil particles and soil
doesn’t behaves like a soil but a viscous liquid
Shear strength is function of effective stress and in this case effective stress is zero, soil looses
all its shear strength
PERMEABILITY
OF SOILS AND ITS TESTING

Prof. G.V. Ramana

Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT/Delhi
FLOW IN SOILS
 Flow of water through porous media is governed by
Darcy’s law:
dh
v  k  k i
ds
 The quantity dh/ds, called the hydraulic gradient i, is
the increase of the groundwater head per unit of
length, in the direction of flow.
 The minus sign expresses that the water flows in the
direction of decreasing head.
 The quantity v is known as the specific discharge or
Darcian velocity.
INTRINSIC PERMEABILITY:
 Portion of hydraulic conductivity which is
representative of the properties of the porous
medium (not the fluid).
 It is a function of size of the openings through which the
fluid moves.
  Cd2
 where C = dimensionless constant, d = mean pore
diameter (unit of k is thus L2).
 Relationship between hydraulic conductivity and
intrinsic permeability is:  g
k  
 
 The seepage velocity is different from the specific
discharge and is given as: v
vs 
n
 The quantity k in these equations is the hydraulic
conductivity, defined as:
  w
k

 It is sometimes denoted as the coefficient of
permeability. The permeability  then should be
denoted as the intrinsic permeability to avoid
confusion.
(μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, and  is the
permeability of the porous medium, n is porosity)
 SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS
Water In

L = Drainage Path Head Loss or

Head Difference
or Energy Loss
i = Hydraulic Gradient
Δh =hA - hB

hA
Water
out
hB
Soil
A B

Porous Porous
ZA Stone L Stone ZB
Datum
 For seepage flow evaluation two parameters are needed:
 Coefficient of permeability (k) h
 Hydraulic gradient (i)
Q ki Ak A
L
 k can be determined using
 Laboratory Testing
 Field Testing
 Empirical Equations

 i can be determined
 From the head loss
 Flow net
NEED FOR PERMEABILITY?!
 Knowledge of the permeability of soil is essential
for construction projects where drainage is an
important element. In particular for:
 determination the drainage characteristics
 design and assessment of landfill sites,
 the investigation of contaminated ground,
 the design of earth dams and sheet pile walls,
 assessing the potential for lowering
groundwater levels.
CHALLENGES WITH HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
MEASUREMENT:
 Hydraulic conductivity of soil varies over a
very large range (refer next slide)

 Both very high and very low hydraulic

conductivity values are difficult to be
measured

 Homogeneity and anisotropy have huge

influence
PERMEABILITY AND DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF
MAIN SOIL TYPES
LABORATORY TESTING OF PERMEABILITY
 Flow/pressure control methods
 Constant head method
 Falling head method
 Constant flow rate method

 Permeameter types
 Flexiblewall permeameters
 Rigid wall permeameters
 Compaction mold
 Thin-wall tube

 Consolidation cell
CONSTANT HEAD PERMEAMETER
 This equipment is used for testing
the permeability of granular soils
(sands and gravels).
 The specimen is formed in a
permeability cell and water is
passed through it from a constant
level tank.
 Take-off points located along the
sides of the permeability cell are
connected to three manometer
tubes mounted on a panel
complete with a meter scale.
 Water passing through the
specimen is collected and
measured (V), either for a
specific quantity or over a
period of time (t).
 The reduction of head is
noted from the variation of
water level in the
manometer tubes (Δh).

V h V L
 Q  kA k 
t L A  t h
FALLING HEAD PERMEAMETER
 Clays and silts are tested using
the falling head technique.
 Flow of water through the
specimen is observed by
monitoring the rate of fall of
water in the tube.
 It is essential that soils of very
low permeability are sealed
inside the cylinder to prevent
seepage along the sides of the
specimen.
 Before testing, the specimen
must be completely
saturated with water as the
presence of air will restrict
the flow of water.

L  h0 
k  log 
A t  ht 
 Pore fluid chemistry
 Effect of diffuse double layer
 Concentration of electrolyte
 Valence of cations

 Dielectric constant of liquid

 Importance of hydration/permeating liquid

 Volume of flow
 Volume of flow refers to
the total volume of
voids of the specimen,
i.e. void ratio.
 Must allow enough
liquid to flow through
the specimen to be sure
that the interaction
between the soil and the
pore liquid has
stabilized.
 CVL 222
SOIL MECHANICS
G. V. RAMANA
Compressibility
 Overview
The property compressibility relates the stress applied to the strain that
occurs
strain = stress x compressibility
unit of compressibility is m2/kN
Soil is a complex three phase system consisting: soil particles, air and
water, which together bears the stresses applied
Case I – Dry Sand, two phase system (no water)
• Air in voids cannot bear this load, Load is borne by sand particles by rearranging
themselves in closer packing and expelling required air out
• Void ratio decreased, density of sand increases, rearrangement is instantaneous
 Overview
Case II: Saturated Sand
• Situation is similar to that of dry sand. But here along with water air is also pushed
out immediately as sand has high permeability
Case III: Saturated clay
• Low permeability of clay doesn’t allow water to move out quickly
• But to bear load applied, particles have to rearrange into closer packing, which is not
possible instantaneously.
• So, it is water here which will bear the load immediately as excess PWP
• Effective stress initially unaltered but with time it increases and excess PWP reduces
• Hence, volume at any instant proportional to effective stress not total stress
Compressibility as function of Effective
stress
• Loose soil have more volume reduction
• But once it has become denser it will
not experience the same volume
reduction for the same stress applied
again
• Soil becomes denser as it is subject to
greater effective stress and less
compressible
• Volume change is represented by void
ratio change in the curve
Coefficient of compressibility
• Coefficient of
compressibility (av) defined
as slope of the void ratio –
effective stress curve

