Concrete Withfine Recycled Aggregates A Review

European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, 2014
Vol. 18, No. 2, 129–172, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2013.851038
Concrete with fine recycled aggregates: a review

L. Evangelistaa and J. de Britob*
a
ISEL, Lisbon Polytechnic Institute, Lisbon, Portugal; bDECivil-IST, Technical University of
Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
(Received 18 June 2013; accepted 30 September 2013)
This paper presents a review of the literature published so far on the use of fine
aggregates from construction demolition waste used as a partial or total replacement
of fine natural aggregates in concrete production. The review presents the initial
works on this subject and an overview of the existing regulations. It goes on to
describe the production, treatment and properties of the fine recycled aggregates
(FRA). The most suitable mixing techniques for concrete with this type of
aggregates are then discussed. The properties of these concrete mixes are analysed
in detail, after which a few examples of structures with this type of concrete are
described and compared. The acquisition of fine natural aggregates and the dumping
of the fine fraction of construction and demolition waste are two serious
environmental problems that can be solved simultaneously by using FRA in
concrete production, a subject that is lagging behind the use of the corresponding
coarse fraction.
Keywords: recycling; construction and demolition waste; fine aggregates; concrete
production; performance
1. Introduction
This paper’s objective is to present the current scientific state-of-the-art on the
characterisation and use of fine recycled aggregates (FRA), with emphasis on fine
recycled concrete aggregates (FRCA), as well as the characteristics of fine recycled
aggregates concrete (FRAC).
In the first part, the initial works on recycled aggregates concrete (RAC) are
succinctly presented, although the specific analysis of the effects of FRA on concrete
performance was not covered in them because the main goal was to assess the general
viability of recycled aggregates (RA). Therefore, in many of these works it is not clear
which fraction of the RA was used. Another problem in this early literature is the lack
of information on the origin of the FRA used. FRA produced from crushed concrete or
directly from construction and demolition waste (CDW) have distinct characteristics that
affect the concrete made with them in very dissimilar ways (Hansen, 1986, 1992; Hoff-
mann, Schubert, Leemann, & Motavalli, 2012; Nixon, 1978; Solyman, 2005; Xiao, Li,
& Poon, 2012). At the end of the first part a general framework of the present legisla-
tion on the use of CDW as concrete aggregates is presented, whose strict limitations
mostly stem from these early works.
The rest of the paper is organised chronologically for each of the techniques or
properties analysed, in order to assess the general trends generated by these studies.
*Corresponding author. Email: jb@civil.ist.utl.pt
© 2013 Taylor & Francis

130 L. Evangelista and J. de Brito
Priority is given to all the works that refer directly the incorporation of FRAC. The
works presented do not always relate solely to FRAC, due to lack of appropriate data,
and this is explicitly mentioned.
The works that establish existing knowledge on the collection and processing of
CDW, as well as the most recent treatment of and techniques to improve the aggregates
produced, with emphasis on the fine fraction, are presented first.
This is followed by a literature survey on the characteristics of FRA, which are
divided into four groups: geometrical, physical, chemical and mineralogical.
After this the properties of FRAC are presented in mechanical- and durability-related
terms.
The paper ends with the presentation of the studies conducted so far on structural
elements made with FRAC.
2. Initial works and existing regulations

2.1. Initial works
The scientific research to recycle CDW took its first steps after the end of WWII,
particularly in the countries most affected by that conflict (Germany, Japan, UK and the
Soviet Union) (Kou, 2006; Leite, 2001; Solyman, 2005). In 1978, Nixon published the
first state-of-the-art paper on the subject and stated in his conclusions that the use of
FRA did not seem to have much influence on the compressive strength of the concrete
made with them, even though it significantly reduced its workability. Hansen (1986)
clearly noted that the fractions below 2 mm must be eliminated for concrete production
purposes when using RA and suggested some other ways of using them. They included
the production of alternative binders, the stabilisation of soils, and as filtering material
in water treatment plants. Gottfredsen and Thøgersen (1993) reported that the replace-
ment of natural aggregates (NA) by RA is relevant only for particles bigger than 4 mm,
since the strength and workability of concrete made with the other fractions are poor.
The RILEM working group TC 121-DRG report (1994) clearly states that the use of
FRA is limited by insufficient knowledge on the performance of concrete made with
them. Consequently, most of the standards and recommendations in force on the use of
RA in concrete limit or even bar the use of FRA.
2.2. Existing regulations on the use of FRA

The regular use of RA for ordinary purposes requires rules and procedures. A number
of countries have therefore been preparing new specifications or addenda to existing
ones that establish the limits of use and acceptance criteria of RA for concrete
production. Generally the use of FRA in concrete production is highly restricted or even
banned, quite often on the basis of the initial research mentioned above. Where the use
of even small amounts of FRA was allowed in concrete production, there has been a
reverse trend, as in the German specification DAfStb (1998, 2004). The permission
granted in 1998 to use FRCA in concrete structural elements in the interior of buildings
was revoked in 2004. Gonçalves and de Brito (2010) presented the great majority of
current standards on the use of RA in concrete. Roos (2002) and Kou (2006) also
presented data on existing standards that supplement those in Gonçalves and de Brito
(2010). Existing normative restrictions are listed in Table 1.
Of the best known national standards or specifications only the Swiss (OT 70085,
2006), Japanese (JIS A 5021, 2005), Russian (Roos, 2002) and American (Solyman,
European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 131
Table 1. General summary of the use of FRA in concrete in national specifications.

