EFFECTIVE STRESS

Department of Civil Engineering

NIT, Kurukshetra
1
 Soil Water
• Water present in the void spaces of a
soil mass is called ‘soil water’.

• Soil water can be classified broadly:

 Free water or gravitational water
 Held water

2
 Soil Water
• Free water or gravitational water is
free to move through the pore space
of the soil mass under the influence
of gravity.

• Held water is the water held in the

proximity of the surface of the soil
grains by certain forces of attraction.
3
 Soil Water
• Held water can be subdivided into
 Structural water
 Adsorbed or hygroscopic water
 Capillary water

• Water that is chemically combined as

a part of the crystal structure of the
mineral of the soil grains is called
structural water.
4
 Soil Water

• Structural water can not be removed

without breaking the structure of
the mineral.

• It is the
integral part of
the soil solid.

Structural water 7
 Soil Water
• Water which is held tightly by the
electrochemical forces on the
surface of
colloidal soils
particles called
adsorbed or
water
hygroscopic
water.
6
 Soil Water
• Water held in the interstices of soils
due to capillary forces is called
capillary water.
• This water lifted up above the free
groundwater surface and remains in
suspended condition.
• Capillary water exists in soil so long
as there is air water interface.
7
 Soil Water
• Groundwater is the subsurface water
that fills the voids continuously and
is subjected to no force other than
gravity.
• So, groundwater is free water.

• Groundwater fills up the voids in the

soil up to the groundwater table.
8
 Soil Water
• Pore water is free from all strong
soil attractive forces.
• Capillary water and gravitational
water can be considered as
porewater.

• up to the groundwater table.

9
Soil Water

10
 Capillary rise in soil
• Water rises in small diameter,
capillary tubes, because of cohesion
and adhesion.

11
 Capillary rise in soil
• If adhesion between water and walls
of the tube is
more than the
cohesion
between water
molecules, then
liquid will wet
the tube and
rise at the point
of contact. 14
 Capillary rise in soil
• The interstices or pores of soil mass
may be looked
upon as a series of
capillary tubes.
• The rise of water
in the fine
pores
of soil is due to
the
surface tension. 13
 Capillary rise in soil
• Surface tension is a phenomenon
that occurs at the interface between
different materials.
• For soils, surface
tension occurs
between
surfaces of
water, mineral
grains, and air. 14
 Capillary rise in soil
• If a glass tube of small
diameter, open at
both ends, is lowered
into water, the water
level rises in the tube
as the water wets the
tube.
• Let 𝜽be the angle of
contact between water
and wall of the tube. 15
 Capillary rise in soil
• Let 𝑭𝒖be the upward
pull of due to surface
tension = (𝑻𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)𝝅𝒅

• 𝑭𝒅be the downward force

due to mass of water in
𝝅𝒅𝟐
the tube = 𝒉 𝒄 𝛄𝒘
𝟒
where 𝒉𝒄 is the height of
the capillary rise. 16
 Capillary rise in soil
• For equilibrium,
𝑭𝒖 = 𝑭𝒅
𝝅𝒅𝟐
(𝑻 𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝝅
)𝒅 = 𝒉 𝒄 𝛄𝒘
𝟒

𝒉𝒄 = 𝟒𝑻𝜽𝒐𝒄𝒔𝒔
𝛄𝒘𝒅
For a clean glass tube and
pure water, the meniscus is
approximately hemispherical
i.e. 𝜽= 𝟎, so 𝒉 𝒄 = 𝟒𝑻𝒔 19
𝛄𝒘𝒅
 Capillary rise in soil
• Taking 𝑻𝒔 = 𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟑 𝑵 / 𝒎
and 𝛄𝒘 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎𝑵𝒎
/ 𝟑
𝟒×.
𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟑 𝟑×𝟏𝟎 −𝟓
= = 𝒎 (d in m)
𝒉𝒄 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎×𝒅 𝒅
−𝟑
𝟑𝟏
×𝟎
𝒉𝒄 = 𝒎 (d in
𝒅
cm)
• If 𝒅 and 𝒉𝒄 both are in
cm, 𝒉𝒄 = 𝟎𝟑.
𝒅𝒄𝒎
18
 Capillary Tension
• The water in a capillary tube is under
a negative pressure, commonly
called tension.
• Pressure at point D at
the free water surface is
atmospheric (zero
gauge pressure).
• Pressure at point C is
same as pt D. 19
 Capillary Tension
• Pressure at point B, at a height of 𝒉𝒄
above the free water surface can be
determined as per hydrostatic law,
𝑷𝑩 = −𝒉𝒄𝛄𝒘
• 𝑷𝑩is negative as it is
less than atmospheric.
• So the point b is in
under tension. 20
 Capillary Tension
• The capillary rise at any point E, is h
and so the pressure at E will be,
𝑷𝑬 = −𝒉𝛄𝒘
• So the capillary tension
varies linearly with the
height of point above
the water surface.
• Pressure at point F below the water
surface is positive i.e. hydrostatic.
 Phreatic surface
• The level to which water rises in an
observation well is called ground
water table or water table (WT).
• Ground water table is also called
phreatic surface.
• Ground water is not static; moving
freely under gravitational force.