• av changes with changing

effective stress (inverse
relation)
Compressibility as function of Soil type
• Compressibility is a function of
effective stress but the
dependence varies with soil
types as shown
• Loose sand more compressible
than dense sand
• Clays are much more
compressible than sands
Compressibility as function of stress
history
• Soil subjected to effective stress
for the first time in history
exhibits greater compressibility
• This implies that soil are not
elastic. They do not spring back
to their loose state upon being
unloaded
• And also upon reloading, they do
not compress as much as that of
previous time loading
• Stress history is of more
significance in case of clay
Normally consolidated & Over
consolidated clay
Normally consolidated clay (NCC):Clay in which the existing effective stress is
the maximum that it has ever experienced in its history.
Over consolidated clay (OCC):Clay in which the existing effective stress is less
than the effective stress it has experienced in the past. For example
◦ During glacial advance load is applied and while receding it is unloaded
◦ First construction of any building and then unloading by demolishing
To measure degree of over consolidation, Overconsolidation ratio (OCR) is
defined as ratio of maximum effective stress by soil in history σ’max to currently
experienced effective stress σ’ (for NCC, value of OCR is 1)
σ’max
OCR =
σ’
Compression Index
• For NCC, it is empirically observed
that plot of void ratio vs log of
effective stress is a straight line
• So, we can express compressibility
characteristics of NCC by the slope
of this straight line, this parameter
is named as Compression Index (Cc)

• Unlike Coefficient of Compressibility

(av), Cc is constant for any clay and
doesn’t vary with effective stress
Void ratio – log σ’ relation for OCC
• For OCC, curve doesn’t follow a straight line
• While loading initially it follow straight line A to
B
• On unloading at B, soil swells and experience
increase in volume but it is very less than the
initial decrease for the same stress difference
• Upon reloading, it is gentle concave downward
curve so long as the clay is overconsolidated
• As soil approaches maximum effective stress its
curvature increases (notice sharp bend at D)
• As it passes maximum effective stress point,
curve changes to a straight line with same Cc.
Geometric technique to determine max.
past effective stress
• In a laboratory we will get a curve PGH and we need to
determine the point of max effective stress because
after this point soil will tend to exhibit relatively higher
compressibility of NCC

• Locate M, the point of maximum curvature on curve

PGH
• At M draw a horizontal line RMS
• At M draw a tangent XMY to the curve PGH
• Bisect angle SMY by MN
• Extend GH which is straight line segment of PGH to
meet MN at E
• E is the point of maximum effective stress
 CVL 222
SOIL MECHANICS
G. V. RAMANA
 Effective stress
Under
Transient Hydrodynamic Condition
Overview
Stress increment applied on saturated soil is immediately borne by
development of excess PWP (unaltering effective stress)
This excess PWP initiates process of water flowing out & soil
particles to achieve closer packing to withstand applied stress
Flow process is transient, with time excess PWP and volume
reduces resulting in increase of effective stress and density
But, How long does it take to dissipate excess PWP and flow
process to complete?
An Analogy
How long does it take for a car parking lot situated next to a cricket stadium to
empty after a test match is over? …… Lets see the factors relevant and analogy
involved in transient flow of water
An Analogy
Just as cars near the exit will clear out faster and those parked away from the
exit will take longer, Similarly water which is near the drainage layer leaves
quicker than far away from the drainage layer
Meaning, Effective stress distribution and its variation with time which
depends upon dissipation of excess PWP going to differ at different location of
soil
A Mechanistic Model
• Saturated soil of volume V0
• Spring represents network of solid soil
particles often called as soil skeleton
• Water represents water in the soil voids
• Piston of area Ap to apply total stress on
saturated soil
• Valve is to simulate permeability

• At t<0; All are in equilibrium;

Total Stress = P/Ap; Effective stress = P/Ap;
Valve is open no water is flowing, PWP is
zero or atmospheric
A Mechanistic Model
• At t=0, valve is closed to simulate finite
permeability of soil, because when pressure is
applied it cannot flow out instantaneously
• At this instant, a load ΔP is applied
• Total stress (σ) = (P+ ΔP)/Ap
• Flow of water not possible as valve is closed,
therefore effective stress cannot balance additional
load (spring compression requires volume change)
• Excess PWP develops equivalent to increased total
stress i.e. ΔP/Ap
• And, effective stress and soil volume remains same
at t=0
A Mechanistic Model
• At t>0, valve is open and the excess PWP
developed to balance extra load now seeks to
return to its equilibrium pressure i.e.
atmospheric in this case
• Excess PWP generates flow condition