Maximum % of fc, maxFRAC
Country FRA type FRA (MPa) Notes
Germany – 0 – Only CRA
Belgium FRCA 100 37 With similar
characteristics
to FNA
Brazil FRCA/CDW 100 15 Non-structural
FRA
China – 0 – Only CRA
Denmark FRCA/CDW 20 40/20 Non-aggressive
FRA environments
Spain – 0 – Only CRA
USA FRCA 100 No limit Any type of concrete
Holland FRCA/CDW 100 50/25 Only if used with CNA
FRA
Hong – 0 – Only CRA
Kong
Japan CDW FRA 100 18 Less-demanding
foundations
Portugal – 0 – Only CRA
UK – 0 – Only CRA
Russia CDW FRA 50/100 15/20 Non-prestressed concrete
Switzerland FRCA/CDW 20/100 37/– Limited for prestressed
FRA concrete/plain concrete
2005) allow the use of 100% of FRA if used in non-reinforced (plain) concrete, and
accept up to 20% FRA for classes up to C30/37 (Swiss code), strength classes up to 18
MPA (Japanese code) and 15 MPA (Russian code), while there is no strength restriction
under the American code. In Brazil (NBR 15.116, 2005) up to 100% FRA can be incor-
porated in concrete as long as it is non-structural, while in Denmark (DCA, 1995) up to
20% FRA incorporation is accepted as long as the maximum strength is 20 and 40 MPa
for CDW FRA and FRCA respectively. The Netherlands (CUR, 1984, 1986, 1994)
allows up to 100% FRA as long as the coarse aggregates are natural (limiting the use to
non-aggressive environments, with maximum strength classes C20/25 and C40/50 for
CDW FRA and FRCA respectively). Belgium (Roos, 2002) allows FRCA in concrete
up to the C30/37 strength class, as long as they have similar characteristics to those
of the fine natural aggregates (FNA). In the other standards analysed (Germany
(DAfStb-Richtlinie, 2004), Hong-Kong (WBTC N.12/2002, 2002), UK (BS 8500-2,
2002), Portugal (LNEC E-471, 2006), China (2007) and Spain (IHOBE, 2011)), the use
of FRA is strictly barred, whatever the nature and application of the concrete.
Notwithstanding the limitations imposed, more recent scientific works (Evangelista
and de Brito, 2007, 2010; Khatib, 2005; Leite, 2001; Pereira et al., 2012a, 2012b;
Solyman, 2005) have shown that it is feasible to use FRA in structural concrete and
maintain its characteristics within acceptable levels. Solyman (2005) clearly states that
100% FRA can be used for exposure classes up to XF4 provided a loss of 20% in
compressive strength can be accepted.
3. Production and treatment of FRA

Normally FRA are an unwanted by-product of CDW crushing, with high contaminant
content (Angulo, 2000; Rodrigues, Carvalho, Evangelista, & de Brito, 2013). Bianchini,
Marrocchino, Tassinari, and Vaccaro (2005) found that FRA could be used provided these
contaminants are screened for in the production of CDW. It is also recognised that the ori-
gin of the CDW and its comminution process significantly affect the FRA composition
(Angulo, 2000, 2005; Ulsen, 2011; Rodrigues, Carvalho, Evangelista, & de Brito 2013).
A basic principle for the improvement of FRA is to assume that their comminution
process must be similar to that used for crushed FNA (Rodrigues, Carvalho, Evangeli-
sta, & de Brito 2013).
Florea and Brouwers (2012) compared the FRCA produced using a conventional
jaw-crusher with those produced using a prototype Smart Crusher and obtained particle
size distributions with the latter method very similar to those of FNA, indicating that
the authors managed to separate the FNA from the cement paste, especially for the
aggregates above 0.5 mm. The prototype crusher yielded about 5 times more fine aggre-
gates under 0.5 mm, mainly consisting of cement paste, which the authors later used to
replace cement. The confirmation that the FRA obtained from the prototype were, in
fact, clean of cement paste was easily achieved using differential scanning calorimetry,
which showed that a considerable amount of α-SiO2 crystals changed to β-SiO2,
corresponding to the quartz occurring in natural sand.
Rodrigues et al. (2013) performed a survey of the processing flowcharts of the vari-
ous Portuguese recycling plants and concluded that in most of them the RA produced
are subjected only to primary crushing, with very few using secondary crushing. Ulsen
(2011) produced FRA using the comminution and separation of minerals techniques
with a view to improving them and obtained characteristics closer to those of the FNA.
For this the author used three-stage crushing, consisting of initial crushing at the recy-
cling plant, followed by crushing with a jaw-crusher and finally by crushing with a ver-
tical axis impactor (Figure 1).
The products resulting from this crushing process were subjected to attrition tech-
niques lasting 5, 12 and 20 min to remove the cement paste. The results show that this
technique removes the mortar from the fractions above 0.15 mm, and it proved to be
more efficient for higher speeds. Separation efficiency studies were also performed on
the FRA, using both density and magnetism.
Figure 1. Vertical axis impactor (Metzo, Inc.).

The results of the chemical analyses, scanning electron microscope (SEM), XRD
and FTIR showed that the FRA thus obtained was rounder in shape and had less
adhered mortar content.
4. FRA properties
4.1. Particle density, loose bulk density and water absorption
4.1.1. Particle density, loose bulk density and water absorption
It is generally agreed that the particle density and loose bulk density of FRA are lower
than those of FNA. The main reason for this is that the first contain mortar, from either
crushed concrete (Chan, 1998; Evangelista & de Brito, 2007, 2010; Hansen, 1992; Kou,
2006; Solyman, 2005) or other non-stone contaminants such as brick, gypsum or wood
(Angulo, 2000; Leite, 2001; Rodrigues, Carvalho, Evangelista, & de Brito, 2013).
Consequently the water absorption of FRA is higher than that of FNA, which is, in fact,
the physical characteristic that differs the most.
Hasaba, Kawamura, Toriik, and Takemoto (1981) measured the water absorption of
FRCA and obtained values close to 11%.
Chan (1998) analysed FRCA from a Canadian recycling plant and obtained loose
bulk density values of 1.72 kg/dm3. Water absorption reached a peak value of 12%.
Kikuchi et al. (1998) produced FRCA and got oven-dry particle densities between
2.06 kg/dm3 and 2.23 kg/dm3. The same authors reported water absorption values
between 7.3 and 10.0%, depending on the original concrete and the crushing process.
They managed to obtain good correlations between the water absorption and strength
and mortar content of the original concrete.
Müeller and Winkler (1998) evaluated the properties of FRCA in samples from 13
German recycling plants and obtained particle density values between 2.62 and
2.77 kg/dm3, with an average of 2.66 kg/dm3. The water absorption had considerable
scatter within the range 0.6–11.8%. The loose bulk density values varied between 1.86
and 2.33 kg/dm3, with an average of 2.09 kg/dm3.
Leite (2001) evaluated CDW FRA and found a 4% reduction in particle density rela-
tive to the FNA (from 2.63 to 2.52 kg/dm3). The loose bulk density decreased 21%
(from 1.54 to 1.21 kg/dm3), demonstrating the greater angularity of the FRA. The water
absorption of the CDW FRA was 8.6%, a value obtained using a method developed by
the author for FRA. Additionally the author measured the water absorption over time to
control the compensation of the mixing water and obtained the graph shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Evolution of the water absorption of CDW FRA (Leite, 2001).