22
 Channel
Diameter
• Water table is not horizontal; takes
the shape according to topography.
• Channel, act as capillary tube in soil,
formed due to interconnected voids
is not exactly circular in cross-
section.
• Diameter of channel d can be found:
𝒅= 𝟎.𝟐𝑫𝟎𝟏
23
Soil Water

24
 Capillary Zone
• The space above the water table can
be divided into two region:
 Zone of aeration: soil is not saturated
 Zone of capillary saturation: soil is
saturated

25
 Capillary Fringe
• The height to which capillary water
rises in soils as known as
capillary fringe.

• It includes the zone of capillary

saturation and a part of the zone of
aeration where capillary water exists
in interconnected channels.
26
 Capillary Fringe
• Maximum height of capillary fringe
by Terzaghi and Peck (1948):
𝑪
• (𝒉)𝒄 𝒎=
𝒂𝒙
𝒆𝑫𝟎𝟏

where 𝑪= a constant depending upon

the shape of grain and the impurities
If 𝒆 and 𝑫𝟎𝟏both are in mm then
𝑪= 𝟏𝒐𝟎𝒕𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝟐
27
 Contact Water
• The water above capillary fringe
(zone of aeration) may contain water
in the form of contact water.
• Surface tension holds the
water around soil particles
in the form of meniscus.
• Pressure exerted by contact water on
soil particles is the contact
pressure. 28
 Contact Pressure
• The contact pressure decreases as
the water content increases because
of the increases in meniscus.
• At full saturation, contact
pressure becomes zero.

29
 Bulking of sand
• The phenomenon of increased
volume of loosely deposited damp
sand is known as bulking of
sand.
• In dampen state, cohesion develops
between the soil particles due to
capillary water.
• It prevents them to come closer and
take a stable position. 30
 Bulking of sand
• Bulking of sand is more prominent
at a water content of 4 to 5 % and
the volume can be increased up to
20 to 30 %.
• It the damp sand is saturated by
adding more water then the effect of
capillary action eliminated and
volume of sand mass decreased.
31
 Capillary Siphoning
• In an earthen dam of impervious
core, water rises in the outer shell of
the dam due to capillary action.

32
 Capillary Siphoning
• If the crest (top level) of the
impervious core is in the reach of
capillary rise then water flows from
the storage reservoir to the
downstream over the core.

33
 Capillary Siphoning
• Significant quantity of stored water
will be lost due to capillary
siphoning.

34
 Capillary Siphoning
• To avoid this the height of
impervious core should be kept
sufficiently heigh.

35
 Capillary Siphoning
• So the difference of top level of the
core and water level will be more
than the height of capillary rise in
soil of the dam.

36
 Stress conditions in soil
• At any plane in soil mass, the total
vertical stress or total stress unit
pressure 𝝈is the total vertical load
per unit area.

• This pressure may be due to:

 Self-weight of soil
 Overburden on the soil
4
 Total stress
• The total stress 𝝈at any point A in
the soil mass =
weight of soil and 𝛄 𝑯 𝒅

water above point A

per unit area
𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕

𝝈= 𝑯𝛄𝒅+ 𝑯𝒘𝜸𝒕𝒂𝒔

5
 Total stress
• Total stress can be computed if
 Unit weight of soil and water known
 Thickness of soil layers are known
 Location GWT is known

• Total stress is a parameter which

can be computed or measured
using suitable instruments such as
pressure cell.
6
 Total stress
• Total stress consists of two distinct
components:
 Pore water pressure or pore
pressure or neutral stress
 Intergranular pressure or
effective
stress

7
Pore pressure or Neutral
stress
• Pore water pressure is simply equal
to the depth below the GWT to the
point considered
multiplied by the 𝛄 𝑯 𝒅

unit weight of water.

𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕
𝒖= 𝑯𝒘𝜸𝒘
A

8
Pore pressure or Neutral
stress
• It is called neutral stress because it
acts on all sides of the particles
but does not cause the soil
particles to press against adjacent
particles.
• It has no shear component.
• Pore water pressure can also be
measured using piezometer. 9
 Effective stress
• Intergranular pressure or effective
stress is the force due to the soil
skeleton.
• Intergranular pressure or effective
stress is the pressure transmitted
through grain to grain at the contact
points through a soil mass.

10
 Effective stress
• Intergranular pressure is termed as
effective stress since this pressure is
effective in decreasing void ratio or
increasing the frictional resistance of
soil.
• Total stresses and effective stresses
can have both normal and shear
components.
11
 Effective stress
• Unlike total stress and pore water
pressure, effective stress cannot be
measured; it can only be
calculated.
• As per Terzaghi’s effective stress
principle (1925), effective stress is
equal to the total stress minus pore
water pressure, i.e. 𝝈′ = 𝝈− 𝒖
12
 Effective stress
• 𝝈= 𝑯𝛄𝒅+ 𝑯𝒘𝜸𝒕𝒂𝒔
𝛄𝒅 𝑯
• 𝒖= 𝑯𝒘𝜸𝒘

• 𝝈′ = 𝝈− 𝒖 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕

• 𝝈′ = 𝑯𝛄𝒅+ 𝑯𝒘𝜸𝒖𝒃𝒔 A
 Effective stress
• Effective stress is the stress due to
soil skeleton divided by the area
A.
• The concept of effective stress is
very useful in geotechnical
engg.

• Note: effective stress 𝝈′ = 𝝈− 𝒖

and it controls soil behavior. 14
Effective stress under
Hydrostatic
conditions

15
Free water

16
Dry soil

17
Submerged soil mass

18
 Submerged soil mass
• At AA,
𝝈= 𝒕𝒁
+𝒂𝛄𝒔 𝒁𝟏𝜸𝒘
𝒖= (𝒁 + 𝒁𝟏)𝜸𝒘
𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖 = 𝒁𝒃𝛄𝒖𝒔
At BB,
𝝈 = 𝒁𝟏𝜸𝒘
𝒖= 𝒁𝟏𝜸𝒘
𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖 = 𝟎
At CC, 𝝈 = 𝐮 = 𝝈′ = 𝟎 19
 Submerged soil mass
• At AA,
𝝈= 𝒕𝒁
+𝒂𝛄𝒔 𝒁𝟏𝜸𝒘
𝒖= (𝒁 + 𝒁𝟏)𝜸𝒘
𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖 = 𝒁𝒃𝛄𝒖𝒔
At BB,
𝝈 = 𝒁𝟏𝜸𝒘
𝒖= 𝒁𝟏𝜸𝒘
𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖 = 𝟎
At CC, 𝝈 = 𝐮 = 𝝈′ = 𝟎 20
Soil mass with surcharge

21
 Soil mass with surcharge
• At AA,
𝝈 = 𝒕𝒁
+𝒂𝛄𝒔 𝒁𝟏𝜸 + 𝒒
𝒖= 𝒁𝜸𝒘
𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖 = 𝒁𝒃𝛄𝒖+𝒔 𝒁𝟏𝜸 + 𝒒
At BB,
𝝈= 𝒁𝟏𝜸+ 𝒒
𝒖= 𝟎
𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖 = 𝒁𝟏𝜸 + 𝒒
At CC, 𝝈 = 𝒒, 𝒖= 𝟎, 𝝈′ = 𝐪 22
 Soil mass with surcharge
• At AA,
𝝈 = 𝒕+𝒁𝒂𝛄𝒔 𝒁𝟏𝜸 + 𝒒
𝒖= 𝒁𝜸𝒘
𝝈′ = + 𝒁𝒃𝛄𝒖𝒔 𝒁𝟏𝜸 + 𝒒
At BB,
𝝈= 𝒁𝟏𝜸+ 𝒒
𝒖= 𝟎
𝝈′ = 𝒁𝟏𝜸+ 𝒒
At CC, 𝝈= 𝒒, 𝒖= 𝟎, 𝝈′ = 𝐪
23
Recall: Pressure distribution due
to capillary rise
−𝒉𝒄𝛄𝒘

