Soil Mechanics

Numericals on Effective Stress

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Concept of Effective Stress

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 Concept of Effective Stress

P
Dividing above equation with the area (A) of plane XX

X X

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 Concept of Effective Stress

X X

Pore water pressure/

Effective stress Total stress
Neutral stress

Contact area of particles

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 Concept of Effective Stress

h1
A

h2
B

h3
C

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 Concept of Effective Stress
⮚ Pore Water Pressure (u):
▪ Pressure that exists in the water present in the pores of the soil
▪ The soil pores are normally interconnected, and they may be visualised as being a highly intricate and complex
collection of irregular tubes.
▪ We know that regardless of the shape or size of the tube, at equilibrium, water level in the interconnected tunes
rises to the same elevation.
▪ Pore Pressure (u) is the product of the unit weight of water and the difference in the elevations between the
points under consideration to which the water rises in the standpipe/piezometers.

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 Concept of Effective Stress

h1
A

h2
B

h3
C

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 Concept of Capillarity
⮚ Have you noticed? - Water rises through the narrow pores of a towel or paper in the portion which is not
even dipped in the water
⮚ This rise of the water through the narrow pores without any external assistance (force) even against the
gravity is known as capillarity.

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 Concept of Capillarity in Soils
⮚ Similar phenomenon is observed in the soils where water below the GWT may rise up to a certain height.
⮚ Ideally, the soil above the water table should be completely dry which is not the case
⮚ However, due to capillarity, the water rises above the GWT up to a certain height making the soil
completely saturated and partially saturated up to a certain height above this saturated zone.
⮚ To physically understand this, the interconnected pores along the soils could be compared with the glass
tube of the capillary experiment as shown below.

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 Concept of Capillarity
⮚ Reason for the capillary rise is the cohesion forces between water molecules and adhesion between water – glass (or soil
grains) .
⮚ A molecular attraction between the water molecules and glass (or soil grains) molecules results in the rise of water
molecules along the walls resulting in the formation of meniscus.
⮚ As the water molecules are attracted towards each other through cohesive molecular bonds (remember surface tension),
the water rises along the glass (or, soil grain) walls.

Molecules of glass tube

Molecular
Molecules of water interaction
Rise in water level

Surface Tension:
Molecular attraction
Capillary rise

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 Concept of Capillarity in Soils
⮚ The height at which water will rise in the tube can be found from statics.

⮚ or,

⮚ Solving for zc

⮚ Smaller the soil pores, higher the capillary zone. The capillary zone in fine sands will be larger than for medium or
coarse sands.

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 Concept of Capillarity in Soils
⮚ The capillary tube analogy to explain the capillary phenomenon in soils is true only to a degree
⮚ This is because the voids created by random assemblages of soil grains are themselves random and irregular and
communicate with each other in all directions
⮚ Hence, it is difficult to estimate accurate capillary rise in soil analytically. Some approximate relations exist:

⮚ It should be noted that D10 of two soils could be same but could have significant differences in pore sizes and fabric.
Hence, they could have different capillary rise as the rise is dependent upon pore size not grain size.

Ground Surface

Partially Saturated by percolating water

Partially Saturated with Capillary water

Water rises only in narrowest voids while larger
Cap. Sat. level voids remained filled with air
hc Free
water
hcs Saturated with Capillary water surface
Water Table

Saturated with phreatic water

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 Concept of Capillarity in Soils

Could be significant for fine grained

soils due to smaller size of voids

Water attracted by soil grains (adhesion) leading An equal and opposite force applied on the soil grains by
to capillary rise water resulting in attraction between them 13
1. Submerged soil mass:
Figure shows a saturated soil mass of depth Z, submerged
under water of height Z, above its top level. If a piezometric
tube is inserted at level AA, water will rise in it up to level
CC.
Now, Total pressure at AA is given by
σ = Z γsat+ Z1 γw
Also, Pore pressure = hw γw
Hence, effective stress is equal to
σ' = σ – u = Z γsat+ Z1 γw - hw γw
= Z γsat+ Z1 γw – (Z+Z1) γw
= Z (γsat- γw ) = Z γ’

Hence, the effective pressure is equal to the thickness of the

soil multiplied by the submerged weight of soil.
At BB, the total pressure is equal to the water pressure Z1 γw
and hence the effective pressure is zero.
Thus, the effective pressure varies linearly, as shown in the
figure.

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2. Soil mass with surcharge:
Let on now consider a moist soil mass of height Z 1 above a
saturated mass of height Z.
Soil mass supports a surcharge pressure of intensity q per
unit area.
At the level AA, the pressure are:
σ = q + Z1 γ + Z γsat
u = h w γw = Z γ w
σ' = σ – u = q + Z1 γ + Z γsat - Z γw
= q + Z1 γ + Z γ’
Similarly,
At plane BB
σ = q + Z1 γ
u = h w γw = 0
σ' = σ – u = q + Z1 γ – 0 = q + Z1 γ
At plane CC, effective pressure = total pressure = q.