Fumoto and Yamada (2002) determined the particle density of FRCA from three
sources (a recycling plant, a 45-year old structure and 70-year old structure) and
obtained dry-oven particle densities of 2.13, 1.99, and 2.18 kg/dm3. The respective
water absorption values were 9.0, 11.4 and 8.1%. These results led the authors to
conclude that the original concrete’s age does not seem to have an influence on these
properties.
Katz (2003) crushed concrete cured for 1, 3, and 28 and analysed the resulting
FRA’s properties. The author found that the characteristics varied little in this time
interval and a constant particle density of 2.23 kg/dm3 and a loose bulk density ranging
from 1.32 to 1.34 kg/dm3 were recorded. The water absorption ranged from 11.2 to
12.7%, with the interesting finding that this last value was for the concrete with the
longest curing time.
Lin, Tyan, Chang, and Chang (2004) obtained a particle density for FRCA of
2.25 kg/dm3 and water absorption of 10.9%. Khatib (2005) used FRA from bricks and
concrete with particle densities of 2.05 and 2.3 kg/dm3 and water absorption values of
14.8 and 6.3%, respectively.
Solyman (2005) analysed CDW FRA from nine German recycling plants and
compared them with FRCA made in the laboratory (family RC1). They obtained
oven-dried saturated surface dry particle densities between 1.99 and 2.46 kg/dm3 (FRA)
and between 2.10 and 2.49 kg/dm3 (FRCA). The apparent particle density ranged from
2.16 to 2.56 kg/dm3. The water absorption after 10 min ranged from 3.8 to 11.5%,
again proving the great variability of this property (Figure 3). The specific values for
the FRCA were 2.36, 2.48 and 2.56 kg/dm3 for the dry-oven, saturated surface dry and
apparent particle densities respectively and 8% for the water absorption.
Levy and Helene (2007) tested the durability of FRAC made with FRCA and FRA
from masonry with particle densities of 2.32 and 1.89 kg/dm3 and water absorption of
10.3 and 13%, respectively.
Both Evangelista and de Brito (2007) and Pereira, Evangelista and de Brito (2012a)
analysed FRCA made in the laboratory and obtained saturated surface dry particle
densities of 2.17 and 2.23 kg/dm3, respectively. Yaprak, Aruntas, Demir, and Simsek
(2011) obtained a saturated surface dry particle density of 2.31 kg/dm3 for FRCA made
Figure 3. Water absorption of FRA (Solyman, 2005).

from laboratory cubes, slightly higher than the results of the previous authors. In terms
of water absorption Evangelista and de Brito (2007) and Pereira et al. (2012a) obtained
values of 13.1 and 10.9%, respectively while Yaprak et al. got 4.3%, a substantial
difference. Pereira, Evangelista and de Brito (2012a) also measured the evolution of the
water absorption and compared the results with those of Leite (2001), for CDW FRA,
and of Fonseca, de Brito, and Evangelista (2011), for CRCA. They noticed significant
differences during the tests (Figure 4) which stress the importance of the type and
nature of the RA on the water transport mechanisms. The authors also claim that the
test is difficult to perform mainly due to the cohesiveness of FRA.
Dhir, Paine, and Halliday (2008) continuously analysed the characteristics of CDW
FRA from 10 UK recycling plants and found particle densities between 2.1 and
2.62 kg/dm3 and loose bulk densities between 1.04 and 1.23 kg/dm3. The water
absorption varied between 2.9 and 16.5%, displaying the greatest scatter of all the
properties because of the variety of the CDW processed. Rodrigues, Carvalho,
Evangelista, & de Brito (2013) obtained similar results when analysing the
characteristics of FRA from the main Portuguese recycling plants. The authors obtained
quite dissimilar values for particle densities, from 2.14 to 2.38 kg/dm3, from 2.33 to
2.49 kg/dm3 and from 2.57 to 2.71 kg/dm3, for the dry-oven, saturated surface dry and
apparent particle densities, respectively. The water absorption once again displayed a
high scatter with values from 4 to 8.3%.
Kou and Poon (2009b) produced self-compacting concrete (SCC) mixes with FRCA
with particle density of 2.3 kg/dm3 and water absorption at 24 h of 11.9%. Wang
(2012) obtained 1.95 to 2.3 kg/dm3 and 2.16 to 2.3 kg/dm3 for the dry-oven and
saturated surface dry particle densities, respectively, of FRCA from a USA recycling
plant. The water absorption was 10.7%.
Table 2 shows the values collected from the literature review concerning the
dry-oven [ ρd], saturated surface dry [ ρssd] and apparent [ ρa] particle densities and the
water absorption (W), for FRCA alone. Looking at these data it can be said that
the literature presents relatively close values of these characteristics, with standard
deviations of 0.15 kg/dm3 or less for particle densities and 2.4% for water absorption.
This corresponds to a 24% coefficient of variation, but it is substantially smaller than
that determined in the surveys of the characteristics of CDW FRA.
Water absorption percentage,
relative to its maximum
Time (minutes)
Figure 4. Evolution of the water absorption of CDW FRA (Pereira, Evangelista, & de Brito
2012a).
Table 2. Particle densities and water absorption of FRCA from the literature.
Source Type of FRA ρd (g/cm3) ρssd (g/cm3) ρa (g/cm3) W (%)
Hasaba et al. (1981) FRCA – – – 11.0
Chan (1998) FRCA 2.28 2.31 – 9.8
Kikushi, Dosho, Narikawa, FRCA 2.06–2.23 – – 7.3–10.0
and Miura (1998)
Fumoto and Yamada FRCA 1.99–2.18 8.1–11.4
(2002)
Katz (2003) FRCA 2.23 – – 12.7
Lin et al. (2004) FRCA 2.25 – – 11.3
Khatib (2005) FRCA 2.34 – – 6.2
Solyman (2005) FRCA 2.36 2.48 2.56 8.0
Evangelista (2007) FRCA 1.91 2.17 2.56 13.1
Levy and Helene (2007) FRCA – 2.32 – 10.3
Kou and Poon (2009b) FRCA 2.34 – – 11.9
Pereira et al. (2012a) FRCA 2.01 2.23 2.57 10.9
Yaprak et al. (2011) FRCA 2.31 – – 4.28
Wang (2012) FRCA 1.95 2.16 – 10.7
Average 2.18 2.28 2.56 9.9
Standard deviation 0.15 0.11 0.00 2.4
4.1.2. Methods to determine water absorption