𝒉𝛄𝒘
24
Saturated soil with capillary
fringe

25
Saturated soil with capillary
fringe
• At AA,
𝝈= 𝒕+𝒁𝒂𝛄𝒔 𝒁𝒕𝟏𝜸
𝒂𝒔

𝒖= 𝒁𝜸𝒘
𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖 = 𝒁𝒃𝛄𝒖+𝒔 𝒁𝒕𝟏𝜸
𝒂𝒔

At BB,
𝝈= 𝒁𝒕𝟏𝜸
𝒂𝒔
𝒖= 𝟎
𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖 = 𝒁𝒕𝟏𝜸
𝒂𝒔

At CC,
26
𝝈= 𝟎, 𝒖= −𝒁𝟏𝜸𝒘, 𝝈′ = 𝒁𝟏𝜸𝒘
Saturated soil with capillary
fringe
• At AA,
𝝈= 𝒕+𝒁𝒂𝛄𝒔 𝒁𝒕𝟏𝜸
𝒂𝒔

𝒖= 𝒁𝜸𝒘
𝝈′ = 𝒁 +
𝒃𝛄
𝒖𝒔 𝒁 𝒕𝟏𝜸
𝒂𝒔

At BB,
𝝈= 𝒁𝒕𝟏𝜸
𝒂𝒔
𝒖= 𝟎
𝝈′ = 𝒁𝒕𝟏𝜸
𝒂𝒔

At CC,
27
𝝈= 𝟎, 𝒖= −𝒁𝟏𝜸𝒘, 𝝈′ = 𝒁𝟏𝜸𝒘
Example 1

6
Example 1

7
Example 1

8
 Example 2
• Determine the neutral and effective stress
at a depth of 16 m below the ground level
for the following conditions: Water table is
3 m below ground level ; G = 2.68; e = 0.72;

9
Example 2

10
Example 2

11
 Example 3
• A saturated sand layer over a clay stratum
is 5 m in depth. The water is 1.5 m below
ground level. If the bulk density of
saturated sand is 17.66 kN/m3,
calculate the
effective and neutral
pressure on the top
of the clay layer.

12
Example 3

13
Example 3

14
Example 3

15
 Example 4
• A uniform soil deposit has a void ratio 0.6
and specific gravity of 2.65. The natural
ground water is at 2.5 m below natural
ground level. Due to capillary moisture,
the average degree of saturation above
ground water table is 50%.
Determine the neutral
pressure, total
pressure and effective
pressure at a depth of
6 m.
Draw a neat sketch. 16
Example 4

17
Example 4

18
Fluid flow through soil

19
 Fluid flow through soil
• Soil are assemblages of solid
particles with interconnected voids
through which water can flow from a
point of high energy to low energy.

20
 Fluid flow through soil
• So whenever there is a water flow in
soil there is a dissipation of energy.

21
 Fluid flow through soil
• According to Bernoulli’s equation,
total head (unit of length/ height,
energy per unit weight) at a point in
water under can be given as the sum
of pressure, velocity and elevation
head.

22
 Fluid flow through soil
• In case of flow through soil, velocity
of flow of water is extremely small;
so velocity head can be ignored and
total head can be written as

23
 Fluid flow through soil
• When water flows through soil, it
exerts a frictional drag on soil
particles, known as seepage force,
due to which the hydraulic head
decreases steadily.
𝒉𝟏 = 𝒉+
𝟐 𝒉𝑳
𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐
𝝆𝒈
+ 𝒛𝟏 = 𝝆𝒈
+ 𝒛 𝟐 + 𝒉𝑳
𝒉𝑳 is the loss of energy between point 1 and 2
also known as loss of head or head loss. 24
 Fluid flow through soil
• Water below a GWT surface is
usually flowing under a hydraulic
gradient, defined as the slope of the
free water surface in the direction
of
flow. 𝒊= ∆𝒉
𝑳

25
Fluid flow through soil

26
Fluid flow through soil

27
Fluid flow through soil

28
Fluid flow through soil

29
 Fluid flow through soil
• Water does not flow from a point A to
B in a straight line at a
constant velocity but
rather in a winding path
from pore to pore.