• PWP begins to diminish, effective stress begins

to increase by an equal amount (spring can
compress now)
• Volume reduces equivalent to outflow of water
V<V0
A Mechanistic Model
• Final equilibrium condition, transient flow
situation is ceased
• Excess PWP fully dissipated by water flowing
out of the valve
• Volume reduces to V1 (<V0)
• Spring compressed sufficiently to bear
additional total stress ΔP/Ap
• Soil particles (spring) so arranged to
withstand effective stress of (P+ ΔP)/Ap
Consolidation
The process of change in soil volume on account of water flowing out
of its voids, on account of dissipation of excess PWP produced on an
application of total stress is known as consolidation
In the last example it can be said that Saturated soil has been “consolidated”
to an effective stress of (P+ ΔP)/Ap
Dissipation doesn’t occur uniformly in the soil, occurs more rapidly near a
drainage surface (will discuss later)
Soil consolidates i.e. volume reduces only when effective stress increases
Volume change is function of effective stress and not total stress
The Condition of Continuity
• Condition of Continuity: The amount of water
entering the soil element per unit time minus
the amount of water leaving this soil element
per unit time is equal to the rate of storage of
water in this element
• No assumptions have been made, so above
statement is true in all situations
The Condition of Continuity
• Consider a differential soil element in a mass
of soil through which flow is occurring
• Let the velocity of water at the centre of the
cube is vx, vy, and vz in the x, y and z
directions respectively
Amount of water entering face (1) per unit time is :

Amount of water leaving face (2)per unit time is :

The Condition of Continuity
Therefore amount of water entering minus water
leaving per unit time in the x direction is:

Or,

Negative sign can be dropped, it is just to indicate

storage
Similarly, for y and z direction

and
The Condition of Continuity
• Summation from of the contribution from
all direction yields

• The above expression must be equal to rate

of storage of water in the soil element

Where, W represents volume of storage water

The Condition of Continuity
The mathematical expression for the Condition
of Continuity or Continuity equation becomes:

= (eqn. 9.1)

Note that, the expression is general one and

valid for all situations
 Terzaghi’s One-Dimensional Consolidation
Theory
Eqn 9.1 is general equation, So to make it relevant and useful Terzaghi took number of
assumptions
Terzghi considered the case of One-dimensional flow in z direction ONLY (Assumption 1).
Hence, eqn 9.1 reduces to
= (eqn. 9.2)

Assuming Darcy’s law is valid (Assumption 2), then (eqn. 9.3)

And assuming soil is homogenous(Assumption 3)which means kzis notfunction of z

from eqn 9.3 (eqn. 9.4)

 Terzaghi’s One-Dimensional Consolidation
Theory
h is the head which causes flow and here it is excess PWP (u)which is producing
the flow (Assumption 4)
𝒖
Head hmay be substituted by , assuming further that w is also not a function
ϒ𝒘
of z. (Assumption 5)Eqn 9.4 becomes
(eqn. 9.5)
ϒ
from eqn 9.2
= (eqn. 9.6)
ϒ
 Terzaghi’s One-Dimensional
Consolidation Theory
• We know water is flowing out from voids, this means, soil volume reduces by an equal
amount of water which flows out equals the change in the volume of element
, i.e.

• For Vs= 1, total volume V is 1+e0

• So for V = , Vswould be
Vsis constant (Assumption 6)
• Vv =
 Terzaghi’s One-Dimensional
Consolidation Theory
• For a situation when Vv is to experience change, e would be a variable (not a constant
e0 ,so replace it with variable e)

• Therefore,

• But since is volume of solids and is constant,

(eqn. 9.7)
 Terzaghi’s One-Dimensional
Consolidation Theory
• We know, for small changes in effective stress (Assumption 7)
𝒗 σ (eqn. 9.8)
where, avis Coefficient of Compressibility
• And, in consolidation process effective stress increases as excess PWP dissipates. So,
σ (eqn. 9.9)
• Substitute eqn 9.9 in eqn 9.8
𝒗 (eqn. 9.10)

• Substitute eqn9.10 in eqn9.7

𝝏𝑾 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝝏𝒆 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝝏𝒖
𝝏𝒕 𝟏 𝒆𝟎 𝝏𝒕 𝟏 𝒆𝟎 𝒗 𝝏𝒕 (eqn. 9.11)
 Terzaghi’s One-Dimensional
Consolidation Theory
• Substitute eqn9.11 in eqn9.6

(eqn. 9.12)

( )
Or, (eqn. 9.13)
ϒ
𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝒖
Or, 𝒗 𝝏𝒛𝟐 (eqn. 9.14)
𝝏𝒕

𝒌𝒛 . (𝟏 𝒆𝟎 )
Where, 𝒗 = Coefficient of Consolidation = (eqn. 9.15)
𝒂 𝒗 ϒ𝒘

• Eqn 9.14 is differential equation for transient flow during one dimensional consolidation.
• Assumptions made in arriving at eqn 9.14 are tabulated in next slide
Solution of Terzaghi Equation
•Solution of differential equation for a prescribed set of boundary conditions
will give dissipation of excess PWP (u) with time (t) and location (z)
•Terzaghi solved the equation for most common boundary condition and
presented the solution in graphical form using dimensionless parameters
• Boundary Condition 1
at t = 0; z = all z; u = ui
instantaneous stress is taken by PWP
where ui is initial excess PWP
Terzaghi chose to consider u = ui at all locations
(valid when surface on which stress is applied is
much larger than thickness of soil layer)
 Solution of Terzaghi Equation
• Boundary condition 2
at t > 0; z = 0; u = 0
• Boundary condition 3
at t > 0; z = 2H; u = 0
At z = 0 and 2H, water has to travel zero
distance. Therefore excess PWP is
dissipated instantaneously for all t>0
• These boundary conditions are known as double drainage conditions since there
are two drainage surfaces
• Drainage path: Maximum distance water has to travel to reach a drainage surface.
In this case, drainage path is ‘H’
 Solution of Terzaghi Equation
• Dimensionless terms
- Location term z made dimensionless by dividing it by drainage path H
- For excess PWP, term Consolidation Ratio Uzis introduced which is the
ratio of excess PWP dissipated to the initial excess PWP