One of the main problems in the characterisation of fine aggregates, and FRA in partic-
ular, is the determination of the water absorption and, consequently, of the particle den-
sities. Current test techniques devised for FNA present execution difficulties, largely
due to the presence of highly porous phases in the particles, sometimes with cohesive
capacity (Hansen & Marga, 1988). Chan (1998) also notes that the setting that occurs
during the test makes it inappropriate and highly inaccurate. Poon, Qiao, and Chan
(2006) tested the self-cementing properties of FRCA when used on unbound road
sub-bases and concluded that the fine fractions under 0.15 mm and between 0.30 and
0.60 mm were the main cause of the self-cementing effect noticed on the sub-bases
made with RA, although that is closely related to the amount of dicalcium silicate (C2S)
present. The authors also noticed that the self-cementing effect was limited to a thresh-
old by weight of the fine fraction. Something similar has been reported by Evangelista
and de Brito (2007) who noticed that the FRCA tested set into a weak mortar when
saturated, thus hindering test procedures. The same has been reported by Florea and
Brouwers (2012) when using FRCA under 0.5 mm to replace cement in mortar produc-
tion. Tam, Gao, Tam, & Chan (2008) identified the main difficulties of current tests as:
drying at 105 ± 5 ºC decomposes the products by removing the water within the pores;
the saturation time is too high and varies with the type and nature of the RA.
In addition, the water absorption of the FRA during mixing is not to be despised.
Maultzsch and Mellman (1998) state that 70% to 95% of the water absorption of RCA
occurs during the first 10 min of immersion. In her PhD thesis, Leite (2001) felt the
need both to determine the water absorption of CRA and FRA and to understand how it
varies over time. Knowing that the best state the coarse aggregates can be in during
casting is semi-saturation, the author needed to quantify the evolution of the RA’s water
absorption as they were immersed. She could then control the duration of the
pre-wetting periods the aggregates had to be subjected to in order to achieve “optimal”
humidity. Hansen (1992) had already proposed pre-wetting of the aggregates to maintain
the quality of casting.
Several authors have carried out research to solve these problems but they have only
partially succeeded, leaving a number of unsolved issues here and there.
Gagnon (2000) developed a method that allows the swift on site determination of
the particle densities and water absorption of RA by using a nucleodensimeter (an
instrument normally used for soil analysis to determine its particle density by gamma-
ray emission and its humidity by neutron emission), calibrated by the simultaneous use
of a microwave oven. The results reveal that the proposed test is reliable but is not
applicable to RA with bitumen.
Leite (2001) developed an innovative method that consisted of placing the RA in an
open container whose bottom was covered by an extremely fine screen (a 0.044 mm
sieve). The sample, having dried inside the container (placed in an oven), is suspended
from a precision hydrostatic scale and immersed in water; it is monitored regularly.
After 24 h of immersion the sample mass is measured and designated MSub − F. Using
the mass given by the first reading straight after the sample is immersed, called MSub − 0,
and its oven-dried mass, Mdry, Leite (2001) was able to determine two auxiliary absorp-
tions, called dry material absorption (Wdry) and submerged material absorption (WSub),
whose analytical expressions are presented in Equations (1) and (2).
MSubF MSub0
Adry ¼ (1)
Mdry
MSubF MSub0
ASub ¼ (2)
MSub0
Since this method does not allow the actual determination of the water absorption
(because it is impossible to measure the hydrostatic mass of the dry material), Leite
proposes that real absorption of the aggregates is close to the average of the two
absorption values previously determined. Thus, the method proposed only gives an
approximation of the real absorption value.
Pi (2009) presented an automatic method of determining the particle density and
water absorption of fine and coarse aggregates using a device called SSDetect (Figure 5)
that detects the point at which the particles reach the saturated surface dry condition by
infrared light reflectance. In this test, a sample of fine aggregates is placed in the device
Figure 5. SSDetect device to determine the water absorption of the aggregates (Pi, 2009).
which injects water into them as they are being stirred and they absorb it by capillarity
and hysteretic effect. When they reach the saturation condition, the infrared rays are
diffracted in a different way and this is registered by the device. The results show that
the scatter of the parameters measured is substantially reduced and the reproducibility
of the test is significantly improved compared with the traditional method of determin-
ing the saturated surface dry condition of the fine aggregates visually.
Rodrigues, Evangelista, and de Brito (2013) proposed a method to determine the
aggregates’ water absorption in which the tests are performed in a solution of sodium
hexametaphosphate (Na6P6O18) in order to prevent particle agglomeration. Sodium
hexametaphosphate is a well-known clay dispersant (Tan, Lal, Owens, & Izaurralde,
2007), now standardised for use in the study of soils (ASTM D422-63, 2007). This
chemical compound is used to eliminate the cohesion that occurs during the saturation
and hydrostatic weighing of the FRA and facilitate the release of the air trapped during
the immersion of the sample in the pycnometer. Using a proportion of 1 g/L, the authors
managed to improve the results and reliability and prevent the formation of agglomer-
ates.
Kasemchairisi and Tangtermsirikul (2007) proposed that instead of water absorption
the parameter that should be considered in the mixes is the retained water, consisting of
the water absorbed plus that adsorbed in the FRA’s surface. To determine this parameter,
they developed a method in which the FRA are exposed to centrifugal forces that
release the excess water from the particles. The results appear to be reliable, with small
standard deviations, and seemingly indicate that the method is valid.
4.2. Microscopic analysis of the FRA

Using a SEM, Solyman (2005) analysed the FRA used in his experimental programme
and found the particles to be more angular and irregular (Figures 6 and 7), which was
also confirmed by Guedes, Evangelista, Ferro, and de Brito (2013). The author also ana-
lysed the sphericity of the particles using photogrammetric techniques by passing an
FRA sample through a small shaking conveyor that makes the particles drop in front of
a camera with halogen light. A computer uses image analysis software to continuously
capture the particles as they pass, yielding the ratio between length and width of the
particles (L/W) and their sphericity, i.e. the ratio between the diameter of the circle
encasing the particle and that of a circle with an area equivalent to that of the particle.
The test scheme is shown in Figure 8. The author found that the L/W ratio of the FNA
Figure 6. SEM image of FNA (Solyman, 2005).