30
 Fluid flow through soil
• As water flows from a point A to B it
exerts pressure on the soil particles.
• The pressure exerted
on the soil due to
seepage of water is
known as the seepage
pressure.

31
 Fluid flow through soil
• Seepage pressure 𝒑𝒔 = 𝒉𝜸𝒘
𝒉
𝒑𝒔

= (𝑳)𝑳 𝜸𝒘
𝒑𝒔

=𝑳𝒊𝜸𝒘 32
 Class Outlines
▪ Effective stress under steady state
hydrodynamic conditions
▪ Quick condition
▪ Critical hydraulic gradient
▪ Two-dimensional flow
▪ Laplace's equation

3
 Effective stress under steady
state hydrodynamic conditions

4
Fluid flow through soil

5
Fluid flow through soil

6
Fluid flow through soil

7
Quick condition:
Critical hydraulic
gradient

8
 Fluid flow through soil
• The hydraulic gradient at which
effective stress becomes zero is
known as critical hydraulic gradient.
• In case of upward flow when 𝝈′ = 𝟎
𝒊= 𝒄𝒊
so, 𝝈′ = 𝑯𝜸𝒃𝒖−
𝒔 𝒊𝒄𝜸𝒘𝑯 = 𝟎

or 𝒊 𝒄 = 𝜸𝒖𝒔𝒃 or 𝒊 𝒄 = 𝑮−𝟏 since 𝜸𝒖𝒔𝒃 𝑮−𝟏

𝜸 𝒘
𝜸𝒘 𝟏+ 𝒆 𝟏+𝒆
 Fluid flow through soil
• So, effective stress of soil reduces
to zero when the hydraulic gradient 𝒊
attains a maximum value known as
the critical hydraulic gradient 𝒄𝒊 .

• Under these circumstances, a soil

such as fine sand and silts loses all
its shear strength and bearing
capacity.
 Fluid flow through soil
• Moreover, as 𝒊→ 𝒊,𝒄 soil becomes
much looser and permeability
increases.
• It cannot support
any weight and a
visible agitation of
soil grains can be
observed.
 Fluid flow through soil
• This phenomenon is known as
boiling or a quick sand condition.

• Quicksand is not a
type of sand but a
hydraulic condition.
• Quicksand more
common in sand than clay because
sand does not have cohesion.
Numerical

13
 Numerical
• Determine the value of the critical
hydraulic gradient if G = 2.65 and n = 35%.

• The void ratio of a sand sample at the

loosest and densest possible states are
found to be 0.55 and 0.98 respectively.
If G = 2.67 determine the corresponding
values of the critical hydraulic
gradient.
Seepage
Analysis

15
 Seepage
Analysis
• Seepage is the flow of water
through a permeable medium under
gravitational force.
• Seepage analysis: Study of
seepage
 Amount of seepage or discharge
 Seepage pressure
 Uplift pressure
 Possibility of piping
Purposes of Seepage
Analysis
• Stability analysis of earth retaining
structure subjected to seepage force

Sheet Pile Wall

Purposes of Seepage
Analysis
• Downward seepage
forces on the left side
increase the
effective stress and
the lateral thrust on
the wall.
• Upward seepage forces on the right
side decrease the effective stress
and the resistance by embedment.
Purposes of Seepage
Analysis
• Seepage pressure play a key role in
reducing the stability of an earth
retaining structure.

Sheet Pile Wall

Purposes of Seepage
Analysis
• Hydraulic structures may either be
founded on pervious foundation or
an impervious solid rock foundation.
• If hydraulic structure is founded on
pervious foundation, it is
subjected to seepage of water
beneath the structure, in addition
to all other forces.
Purposes of Seepage
Analysis
• The water seeping below the
hydraulic structure, endanger the
stability of the structure and
may cause its failure, by
1. Piping (also called undermining)
2. Direct uplift
 Purposes of Seepage
•
Analysis
Piping is a phenomenon by which soil
particles in the downstream side of
the hydraulic structures are lifted up.
Purposes of Seepage
Analysis
• This leads to increased erosion of
the soil by progressive removal
of soil from beneath the
foundation.
 Purposes of Seepage
•
Analysis
The structure may ultimately
subside into the hollow so formed,
resulting in the failure of the
structure.
Purposes of Seepage
Analysis
• The water seeping below the
structure, exerts an uplift pressure
on the floor of structure.
 Purposes of Seepage
•
Analysis
If this pressure is not
counterbalanced by the weight of the
concrete of masonry floor, the
structure will fail by rupture of a part
of the floor.
Purposes of Seepage
Analysis
• Aims of studying seepage in civil
engg are:
 Estimation of seepage through and beneath
the structure
 Determination of Seepage pressure and
uplift pressures below dams
 Checking the possibility of piping beneath
dams
Two-dimensional flow:
Laplace's equation