Uz = 1 means complete dissipation of excess PWP

Uz = 0 no dissipation
- Time Factor, T, dimension time parameter
has unit of area per unit time
For consolidation process at a particular site and H are constant
• At t = 0, Time Factor (T) = 0
Uz = 0 for all depth z (vertical
line extreme left)
• dissipation, flow and
consolidation is yet to begin

• For all Time Factors T > 0,

Consolidation is complete at
drainage surfaces
• Uz is 1.0 for z/H = 0 and 2

• At any Time Factor, Uz is 1 at

drainage surfaces and
decrease away from
drainage surfaces, minimum
at z/H = 1.0
• At Time Factor = infinity,
Uz = 1 for all values of z
(vertical line at extreme right)
• Flow is ceased and
consolidation is complete
• No excess PWP remains
anywhere

• As consolidation proceeds
excess PWP causing flow
reduces slowing down rate
of flow Which in turn
reduces rate of dissipation of
excess PWP Asymptotic
relation
Solution of Terzaghi Equation
Previous figure portrays how consolidation proceeds with time at
different location for a particular set of boundary conditions
But, it doesn’t indicate how much consolidation as a whole in the entire
stratum
How to get Average consolidation over the entire stratum at any time?
Average degree of consolidation
• At T = 0, no consolidation has occurred,
line AC on left
• At T = inf., consolidation in entire system
is complete, line BD on right
• At T = 0.403, different amount of
consolidation at different locations z/H
for e.g. at z/H = 1, consolidation is 53%
• At any z/H, the horizontal distance from
AC(left) to the curve (in shaded zone)
represents degree of consolidation at
that location
Average degree of consolidation
• Average degree of consolidation U over
entire stratum is thus the ratio of
shaded area to the area of rectangle
ABDC

• Time factor corresponding to Average

degree of consolidation of 70% is
denoted by T70
Average degree of consolidation V/s Time
Factor (U V/s T)
• Repeat the same exercise for different
Time Factors to get the curve
 CVL 222
SOIL MECHANICS
G. V. RAMANA
Measuring Compressibility Characteristics
and
Computing Amount of and
Time for Consolidation
Overview
Settlement: vertical component of the volume change (or, consolidation)
due to increment in stress applied
Two aspects of volume change: How much and How long ?
‘How much’ is function of
A. How much stress is applied (loading conditions)
B. How much soil is affected (boundary conditions – thickness)
C. How compressible is the soil (engineering property of soil – av ,e0)
‘How long’ is function of
A. Amount of volume change (as discussed above)
B. Location and number of free draining surfaces (boundary conditions)
C. Permeability of soil
NOTE
Consolidation results from the flowing away of water from soil voids
when it is subjected to stress
But, Settlement along with Primary Consolidation can be due to Elastic
compression of soil…., Compression of air…., Secondary Consolidation ….
Discussed in next slide
Consolidation indeed is major component of settlement
Determining Coefficient of
Compressibility (av) and Consolidation (cv)
For determining amount of consolidation you need → av
For determining time of consolidation to occur you need → cv
Both of these coefficients can be obtained from Consolidation Test

• Place a representative undisturbed sample of

the soil in consolidometer ring
• Subject the soil to normal stress in
predetermined stress increments each for a
specified amount of time
• During each stress increment, observe the
reduction in sample thickness as it occurs with
the passage of time
 Coefficient of Compressibility (av)
•For each stress increment note the initial sample thickness and final thickness
•Plot the data in the form of initial void ratio and final void ratio after consolidation
under each stress increment V/s effective stress

• Coefficient of compressibility
can be readily determined for
any stress range as the slope
of straight line that best
approximates the curve
 Coefficient of Consolidation (cv)
•For any stress range cvis calculated by using formula (eq. 9.15) by experimentally
determining the parameters for the stress range under consideration

o 𝒘
oavand e0 can be obtained from consolidation test for that stress range
okzhave to be determined by a permeability test on soil
•Another method to get cv using square root fitting method on the data obtained
from Consolidation Test (discussed in following slides)
Coefficient of Consolidation (cv)
• cv controls the rate of consolidation
• For any load increment, relation b/w sample
thickness(Th) and time elapsed since
application of load can be determined from
Consolidation Test
• First will occur instantaneously the elastic
compression upon application of load
• Then occur the Primary consolidation and
sample’s thickness starts decreasing with
time
For a particular load increment
• Curve of Avg degree of consolidation with Time factor looks similar to the experimental
curve Valid mathematical formulation of physical phenomena by Terzaghi
• The similarity becomes more apparent if the relations are plotted as a function of square
root of time (experimental curve) and time factor (theoretical curve)
• Experimental curve is also a straight line
followed by gentle concave upward curve and
preceded by steep curved segment on account
of elastic compression
• Thi is the initial thickness before application of
load, locate Th0 by extending the straight line
to t=0
• Theoretical curve is characterized by a straight
line from 0% to 60% avg. degree of consolidation
followed by a gentle concave upwards curve
• Constructing a dashed line such that its abscissa is
1.15 times the abscissa of straight line segment,
this line will intersect theoretical curve at 90%
consolidation point (Property will be used to get cv)
• Beginning from Th0a dashed line is constructed • Theoretical curve is characterized by a straight
such that its abscissa is 1.15 times of the line from 0% to 60% avg. degree of consolidation
straight line portion of experimental curve followed by a gentle concave upwards curve
• Get the thickness(Th90) and time ( 𝟗𝟎) at • Constructing a dashed line such that its abscissa is
which the dashed line intersect the 1.15 times the abscissa of straight line segment,
experimental curve this line will intersect theoretical curve at 90%
consolidation point (Property will be used to get cv)
Coefficient of Consolidation (cv)
•Coefficient of Consolidation (cv) can be determined by using definition of time
factor and substituting the values corresponding to 90% consolidation