Figure 7. SEM image of FRA (Solyman, 2005).
and FRA was similar (around 1.27 vs. 1.39) while the sphericity varied more (1.04 vs.
1.21), confirming the greater angularity of the FRA particles. This characteristic is one
of the main reasons for the workability loss for the same effective w/c ratio (Evangelista
& de Brito, 2007; Solyman, 2005; Wang, 2012).
This greater angularity, caused by the brittleness of the recycled materials and their
crushing process, associated with open pores on the surface of the FRA increase their
specific surface, as proved by Fumoto and Yamada (2002). The authors used the BET
technique to determine specific surfaces up to 400% higher than those of the FNA
(between 4.08 and 4.91 m2/g for the FRA vs. between .74 and 1.83 m2/g). The
increased specific surface also causes the loss of efficacy of the use of superplasticisers
(Pereira et al., 2012a).
Angulo (2005) performed a thermogravimetric analysis of FRA from recycling
plants and detected various thermal events relating to the decomposition of phases
pertaining to contained contaminants.
The thermogravimetric and differential calorimetric analyses of FRAC reported by
Shui, Xuan, Wan, and Cao (2008) show that their behaviour is very similar to that of
current cementitious mortars, noting only that the mass losses are lower in the former
because stone formed part of their composition (Figure 9). Therefore, the mass loss
Figure 8. Photogrammetric scheme and analysis of FRA particles (Solyman, 2005).

measured between the ambient temperature and 200 °C is due to the loss of free water
and the decomposition of part of the hydrated calcium silicate (CSH) and ettringite crys-
tals. Between 200 and 400 °C, the formation water of another part of the CSH crystals
is lost. CSH dehydroxylation starts at 450 °C and when the temperature rises to 800 °C
this process is completed and the CSH has dehydrated completely. At that temperature
re-carbonation of the calcium carbonates (CaCO3) occurs. The calorimetric analysis
shows heat absorption peaks at around 100, 450 and 720 °C. There is also a specific
peak of FRCA at around 576 °C, corresponding to the decomposition of the quartz of
natural sand.
4.3. Chemical and mineralogical analysis of FRA

The chemical and mineralogical analysis of FRA by XRD and XRF shows a scatter that
is inherent to the nature of the recycled materials.
Corinaldesi, Orlandi, and Moriconi (2002) analysed the below 90 μm fraction of
CDW FRA for cement replacement purposes in SCC and obtained SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3
and CaO contents of around 85, 4.5, 3.9 and 2.9%, respectively. They also concluded
that it has a Blaine specific surface of 0.73 m2/g, which is higher than the cement and
fly ashes studied by these authors. However, no pozzolanic effect of the CDW powder
was noticed in the mixes made.
Solyman (2005) obtained SiO2 content between 60.1 and 81.1%, where the highest
values were associated with FRCA that underwent two crushing stages. The samples
had CaO content between 4.3 and 12.4% and the other oxides were residual. Given the
FRA’s nature, the SO3 content is insignificant (between 0.01 and 0.37%), which shows
Figure 9. Thermogravimetric analysis (a) and differential calorimetric analysis (b) of FRA and
cementitious mortars (HCP) (Shui, Xuan, Wan, & Cao, 2008).
there are no sulphates. Similar conclusions were reached by Dhir et al. (2008) in British
recycling plants, where they obtained SiO2 content between 55.5 and 75.9%, CaO
content between 5.2 and 18.1%, Al2O3 content between 1.5 and 9.7% and Fe2O3
content between 1.1 and 8%, with the rest of the oxides being residual. In this case, the
sulphate content was below 1% in all but two plants.
For CDW FRA the mineral contents vary significantly. Rodrigues, Carvalho,
Evangelista, de Brito (2013) calculated gypsum content in CDW FRA from Portuguese
recycling plants between 0 and 1.2%, while the remaining phases (quartz, calcite,
muscovite, potassium and sodium feldspars) showed high scatter. The chemical analysis
performed showed that all the samples had water soluble chlorides up to 0.01%, water
up to 0.25% and acid soluble sulphates up to 1.53%, sulphur content up to 0.6% and
-solubility in water between 1.1 and 3.4%. The authors note that given the present
acceptance criteria for fine aggregates for concrete none of the samples could be
accepted because one or two parameters were outside the limits. These parameters were
mostly light contaminants and fines content, leading the authors to conclude that prior
washing could solve the problem.
Ulsen et al. (2012) determined the contents of the main oxides in CDW FRA that
had undergone improvement and obtained SiO2 content between 65 and 75%, CaO con-
tent between 7 and 11%, Al2O3 content between 8.0 and 10.2% and Fe2O3 of around
2.5%, showing the efficacy of processing FRA. The XRD analysis showed that the mor-
tar content increases as the size of the particles and their density decrease. The mortar
content measured in particles with specific gravity less than 2.2 is 30% for the 2–3 mm
fraction, but it reaches 81% in the 0.15–0.30 mm fraction. For denser particles (specific
gravity higher than 2.64), this content is 1.2 and 8.1% for the fractions stated above,
respectively. On the other hand, the presence of quartz and feldspars in FRA leads to an
opposite trend, i.e. the mortar content increases with the density and size of the particles.
5. Mixing procedures of FRAC

A fundamental problem in the design and production of FRAC is the need to bear in
mind the high porosity of FRA and foresee the need for extra water during mixing. Not
doing so will negatively affect the concrete performance (Fumoto and Yamada, 2002,
2006) since part of the mixing water needed for cement hydration and to make the paste
fluid will be absorbed by the FRA. On the other hand, if the FRA were to be pre-satu-
rated the dynamic mixing process could lead to the release of part of that water into the
paste and indirectly increase the w/c ratio. Ferreira, de Brito, and Barra (2011)
concluded that concrete made with CRA subjected to pre-wetting in order to be only
partially saturated had more homogeneous paste–aggregate interfaces than those
involving saturated CRA.
Leite (2001) and Evangelista and de Brito (2007, 2010) produced concrete with
pre-wetted FRA in part of the mixing water, only then adding the other materials in the
mixer. Leite analysed the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) for RAC and found that that
it was more cohesive than the ITZ for NAC (Figures 10 and 11).
Kimura, Imamoto, Nagayama, and Tamura (2004) proposed an improvement of the
paste–RA interface by exploiting their porosity and provoking a decompression by
vacuum during mixing, followed by a rapid release. The authors managed bonds
substantially better in the interfacial transition zone.
Tam, Gao, and Tam (2005) proposed a method for the production of concrete with
RA called “Two stage mixing approach”. The method is similar to that used by other
Figure 10. Interface between CNA and cement paste (Leite, 2001).
Figure 11. Interface between CRA and cement paste (Leite, 2001).
authors (Fumoto & Yamada, 2002; Evangelista & de Brito, 2007; Leite, 2001), adding
the cement to the mix as the last solid phase. Their results show that the method
performs well (Tam et al., 2005, Tam & Tam, 2007, Tam, Tam, & Wang, 2007). This
method was expanded by Kong et al. (2010), who created another intermediate step in
which pozzolanic additions are mixed with the RA straight after pre-wetting, yielding
better results than achieved with the two-stage mixing approach. These improvements
were in terms of compressive strength and chloride ion penetration resistance, and also
in the paste–aggregate interface, with the additions reacting with the CH within the
pores and creating new crystalline structures.
6. Properties of concrete with RA