28
 Two-dimensional flow
• Darcy’s law is known to be used to
calculate seepage.
• But, in many circumstances, flow of
water is not only in one direction or
uniform over the area
perpendicular to the flow.
• Darcy’s law can not be directly used
to calculate the amount of seepage.
 Two-dimensional flow
• In that situation seepage or ground
water flow can be measured by
using a graphical method called
Flow net construction.
• The concept of flow net is based on
Laplace’s Continuity Equation which
governs the steady flow condition
for a given point in the soil mass.
Laplace Equation of
Continuity
• Let us consider a single row of sheet
pile or concrete
dam (impervious)
which has been
driven into a
permeable soil permeable soil
layer. layer
Laplace Equation of
Continuity
• The steady state flow of water from
upstream side to
downstream side
through the
permeable layer
is a 2D flow. permeable soil
layer
 Laplace Continuity
Equation
• Following assumptions are made:
1. Soil is homogeneous and isotropic.
2. Soil is fully saturated.
3. The flow is two dimensional and steady.
4. Darcy’s law is valid.
5. Soil and water is incompressible.
6. The hydraulic boundary conditions are known
at entry and exit of the fluid (water) into the
porous medium (soil).
Laplace Equation of
Continuity
• For flow at a point A, let us consider
an elementary
soil element with
dimensions dx a
&
dz in the plane, permeable soil
and thickness to
perpendicular dy layer
this plane
under
the influence of
 Laplace Continuity
Equation
• 𝒗𝒙 and 𝒗𝒛 are the components
of discharge velocity
in the horizontal and
vertical direction at
the entry point.
 Laplace Continuity
Equation
• The rate of flow of water into the
elemental block,
In horizontal direction:
𝒗𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛

In vertical direction:
𝒗𝒅𝒛𝒙𝒅𝒚
 Laplace Continuity
Equation
• The velocity components at the exit
point are,
𝒗𝝏 𝒗𝝏
𝒗 𝒙 𝒅+
𝒙and
𝒙
𝝏𝒙
𝒗 𝒛 + 𝒛𝒅𝒛𝝏𝒛
• The rate of
outflow from the
block,
In horizontal
𝒗𝒙𝝏
(𝒗 𝒙 + 𝒅𝝏𝒙𝒅
𝒙
)𝒚𝒅𝒛
direction:
In vertical direction:
𝒗𝒛𝝏
(𝒗 𝒛 + 𝒅𝝏𝒛𝒅
𝒛
)𝒙𝒅𝒚
 Laplace Continuity
Equation
• Assuming the soil and water is
incompressible i.e.
no volume change
occurs during the
flow, we know that
the total rate of
inflow should be
equal to the total
rate of outflow.
 Laplace Continuity
Equation
So,
𝒗𝒙𝝏 𝝏𝒗 𝒛
𝒗𝒙 𝒅
+
𝒚𝒅𝒛+𝝏𝒙(𝒗 𝒛 + 𝝏𝒛
𝒅𝒛𝒅
)𝒙𝒅𝒚 = 𝒗𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛+ 𝒗𝒅𝒛𝒙𝒅𝒚

or 𝒗𝝏𝒅𝒙𝝏𝒅𝒚𝒙𝒛+ 𝒗𝝏𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒛= 𝟎
𝒙 𝒛
𝝏𝒛