T90 from Terzaghi theory = 0.848

t90 read from above slide
H is the average drainage path and for double drainage it equals (Th0 + Thf)/4
•By using Square root fitting method for each load increment we can determine
individual Coefficient of consolidation for different stress ranges defined for
various load increments as shown in next slide
• Figure depicts the magnitude of cv as determined by Square root fitting
method from data obtained during various load increments i.e. 0-25; 25-50;
50-100; 100-200; 200-400; 400-800 kN/m2
 Limitations in Predicting Consolidation
Behaviour
I. Soil profiles with single or double drainage
II. Flow in one direction
III. One dimensional consolidation
IV. Where application of load produces an increase in PWP in entire soil atratum
equal to the applied total stress
V. Small stress increments so that the soil properties can be taken as constants
in that stress range
Amount of Consolidation
• Total stress increment due to fill= σ
• Induces Consolidation and both sand
and clay will consolidate
• Sand usually considered incompressible
in relation to clay
• So, in clay this increment in total stress
will lead to increase of σ in PWP
• With time this excess PWP dissipates
increasing the effective stress by σ
• Clay stratum consolidates and effective
stress increases by σ σ
 Amount of Consolidation
• Change in void ratio due to increase in effective stress,
σ

• Relating change in
thickness, , with the
change in void ratio, , of
soil stratum thickness D

𝟎
 Amount of Consolidation
• Substitute the vale of in above eqn,
σ
Or, σ
where,
mv is defined as Coefficient of volume compressibility
• Rearranging, ɛ σ
• Above relation transforms to characteristic form in which Strain, ɛ𝒗 is proportional
to stress
• As stated in the beginning amount of volume change is function of loading
condition, σ , of the boundary condition, D, and engineering property of soil,mv
Amount of Consolidation
•For NCC, changes in void ratio can also be expressed in terms of Compression
Index(special case)
σ σ
σ
•Change in thickness, , for NCC can be expressed as
σ σ
σ
•Depth D and increase in effective stress σ are constant but e0has different
value at different locations in the clay stratum
•Also, effective stress changes with depth resulting in variation of values of
mv(av, e0)
 Amount of Consolidation
• Thus equation can be expressed more precisely as
𝑫
𝒗
σ
𝟎
𝟎
• But it is impractical to use as dependence of variables on z is complex
• If stratum is thin, calculate values of av and e0 at the middle of stratum
• For thick stratum, divide the whole in number of thin sub-strata of thickness Δz
• Consolidation is determined using appropriate average values of av and e0, and
using Δz instead of D
• Total consolidation is then determined by adding up consolidation of all the sub-
strata
Time for Consolidation
•Theoretically, infinite time is required for consolidation since the mathematical
relation b/w Avg. degree of consolidation and Time factor is asymptotic
•Time can be calculated using formula
𝟐