6.1. Fresh-state properties
The fresh-state properties of FRAC are directly affected by the presence of FRA, since
they are more angular and have greater water absorption than FNA. Consequently, the air
content of FRAC is expected to be higher and its density to be lower (Hansen, 1986).
Mukai, Kikuchi, and Koizumi (1978) found that it was necessary to add around
15% extra mixing water when CRA and FRA were used, similarly to Buck (1977),
Malhotra (1978), Hansen and Narud (1983) and Ravindrarajah and Tam (1985). The
same authors obtained excellent correlations between effective w/c ratio and slump.
Interestingly, Leite (2001) obtained gains in slump with the incorporation of FRA in
her mixes. She justified this with the fact that the FRA contained fine particles which
acted as a lubricant. The effect fades for higher w/c ratios, which the author believes is
because the fines-water ratio is smaller and therefore less influential on the final result.
By evaluating concrete setting over time, Leite (2001) found that in FRAC most of the
slump loss occurred in the first 15 min and after that the trend reversed, leading to the
notion that the FRA started supplying the mix with water.
Fumoto and Yamada (2002) needed to increase the w/c ratio of FRAC between 0.06
and 0.13 using dried FRA to get the same workability as FRAC made with the same
FRA but in a saturated surface dry condition. The authors argue that incorporating dry
FRA stops the compressive strength reduction at the cost of a substantial loss of
workability.
Corinaldesi, Orlandi, and Moriconi (2002) produced SCC with FRA incorporation
and performed flow table, L-Box and column segregation resistance tests. They found
that workability conditions are similar, notwithstanding the compressive strength loss
noticed.
Solyman (2005) determined the spread of FRAC using FRA from German recycling
plants and obtained values within the target range for all the families except one. The
measured values ranged from 88 to 100% of that of the reference mix. The closest value
was that of the mixes with FRCA (Figure 12).
Evangelista and de Brito (2007) needed to increase the w/c ratio by .04, from .41 to
.45, to have the same workability as the reference concrete in concrete with 100%
FRCA. Using a different approach, Solyman (2005) estimated how much extra cement
was needed to achieve the same slump by keeping the w/c ratio constant. He concluded
that increases up to 20 kg/m3 would suffice. The incorporation of FRA seems to have a
linear effect on the slump loss, as seen in Figure 15.
Kou and Poon (2009b) observed that the use of non-saturated RA (both CRA and
FRA) in the production of SCC increases their early age workability, which falls
substantially as time goes by because of the RA’s water absorption.
Figure 12. Spread vs. replacement ratio of FNA by FRA (Solyman, 2005).
Pereira, Evangelista and de Brito (2012a) noticed a loss of performance of the

plasticisers they used in FRAC, leading them to think that the polymer chains have a
larger contact area with the FRA than with the FNA.
Keeping the apparent w/c ratio constant, Yaprak et al. (2011) obtained reductions in
slump close to 50%. The air content increased from 1.8 to 2.5%.
Wang (2012) analysed the rheology and workability of mortars made with FRAC,
concluding that the use of FRAC is viable in mortars as high workability and fluidity
are maintained. In the tests made with a rheometer, using FRA in two saturation condi-
tions, the author found that when dry FRA is added to the mix the static yield tension
increases faster than the dynamic yield tension, denoting the water absorption by the
FRA over time. When damp FRA is added the relationship between static and dynamic
yield tension remains constant, both growing merely due to the binder’s hydration. The
presence of FRCA in the paste makes the yield tension grow faster because of the
presence of cement in the FRA, thus accelerating the hydraulic reactions.
6.2. Compressive strength