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2. Soil mass with capillary fringe:
Figure shows a saturated soil mass of height Z.
Above this there is a soil mass of height Z 1 saturated by
capillary water.
If we insert a piezometric tube at AA, water will rise to a
height corresponding to the free water level BB.
Capillary induces a capillary pressure or compressive
pressure on the soil grains.
This pressure is also intergranular and is effective in
reducing the voids ratio of the soil mass.
This compressive pressure is equal to
hc γw = Z1 γw
Hence, at the level AA,
σ = Z γsat+ Z1 γsat
u = Z γw
σ' = σ – u = Z γsat+ Z1 γsat – Z γw = Z γ’ + Z1 γsat
Similarly, at the level BB,
σ' = σ – u = Z1 γsat

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Example 1.
A 10 m thick bed of sand is underlain by a layer of clay of 6 m thickness. The water table which was
originally at the ground surface is lowered by drainage to a depth of 4 m, whereupon the degree of saturation
above the lowered water table reduces to 20%.
Determine the increase in the magnitude of the vertical effective pressure at the middle of the clay layer due
to lowering of water table.
The saturated unit weights of sand and clay are respectively 20.6 kN/m 3 and 17.6 kN/m3, and the dry unit
weight of sand is 16.7 kN/m3.
Solution.
Before lowering the water table, the pressures at the middle of the clay layer are
σ = (10 x 20.6) + (3 x 17.6) = 258.8 kN/m 2
u = 13 x 9.81 = 127.53 kN/m2
σ’ = σ - u = 258.8 - 127.53 = 131.27 kN/m2

After lowering the water table, the unit weight of sand is given by
γ = γd +S(γsat - γd) = 16.7 + 0.2 (20.6 - 16.7) = 17.48 kN/m 3
σ = (4 x 17.48) + (6 x 20.6) + (3 x 17.6) = 246.32 kN/m 2
u = 9 x 9.81 = 88.29 kN/m2
Therefore, σ’ = σ - u = 246.32 – 88.29 = 158.03 kN/m2

Therefore, increase in effective stress = 158.03 – 131.27 = 26.76 kN/m 2

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Example 2.
The water table in a deposit of sand 8 m thick is at a depth of 3 in below the surface. Above the water table,
the sand is saturated with capillary water. The bulk density of sand is 19.62 kN/m 3.
Calculate the effective pressure at 1 m, 3 m and 8 m below the surface.

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Solution.
(a) Stresses at D, 8 m below ground
If we insert a piezometric tube at D, water will rise through a height
hw = 5 m in it.
σ = (3+5)γsat = 156.96 kN/m2
u = 5 x 9.81 = 49.05 kN/m2
σ’ = σ - u = 156.96 – 49.05 = 107.91 kN/m2

(b) Stresses at C, 3 m below ground level

σ = 3 x γsat = 58.86 kN/m2
u = 0 kN/m2
σ’ = σ - u = 58.86 kN/m2

(c) Stresses at A, at ground level

σ = 0 kN/m2
u = - hc γw = - 3 x 9.81 = - 29.43 kN/m2
σ’ = σ - u = 29.43 kN/m2

(d) Stresses at B, 1 m below ground level

σ = 1 x γsat = 19.62 kN/m2
u = - hc γw = -2 x 9.81 = - 19.62 kN/m2
σ’ = σ - u = 39.24 kN/m2

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Example 3.
The water table in a certain area is at a depth of 4 m below the ground surface. To a depth of 12 m, the soil
consists of very fine sand having an average voids ratio of 0.7. Above the water table the sand has an average
degree of saturation of 50%. Calculate the effective pressure on a horizontal plane at a depth 10 metres below
the ground surface.
What will be the increase in the effective pressure if the soil gets saturated by capillarity up to a height of 1 m
above the water table? Assume G = 2.65.

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Solution
Height of sand layer above water table = Z 1 = 4m
Height of saturated layer = 12 – 4 = 8 m
Depth of point X, where pressure is to be computed = 10 m

Height of saturated layer above X = 10 – 4 = 6 m

Now,
γd = G γw/(1+e) = 2.65 x 9.81/(1+0.7) = 15.29 kN/m 3

(i) For sand above water table, (ii) For saturated sand below water table
w = eSr/G wsat = e/G = 0.7/2.65 = 0.264
= 0.7 x 0.5/2.65 = 0.132 γ2 = γd(1+wsat) = 15.29 x 1.264 = 19.33 kN/m3
Therefore, γ2’ = 19.33 – 9.81 = 9.52 kN/m3
γ1 = γd(1+w) = 15.29 x 1.132 = 17.31 kN/m3

Effective stress at X calculation:

σ = Z1 γ1 + Z2 γ2 = 4 x 17.31 + 6 x 19.33 = 185.22 kN/m 2
u = hw γw = 6 x 9.81 = 58.86 kN/m2
σ’ = σ – u = 185.22 – 58.86 = 126.36 kN/m2
Effective stress at X after capillary rise
σ = 3 x 17.31 + 1 x 19.33 + 6 x 19.33 = 187.24 kN/m 2
u = hw γw = 6 x 9.81 = 58.86 kN/m2
σ’ = σ – u = 187.24 – 58.86 = 128.38 kN/m2

Hence, increase in pressure = 128.38 = 126.36 = 2.02 kN/m2

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Thank you

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