𝒗
•NOTE:cv is valid for the effective stress range for the particular loading conditions as
determined from a consolidation test
 CVL
L 222
SOIL MEC
CHANICS
G. V. R AMANA
 Shear  SStrength
An nd 
Its Meassurement
Overview
‰Shear strength ability to withstand 
‰Sh h bili ih d shear stresses, which tend to displace
h hi h d di l
o the rest of soil
in a particular direction in relation to
‰Knowledge of shear strength is neceessary for: 
‰Knowledge of shear strength is nece
essary for:
• stability of slopes natural or man‐mad de, 
• bearing capacity of foundation, 
• lateral pressure exerted by soil on rettaining walls etc.
‰It is most complex and important engineering property as it is function of: 
omaterial
ostresses applied and 
othe manner in which they are applied
othe manner in which they are applied
d
Overview
1. How shear strength is measured ?
2. How experimental results are porttrayed i.e. concept of Mohr’s Circle ?
3. What are different possible conditions under which measurement of 
strength is required ?
hi i d?
Measurement of Shear Strength
‰T i i l C
‰Triaxial Compression Test
i T
‰Notice saturated porous stone, soil 
sample rubber membrane rubber ‘O’
sample, rubber membrane, rubber  O 
rings, top cap
‰First Stage, fill the triaxial
‰First Stage, fill the triaxial cell with 
cell with
water and apply pressure to the water
‰Which will be transmitted to soil 
sample in normal direction to its surface
‰Sample is compressed axially at top 
and bottom and radially
db d di ll on its vertical 
i i l
surface
Measurement of Shear Strength
Measurement of Shear Strength
Observations that can be made
‰At the instant
‰A h i when cell pressure is applied
h ll i li d
PWP develops
‰It can be measured using PWP measuring 
‰It can be measured using PWP measuring
apparatus connected to the pore water line 
after closing the drainage line valve
‰If we want to eliminate the PWP, open the
valve of drainage line and close the pore 
water line valve
‰By measuring the amount of water drained
in burette the change in volume of sample is
known due to consolidation which is equal to
known due to consolidation which is equal to
the water drained out
Observations that can
c be made
‰In stage two, when additional axial 
‰I h ddi i l i l stress is applied leads to axial strain 
i li d l d i l i
which can be measured by measurin ng downward movement of piston
‰Additional axial stress will also cau
‰Additional axial stress will also cause to develop PWP
se to develop PWP and as previously 
and as previously
discussed it can be measured as well as can be dissipated
‰Measurements need to be taken
need to be taken
• Cell pressure and additional axial stresses applied
• Induced PWP
• Change in sample volume
• Axial strain 
Mohr’s Circle
‰State of stress on any plane of a bo
‰S f l f body due to external applied stress 
d d l li d
system can be determined using Moh hr’s Circle
Mohr’s Circle
Examples
Mohr’s Circle
‰ Duuring first stage, stress developed on all 
f d l d ll
plaanes is same and normal also (no shear) 
whhich is equal to the cell pressure applied
hich is equal to the cell pressure applied 
an
nd in this case Mohr’s circle is represented 
byy a point on normal stress axis
‰ In second stage, additional axial stress keeps 
onn increasing while cell pressure is kept 
co
onstant Therefore in the Mohr’ss circle one 
onstant. Therefore in the Mohr circle one
en
nd is fixed at A while other end keep moving 
to right until failure occurs 
 Types of Triaxial Compression Test
‰Three types based on combination of d
‰Three types based on combination of drainage conditions in the two stages of test
drainage
d conditions in the two stages of test
‰In the first stage upon application of celll pressure PWP develops equal to applied 
cell pressure. Two possibilities arise:
p p
1. Let the PWP allowed to dissipate and ressulting in consolidation of soil
2. Water is not allowed to drain, soil will reemain at the same volume it had before and soil 
is said to be in unconsolidated state
is said to be in unconsolidated
‰In second stage, additional axial stress w
will develop excess PWP which is generally 
not equal to applied additional axial stresss but quite different and sometimes 
negative
ti (suction). Two alternatives:
( ti ) T lt ti
1. Letting water drain out or flow into (dep
pending upon compression or tensile stress 
induced) which is drained condition
2. Induced PWP remains in the sample Und drained condition
Types of Triaxial Compression Test
‰Based on above cases there are 3 po
‰B d b h 3 ossibilities as fourth one is not possible 
ibili i f h i ibl
physically because
‰If drainage is allowed in second sta
‰If drainage is allowed in second staage, will also drain off water on account 
age will also drain off water on account
of PWP developed in first stage (uncoonsolidated) resulting in CD
‰In CD test volume changes in both 
‰In CD test volume changes in both the stages and in case of CU test volume 
the stages and in case of CU test volume
changes only in first stage
 Shear Stress,, Shea
ar Strength
g &
Triaxial Test
‰First stage is just to simulate natural co
‰Fi i j i l l ndition in laboratory, for consolidating soil 
di i i l b f lid i il
to different effective stresses by subjecting it to different confining pressure
‰But if PWP is not dissipated effective sttress will be total stress minus PWP
‰But if PWP is not dissipated, effective st
tress will be total stress minus PWP
‰In first stage soil is not subjected to sheear stress, Mohr’s Circle is a dot on x‐axis
‰In second stage when soil is subjected t
‰I d h il i bj d to additional axial stress called as deviator 
ddi i l i l ll d d i
stress, the shear stress is different on diffferent planes but always zero on horizontal 
and vertical planes
‰During shearing soil sample experiencees axial strain and either volume change or 
PWP
‰Shearing process is depicted by growth in size of Mohr’s Circle
Stress-Strain Beha
aviour of Sands
‰Conduct
‰C d t CD test on soils of different densities but all
CD il f diff d ii b ll
consolidated to same effective confining stress
‰Plot devviator stress & volume change V/s axial strain
‰Plot devviator stress & volume change V/s axial strain
‰Observaations:
1 Densee sand sample reaches a peak at low value of 
1. e sand sample reaches a peak at low value of
axial sstrain and then drops down
2. Whereas loose sand sample, deviator stress builds up 
gradually with axial strain
ally with axial strain
3. At largge values of axial strain both loose and dense are
comparable in terms of deviator stress
4. Volummetric strain in dense sand increases
Stress-Strain Beha
aviour of Sands
E l
Explanations:
i
‰Denser the material stronger it is. TTherefore at lower axial strains dense 
sample is able to sustain higher deviaator stress
sample is able to sustain higher deviaator stress
‰But with increasing axial strain, initiially dense sample starts becoming loose 
(why? next slide) whereas loose san
(why?... next slide) whereas loose san nd starts becoming dense and hence at
nd starts becoming dense and hence at 
some axial strain their densities becoome comparable so do their strength
‰Increase in volume on shearing den
g nse sand can be explained in terms of 
p
rearrangement of particles
Stress-Strain Beha
aviour of Sands
‰D
‰Dense sand –
d closely packed sphere (hexagonal packing)
cl l k d h (h l ki )
‰As shearing staarts, sphere A must rise to get on top of 
sphere C
sphere C
‰Causing increase in volume in dense sand