Compressive strength is one of the parameters most scrutinised by the various research-
ers. Hansen (1992) reports a campaign by him and Marga (1988) in which three original
concrete mixes were produced with distinct strength levels and w/c ratios of 0.40, 0.70
and 1.20. By crushing these mixes RA were obtained and then used to make new mixes
with the same compositions as the original ones but with the NA being wholly replaced
with each of type of RA produced, leading to nine concrete mixes. Based on their
results, the authors concluded that the incorporation of coarse and fine RA cuts the
average compressive strength by between 8 and 60%, relative to the strength of the ori-
ginal mixes made with NA.
Wainwright, Trevorrow, Yu, and Wang (1994) tested various concrete mixes using
RA from two mixes produced in the laboratory with distinct characteristics: one with a
cement content of 380 kg/m3 (w/c = 0.41) and another with a cement content of
220 kg/m3 (w/c = 0.78). The authors found that compressive strength at 168 days
declined by between 21 and 38% for the mixes with total replacement by RA. Based on
these results Wainwright et al. could not establish a clear relationship between the con-
crete strength of the mixes with RA and that of the original mixes. However, they noted
that the mixes with FRA from the original concrete with the higher cement content had
slightly higher compressive strength (around 5 MPa difference) than the others.
Merlet and Pimienta (1993) studied various concrete mixes where the FNA / FRAC
replacement ratio varied (0, 20, 50 and 100%) and so did the ratio between the coarse
aggregates content (all from concrete recycling) and the incorporated fines (C/F).
Furthermore, three cement contents (250, 200 and 350 kg/m3) were used. The results
showed strength losses between 18 and 39%, depending on the mix.
Chan (1998) produced shotcrete with FRA and CRA incorporation. When analysing
the stress-strain curves the author found the development was similar to that of conven-
tional mixes, though with tighter curves because FRA are more deformable and dust on
their surface hinders an effective chemical bond between them and the paste. The
compressive strength loss ranged from 43 to 54% for dry-mix shotcrete, between 40
and 45% for wet-mix shotcrete and between 41 and 56% for moulded concrete. The
author also found that compressive strength evolved with age in a similar way to that of
conventional concrete.
In her PhD thesis Leite (2001) tested concrete mixes that contained undifferentiated
(CDW) FRA. The author observed that incorporating FRA increased the concrete’s
compressive strength, contrary to what happens when coarse aggregates of the same nat-
ure (CRA) are incorporated, as shown in Figure 13. The author gives three reasons for
this finding: the greater roughness of the FRA, which leads to a better bond; the FRA’s
porosity that allows the precipitation of the cement hydration crystals in its pores and
thus increasing the stiffness of the paste; and the greater fines content of the FRA that
decreases segregation and increases the matrix’s compacity.
Fumoto and Yamada (2002) found a close relationship between the compressive
strength of concrete with FRCA and their total w/c ratio.
Khatib (2005) tested concrete mixes with replacement of FNA by FRCA with
replacement ratios by weight of 25, 50, 75, and 100%. All mixes were tested in com-
pression at 1, 7, 28, and 90 days. The author found a generalised loss of compressive
strength with FRCA incorporation but he also noted that it increased after 28 days, indi-
cating hydration of the cement attached to the recycled particles (Figure 14). In the long
run, Kathib (2005) obtained reductions of 15% of the compressive strength relative to
the reference concrete in the mix with 25% FRA and of 27% in the mix with total
replacement of FNA by FRA (Figure 15).
Solyman (2005) studied various FRAC families with FRCA and CDW FRA from
German recycling plants. His results (Figure 16) show that the mixes with FRCA have
similar compressive strength to the FNA mixes, with a maximum loss of 6.5% for full
replacement of FNA. For the families made with CDW FRA the author found losses up
to 29%, mostly because of the presence of non-mineral materials such as asphalts. The
author did not notice any diverging trends in the analysis of the mixes with various
cement contents and w/c ratios and so concluded that the variations were similar regard-
less of the strength level under analysis. The author also tested variations in the maxi-
mum aggregate size and found that the variation trends did not depend on this factor.
The author recommends the use of Equation (3) to predict compressive strength, where
( fc)FRA, ( fc)FNA and R are respectively the strengths of concrete with FRA and FNA
and a reducing factor to take into account the effect of FRA. This factor (Equation (4))
depends on the w/c ratio and the ratio between the FRA volume and that of the fine
aggregates used (As).
ð fc ÞFRA ¼ ð fc ÞFNA R (3)
Figure 13. Compressive strength vs. replacement ratio of NA by RA (Leite, 2001).

Figure 14. Evolution of the relative compressive strength of FRAC with age (Khatib, 2005).
Figure 15. Compressive strength vs. replacement ratio of FNA by FRA at 1, 7, 28, and 90 days
(Khatib, 2005).
a2 a
R ¼ 97:5 112:5 þ 5:3As þ 31:3 (4)
c c
Li, Xiao, and Huang (2006) tested various concrete families with CRA and found that
the variation coefficients are similar to those of a conventional concrete, irrespective of
the replacement ratio, and that the results follow a normal distribution, and thus con-
cluded that the probabilistic treatment can be similar.
Evangelista and de Brito (2007) determined the compressive strength of FRAC and
obtained similar results for all replacement ratios (losses below 7%), with values close
to 60 MPa. The authors believe this might be caused by the presence of non-hydrated
cement and the better FRA-paste bond. The analysis of the evolution of the strength
with time to some extent corroborated the presence of material with hydraulic properties
in the FRA, since the FRAC mixes continued developing strength after 28 days, unlike
the reference concrete (Figure 17).
Nhar, Ushio, Hashimoto, Mizuguchi et al. (2008) used low grade FRCA on con-
cretes mixed with a bi-axial forced mixing type oscillation mixer and the authors
observed that this mixing procedure tended to increase the compressive strength of the
mixes, especially at the lower compressive strength levels.
Figure 16. Compressive strength vs. replacement ratio (Solyman, 2005).
Figure 17. Evolution of the relative compressive strength of FRAC with age (Evangelista and de
Brito, 2007).
Kou and Poon (2009b) evaluated the performance of SCC mixes containing FRCA
and found that their performance was not affected by 25 to 50% ratios. They achieved
compressive strengths of around 64 MPa in mixes with total replacement of FNA by
FRA. The authors also mention the presence of particles with setting capacity in the
FRCA. The same authors observed, in a different study (Kou & Poon, 2009a), that
compressive strength decreases with the increase of FRA, regardless of assuming
constant w/c ratio or constant slump, justifying the weaker mechanical strength of FRA.
Ahmed (2011) tested concrete made with increasing replacement FNA / FRA
replacement ratios from Australian recycling plants and found that up to 50% replace-
ment ratio the performance of FRAC is similar to that of conventional concrete, or even
slightly better. For higher replacement ratios, the author found an increasing loss of
strength up to a maximum of 13 and 22%, for 28 and 56 days, respectively. When the
author replaced part of the cement with fly ash, it was observed that the early age
compressive strength of all mixes decreased, compared with the all-cement mixes. At
later ages (56 days) the performance of all mixes was better than that of concrete with
no FRA, regardless of the replacement ratio.
Zega and di Maio (2011) obtained compressive strength only 4% different from that
of conventional concrete in mixes with 20 and 30% replacement of FNA with FRA,
even though these results are distorted by the effective w/c ratios being distinct in the
various mixes. In reality since the FRA were used in their current state of moisture
before mixing, without adjusting the mixing water because of the additional absorption
of the FRA, the FRAC mixes had decreasing slumps and effective w/c ratios that
partially improved their results.
Pereira, Evangelista and de Brito (2012a) analysed the effect of using superplasticisers
in FRAC, specifically a regular one and a high-performance one. The results show there is
an insignificant loss of compressive strength (below 5%) with the incorporation of FRA in
current concrete with the high-performance superplasticiser and peaks of loss of around
15% with the regular one. The authors justified this trend with the lower robustness of the
latter, which loses efficacy with the increase in specific surface of the FRA.
6.3. Tensile strength