or 𝝏𝒗𝒙 𝝏𝒗𝒛
𝝏𝒙+ = 𝝏𝒛𝟎

(since 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛≠ 𝟎)
 Laplace Continuity
Equation
Using Darcy’s Law,
𝝏𝒉 𝝏𝒉
𝒗 𝒙 = 𝒌 𝒙 𝒊=𝒙 𝒌 and 𝒗 𝒛 = 𝒌 𝒛 𝒊=𝒛 𝒌
𝒙𝝏𝒙 𝒛𝝏
𝒛
or 𝒌 𝒙 𝝏𝒉+ 𝟐
𝒌 𝒛𝝏
𝝏𝟐𝒉
= 𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝒛𝟐
(since soil is isotropic
i.e. 𝒌𝒙 = 𝒌𝒛)
Or 𝝏𝟐𝒉
+
𝝏𝟐𝒉
= 𝟎
h is the
𝝏𝒙𝟐 hydraulic
𝝏𝒛𝟐 head
due to which water flows through the soil.
 Two-dimensional flow
• Seepage Analysis through the
construction of Flow net can be
done using
 Analytical method (Solution of Laplace
Equation)
 Analogical method (Experimental
method)
 Graphical method
 Numerical method
• All the above methods are based on
Laplace’s continuity equation
 Class Outlines
▪ Flow net
▪ Properties and utilities of flow net
▪ Graphical method of construction of
flow nets
▪ Determination of seepage/discharge

3
 Flow net
• Seepage Analysis through the
construction of Flow net can be
done using
 Analytical method (Solution of Laplace
Equation)
 Analogical method (Experimental
method)
 Graphical method
 Numerical method
• All the above methods are based on
Laplace’s continuity equation
Graphical solution of Laplace’s
equation: Flow net

5
 Flow net
• The general solution of Laplace’s
equation yields two set of
curves orthogonal to each other.

• The general solution becomes

specific to a given flow problem
when the boundary conditions are
defined for that situation.
 Flow net
• In a fluid flow problem, the solution
of Laplace’s equation for known set
of boundary conditions describes
how energy or head is dissipated in
the pervious medium.
• In most practical seepage problems,
it is more convenient to use
graphical solution to obtain
acceptable but inexact solutions.
 Flow net
• One sets of curves is known as the
flow lines and the other set
equipotential lines.

• Flow lines indicate the direction of

flow and the equipotential lines are
the lines joining points of equal
potential or head.
 Flow net
• The grid or mesh or net formed by
the intersection of flow lines and
equipotential lines are called flownet

Flow net below sheet pile Flow net below dam

 Flow net
• Flow channel is the strip or channel
located between two adjacent flow
lines.

• Flow element or flow field is the

portion of flow channel between two
adjacent equipotential lines.
Flow net
 Flow net

Flow net below sheet pile

 Properties of Flow net
• Flow lines and equipotential lines
are smooth curves.

• Flow lines and equipotential lines

meet at right angles to each other.

• No two flow lines or equipotential

lines start from the same point
or cross each other.
 Properties of Flow net
• The flow elements or fields formed
are approximate square (curvilinear
square).

• The quantity of water flowing

through each flow channel is same.

• Same potential drops occur between

two successive equipotential lines.
 Construction of Flow
net
1. Draw the flow cross section to
some convenient scale.

2. Mark all boundary conditions.

3. Draw a coarse net consistent with

the boundary conditions and has
orthogonal equipotential and flow
lines.
 Construction of Flow
net
• The boundary conditions are
generally four in number though
there are only three in some cases.

• Most common boundary

conditions:
• A submerged permeable soil boundary is
an equipotential line.
• The boundary between permeable and
impermeable soil materials is a flow
 Construction of Flow
net
4. Start by drawing the flow lines first
as it is usually easier to visualise
the pattern of flow.
5. Modify the mesh such that it
meets the conditions outlined
above and the fields between
adjacent flow lines and
equipotential lines are
‘curvilinear square'.
6. Refine flownet by repeating step3
 Flow net

Flow net below sheet pile

 Applications of Flow net
• Determination of seepage/discharge

• Determination of seepage pressure

• Determination of uplift pressure

• Determination of the possibility of

piping
Determination of seepage
or discharge

20
 Calculation of seepage
• Seepage discharge calculation:
• Sketch the hydraulic structure on scale.
• Construct flow net.
• Measure head difference (H).
• Find No of flow channels (Nf) and No of
equipotential drops (Nd) from flow net.
• Calculate seepage discharge.
 Flow net