‰Loose sand – open packed sphere (cubic packing)
o
‰In this case sheearing will cause lowering of sphere D into 
the space betweeen E and F
‰V l
‰Volume reduct
d tion
i
Clays
‰At any effective stress the void ratio
‰A ff i h id io of Overconsolidated
fO lid d clay is less than 
l i l h
that of normally consolidated clay
‰OCC is more denser than NCC
‰OCC is more denser than NCC
‰Therefore, OCC will behave like den nse sand and NCC like loose sand for 
soils consolidated at same effective sstress
soils consolidated at same effective sstress 
Concept of Failure
Concept of Failure
‰Th he plane which has maximum ratio of shear
he plane which has maximum ratio of shear 
streess to normal stress is the plane of maximum 
obliiquity
‰It is the line tangent to Mohr’s Circle and passing
thro
ough origin having slope α
‰Th
hi l
his plane is inclined at θ
i i li d θ2 = 45 + α/2
45 /2
‰Th his point of tangency defines the boundary of 
failure envelope on Mohr
ure envelope on Mohr’ss Circle in terms of 
Circle in terms of
effeective stresses (…later)
‰Att failure, shear stress on the failure plane 
, p
con
nstitutes shear strength
Shear Strength
g – A Function of
Effective Stress
‰W h
‰We have seen with increasing densi
i hi i d iity, strength increases 
hi
‰And by theory of consolidation, den
nsity of soil increases as the effective to 
which it is subjected increases
which it is subjected increases
‰Since the effective stress at greater depth is larger than shallow depth, 
density will also increase and hence the strength
density will also increase and hence tthe
t strength
‰But density also changes if drainagee is allowed while subjecting shear stresses
‰If two samples of same density cons
‰If two samples of same density conssolidated to same effective stress are 
solidated to same effective stress are
sheared keeping drainage open in on
ne and closed in another
‰The one in which drainage is allowe
‰The one in which drainage is alloweed will exhibit greater effective stress and 
ed will exhibit greater effective stress and
therefore more strength. (proven by experiments… next slides)
Observations
‰Additional axial stress required to c
‰Addi i l i l i d ause failure of initially identical soil 
f il f i i i ll id i l il
sample varied from 66 to 800 kN/m2 !!!!
‰This shows shear strength is not con
‰This shows shear strength is not con nstant but depends on how the soil is
nstant but depends on how the soil is 
stressed in nature by civil engineeringg projects
Failure Envelope
Stress Conditions ata Failure in Terms
of Total Stress (I)
Stress Conditions at a Failure in Terms
of Total Stress (II)
Stress Conditions ata Failure in Terms
of Effective Stress
‰While studying consolidation behav
‰Whil d i lid i b h viour, we found out behaviour is not a 
i f d b h i i
function of total stress but of effectivve stress
‰ From the figure it is observed that Mohr’s 
Circle for all samples of all series are tangent
to same failure envelope
‰ New constants: c
New constants: c’ and Φ
and Φ’ with prime(
with prime(‘))
‰ c’UU = c’CU = c’CD and Φ’UU = Φ’CU = Φ’CD
‰ Since all the 3 series have common failure 
envelope it can be concluded that shear 
l it b l d d th t h
stress is an unique function of the effective 
stress
‰ Plane of tangency also has same inclination
Stress Conditions ata Failure in Terms
of Effective Stress
Stress Conditions ata Failure in Terms
of Effective Stress
‰In the Fig relationship b/w Mohr
‰In the Fig relationship b/w Mohr’ss Circle of
Circle of
CU and UU test with respect to total stress 
and effective stress can be seen 
‰For UU test three Mohr’s Circles are just 
reduced to one when drawn in terms of 
effective stress (same strength all 3 samples
‰Different total stresses but that resulted 
only in different PWP, but not in different 
effective stress as water was not drained out
effective stress as water was not drained out
‰Same volume, density and effective stress 
g
so same strength
Stress Conditions ata Failure in Terms
of Effective Stress
PWP Parameters
PWP Parameters
 CVL 222
SOIL MECHANICS
G. V. RAMANA
Shear Strength Parameters
c, Φ, c’, Φ’
 Overview
Shear strength of a soil is not a constant & hence cannot be tabulated in codes
But c’ & Φ’ for a soil having particular stress history is constant yet not tabulated as
it is a mammoth task, uneconomical & huge diversity in nature
Engineering approach: Study the behaviour of soil when and where it is required

Dependency of c’ & Φ’ on soil type and stress history

How shear strength and effective stress-strength parameters are used in solving
engineering problems
Different Connotations of Shear Strength
Problem of defining the plane on which failure
occurred as there can be many planes as shown
We had chosen plane of tangency to be the
failure plane to get shear strength
Thus, shear strength depends on effective stress
parameters, c’ & Φ’
So for convenience shear strength is taken as
shear stress on plane of max shear
 Different Connotations of Shear Strength
Suppose if we know only that under a given condition deviator stress required for
failure is 200kN/m2 and no knowledge of c’ & Φ’
We would not be able to quantify shear strength bcz of sticking to the definition
But if we change the definition, say for drained condition we define Sd, drained
shear strength = (σ1 – σ3)f/2 i.e. 100kN/m2
Note that the magnitude of 𝒇𝒇 and (σ1 – σ3)f/2 are not markedly different
Similarly, shear strength for undrained conditions is defined as undrained shear
strength, Su
Relating Sd & Su with c’ & Φ’
CASE I: c’ = 0
Drained strength for the soil consolidated
to an effective confining stress of σ c