Flow net below sheet pile

Flow net
 Calculation of seepage
• Seepage/discharge through one
flow channel:
∆𝒉 𝒃
∆𝒒 = 𝑨𝒊𝒌= 𝒌 𝒃 × 𝟏 = 𝒌∆𝒉
𝒍
𝒍
𝑯
Considering unit thickness of 𝑯flow
Now ∆𝒉= and 𝒃= 𝒍, so ∆𝒒= 𝒌
channel 𝑵𝒅 𝑵𝒅
Therefore, total Seepage/discharge
𝑯 𝑵𝒇
𝒒= ∆𝒒 × 𝑵 𝒇 = 𝒌 × 𝑵𝒇 = 𝒌𝑯
𝑵𝒅 𝑵𝒅
 Class Outlines
▪ Flow net: recall
▪ Determination of seepage pressure
▪ Determination of uplift pressure
▪ Possibility of piping
▪ Protective filter

3
 Applications of Flow net
• Determination of seepage/discharge

• Determination of seepage pressure

• Determination of uplift pressure

• Determination of the possibility of

piping
Determination of seepage
pressure

5
 Seepage
pressure
• Seepage pressure at any point (Ps):
It is the hydraulic potential or balance
hydraulic head multiplied by the unit
weight of water. 𝑷𝒔 = 𝒉𝜸𝒘
𝒉= total or hydraulic head at any point
located after 𝒏equipotential drops each of
value, 𝑯
So 𝒉 = (𝑯 − 𝒏∆𝒉) = (𝑯 − 𝒏) as ∆𝒉 = 𝑯ൗ𝑵𝒅
𝑵𝒅
Therefore, 𝑷 𝒔 = (𝑯 − 𝑯
𝒏𝜸
) 𝒘
𝑵𝒅
Seepage
pressure
Determination of uplift
pressure

8
 Uplift pressure
• Uplift pressure at any point (U):
𝑼= 𝒉𝒑𝜸𝒘
where 𝒉𝒑is the pressure head at any point
Pressure head at any point
= Total head – elevation head
So 𝒉𝒑= 𝒉− (−𝒉𝒆)
where 𝒉𝒆 = Elevation head
Downstream water level is generally considered
as datum and upward direction is positive
Uplift pressure
Uplift pressure
Uplift pressure
Uplift pressure
Uplift pressure
Determination of the possibility
of piping

15
 Possibility of piping
• Piping failures can be expected to
occur on the downstream side of a
hydraulic structure when the
uplift forces of seepage exceed
the downward forces due to the
submerged weight of the soil.
 Possibility of piping
• Factor of safety against piping:
𝑭𝑺 𝒏𝒑𝒊𝒈 = 𝒓𝒄𝒊 𝒊 𝒆 =exit gradient
𝒆𝒊
𝟒<𝒈𝒏<𝒊𝑭
𝒑𝑺
𝒊𝟓
𝒑

• At the toe of a dam when the

𝒈𝒏 𝒊 𝒑𝑭𝑺𝒊 𝒑 approaches unity,
boiling condition can occur
leading to erosion in soil and
consequent piping.
 Possibility of piping
• The exit gradient (𝒊𝒆) is the hydraulic
gradient at the downstream end of
the flow line where the percolating
water leaves the soil mass and
enters into the free water at the
downstream.
𝒊𝒆 = ∆𝒉
𝒍
Exit gradient
 Possibility of piping
• Dams on soil foundation may fail
due to a sudden formation of pipe
shaped discharged channel.

• As the stored water rushes out, the

channel widens and catastrophic
failure known as piping failure
occurs.
Seepage Control in Earthen
Dam

21
Seepage through Earthen
Dam
 Seepage
Control
• Uses of filters
• Uses of horizontal drains/blankets
• Uses of chimney filter
• A combination of the above
 Protective filter
• A Filter is a granular materials with
openings small enough to prevent
the movement of soil particles upon
which it is placed (less pervious
foundation or base materials) but
pervious enough to offer little
resistance to seepage through it.
 Protective filter
• Filter: A properly graded filter
prevents the erosion of soil in
contact with it due to
seepage forces.
 Protective filter
• Requirements of a filter
 Protective filter
• Seepage control on dams with
Sand/Gravel, filters placed at the toe
of the dam

Earthen dam with filter

Horizontal filter/ drainage blanket
Horizontal Chimney filter