Readily usable to know strength of soil

that exist in the field at a particular depth
under drained conditions
Relating Sd & Su with c’ & Φ’
CASE II: finite c’ & Φ’
Drained strength for the soil consolidated
to an effective confining stress of σ c
Relating Sd & Su with c’ & Φ’
In case of undrained conditions, Su is also
function of magnitude of PWP develop
during shearing
Case III: c’ = 0
Positive PWP develops
Effective confining stress σ c
 Relating Sd & Su with c’ & Φ’
For finite c’ & Φ’, Su can be written as
When positive PWP develops Su is less than Sd provided they are consolidated
to same effective confining stress
But when negative PWP develops then opposite is true as shown
 c’ & Φ’ – Function of Soil Type
Shear strength depends upon confining effective stresses, drainage conditions
during shear
c’ & Φ’ are constant for a soil with a given stress history and in a particular
stress range
c’:
For coarse grained soils & Normally consolidated fine grained soils, cohesion
intercept in terms of effective stresses, c’ is found to be zero or close to zero
If some cementitious material is deposited at particle contacts then finite
constant value of c’
Overconsolidated soils, c’ different +ve values depending upon stress range
Φ’ increases as
(1) particle size increases; (2) compactness increases; (3) soil gradation improves;
(4) particle angularity increases
Φ’ is a complicated function of mineralogy and clay size content
Φ’ is least for mineral Montmorillonite, main constituent of Bentonite

Coarse grained soil – Φ’ is rarely below 300

Fine grained soil – Φ’ is rarely above 300
Φ’ can be greater than 450
 c’ & Φ’ –
Function of Stress History & Stress Range
To get failure envelope in terms of effective stresses a best-fit line tangent to
Mohr’s Circles at failure for 3 or more samples after consolidating them at different
effective stresses

Two situations when it is not possible to fit a tangent line to all Mohr’s Circle:
1. OVERCONSOLIDATED CLAYS
2. SANDS AT HIGH STRESSES
 Overconsolidated Clays
Clays which in past subjected to higher effective
stress than stresses to which it is consolidated prior
to shear
Behaviour of such OCC depicted in sample I, II & III
OCC(I) and NCC(IA) both are consolidated to same
effective confining pressure, say A
Deviator stress required to cause failure more in
OCC than NCC
Deviator stress diminishes as OCR decreases
Consequence: failure envelope for OCC is not a
OCR decreases straight line
Overconsolidated Clays
OCC exhibits greater strength than NCC at same
pre-shear effective stress
Bcz for a particular effective stress OCC is much
denser than NCC sample as shown
To mathematically express curved failure envelope,
we fit straight line to a part of the curve for a stress
range which interest to us
Thus, failure envelope for stress range b/w A & B
σ
 And b/w C & D, σ
Sands at Higher Stresses
At higher stresses the particles get crushed on account of high stresses,
failure envelope becomes a gentle concave downward curve
The engineering approach to the
curved envelope is again to consider
segments of the curve that interest us
Relevant Parameters
To find out minimum B & Df so that footing is
safe from bearing capacity failure
Suppose ACD is the critical failure surface
among infinite possible failure surfaces
To analyse, calculate safety factor
∑ 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅
= ∑ 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅

Failure occur if SF < 1

Denominator can be worked out using
methods of mechanics
For numerator knowledge of shear behaviour
of soil is required. Two Approaches:
 1. Effective Stress Analysis
Shear strength is a unique function of effective stress on the failure plane at failure
So to get shear strength we need –
a) Experimentally determined c’ and Φ’ of the soil
b) Estimate effective stress at failure for each location on the failure plane
c) Use eqn to determine shear strength mobilized at each location
In order to get effective stress we need to know PWP which is most difficult aspect
As PWP is a complicated function of:
soil type,
stress history,
magnitude of applied stress and
manner of their application
 1. Effective Stress Analysis
Two situations when effective stress analysis can be used with ease:
1. When uf = 0, complete drainage of induced PWP
2. When uf is controlled by hydraulic conditions
If you want to use this method for fine grained soils, estimation of uf is very
tedious process
Possible only by actual measurement during construction meaning construction
and designing proceed simultaneously
Rate of construction is controlled as dictated by field observation of PWP
 2. Total Stress Analysis
 Unlike effective stress analysis in which shear
strength is unique function of effective stress
 And c’ & Φ’ are also independent of drainage
conditions
 However in total stress analysis designer is in
somewhat darkness

 Fine grained soil, strip footing transferring load P in undrained condition. We need to find
undrained strength Su that can be mobilized, to calculate safety factor
 Get samples from different depth to have soil consolidated at different effective stresses
 Shear them under UU conditions
 Undrained strength, Su thus could be directly read off at various location on ACD
 2. Total Stress Analysis
Procedure described above is straightforward and constitute total stress analysis
All that necessary is to ascertain the drainage conditions in the field and duplicate
them in lab. Necessary but not sufficient condition
Manner in which stresses are applied in the field must also be duplicated, which is
not easily achieved & therefore total stress analysis is less reliable
Since shear strength is related to effective stress, therefore we need similar
effective stress both in field and in lab, for which PWP along with total stress need
to be similar
This assumption is rarely valid