Though less important than compressive strength to the performance of structures in
terms of ultimate limit states, tensile strength plays a fundamental role in their response
to service limit states. Known reports differ and show a considerable diversity. Hansen
(1986) suggests that this heterogeneity may be due to a difference in quality of the RA
used. The author mentions several research papers reporting reductions up to 20% in
splitting tensile strength when all the aggregates (coarse and fine) are replaced. Karaa
(1986) obtained reductions of 26% in flexural tensile strength and 35% in splitting
tensile strength in concrete with total replacement of NA by RA. However, Coquillat
(1982) found no differences in the tensile strength of conventional concrete and concrete
with total replacement of NA by RA.
Merlet and Pimienta (1993) concluded that the reduction of tensile strength of
concrete mixes with FRA (replacement ratio of 50%) relative to conventional concrete
ranges from 11 to 38%, depending on the use of plasticisers and the pre-wetting of
aggregates.
Dillmann (1998) tested concrete mixes with CRCA and of various strengths (fc = 20
and 55 MPa), as well as with RA from CDW (both CRA and FRA) and found that the
splitting tensile strength of the RA mixes was higher than that of the reference concrete,
but he did not provide any explanation for this.
Leite (2001) established the variation of splitting and flexural tensile strength with
the incorporation ratio of FRA and concluded there was an increase of 16 and 14%
respectively for integral replacement of FNA by FRA. When relating tensile strength to
compressive strength, Leite (2001) got values between 11 and 20%, depending on the
w/c ratio and replacement ratio. When relating tensile strength to replacement ratio,
taking into account the w/c ratio (Figure 18), Leite found that for mixes with lower w/c
ratios (up to 0.47) there is an increase in strength with increasing replacement ratio,
while for higher w/c ratios the opposite occurs, with an decrease in strength that can
even reach 32%. The author explains that this trend may be caused by compaction prob-
lems due to insufficient mixing water that led to a more porous and consequently more
fragile structure.
Solyman (2005) obtained splitting tensile strength loss up to 24% in concrete mixes
with up to 70% replacement of FNA by FRCA or CDW FRA, although limited to 8.5%
in the FRCA mixes (Figure 19). Based on these results the author proposes Equation
Figure 18. Splitting tensile strength vs. replacement ratio of FNA by FRA (Leite, 2001).
(5) as the relationship between splitting tensile strength and compressive strength for
strength classes up to C30/37, and Equation (6) for higher strength classes.
2=3
fct;sp ¼ 0:31 fck (5)
2=3
fct;sp ¼ 0:29 fck (6)
Evangelista and de Brito (2007) reported splitting tensile strength loss of around 30%
for concrete mixes with 100% FRCA. This loss does not match the compressive
strength maintenance and was justified by the mechanisms of rupture by splitting not
depending predominantly on the cement content, and so not profiting from the beneficial
effect of the residual un-hydrated cement in the FRCA.
Li (2008) proposes Equations (7) and (8) that relate the compressive strength of
concrete to CRA ( fcu) and its direct tensile strength (ft) and splitting tensile strength
Figure 19. Splitting tensile strength vs. replacement ratio of FNA by FRA (Solyman, 2005).
( ft,sp), taking into account the replacement ratio (r). The author highlights the similarity
of the normalised equations.
ft ¼ ð0:24 0:06rÞfcu2=3 (7)
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ft;sp ¼ 0:75 fcuk (8)
Kou and Poon (2009b) estimated the splitting tensile strength of SCC mixes with FRA
and CRA with small losses in the mixes with cement as the only binder and slight gains
for mixes including fly ash. The authors indicate that this is because the fly ash reacts
with Ca(OH)2 within the FRCA, thus improving the FRCA-new paste interface.
Ahmed (2011) tested concrete with different replacement ratios of FNA by FRA
from Australian CDW recycling plants and found trends similar to those observed in
compressive strength: up to 50% replacement ratio the splitting tensile and flexural
strengths increased with increasing replacement ratio and then abruptly decreased. The
inclusion of the fly ash benefits all mixes, although the effect is more evident on
flexural strength than on splitting tensile strength. The author also concluded that the
theoretical values obtained by the Australian standards (AS 3600-2009, 2009) are
conservative compared to observed ones, leading the author to state that the expressions
are suitable for this type of concrete.
The splitting tensile strength results of Pereira, Evangelista and de Brito (2012b) are
2.9 MPa for the reference concrete without superplasticisers, 3.7 MPa with a current
superplasticiser and 4.5 MPa with a last generation superplasticiser (Figure 20). For
mixes with 100% FRCA the variations detected were 15.6, 19.0, and 24.3% for the
corresponding families. The authors found that FRA incorporation lowered the efficacy
of the superplasticisers, leading to greater losses in the mixes containing them. The
higher specific surface of the FRCA that offers a greater contact area for the superplasti-
cisers to act upon was considered the main reason for this loss of efficacy.
The authors established a relationship (Equation (9)) between the tensile and
compressive strengths that was adapted to the expression proposed by the 1990 Model
Code (CEB, 1993), taking into account the distinct particle density of FRA and the
changes needed in the w/c ratio. The equation has a determination coefficient of 0.93,
thus indicating a seemingly good reliability.
Figure 20. Splitting tensile strength vs. replacement ratio of FNA by FRA (Pereira et al.,
2012b).
0:177
2=3 ða=cÞRC0
fctm ¼ 0:096: fck ½ð1 rÞ qFNA þ r qFRA (9)
a=c
6.4. Modulus of elasticity

The studies performed so far tend to point to a reduction of the modulus of elasticity of
concrete with both fine and coarse RA, mostly because they lead to a mortar with a
lower modulus of elasticity than that of the NA (Hansen, 1992).
Various authors (Frondistou-Yannas, 1977; Gerardu & Hendriks, 1985; Kakizaki
et al., 1988; Wesche & Schulz, 1982) obtained reductions of the modulus of elasticity
of CRCA in the range 15–40% compared with NA concrete.
Kakizaki et al. (1988) established a law to determine the modulus of elasticity of
RAC (Ec) taking into account its compressive strength (fc) and density (α), seen in
Equation (10).
1:5 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
5 a fc
Ec ¼ 2:1 10 (10)
2:3 200
Gerardu and Hendriks (1985), having established a maximum 15% loss of modulus of
elasticity in CRCA mixes, found a 40% reduction in the same property when replacing
FNA by FRA. These results agree with those from BCSJ (1978), which obtained
reductions of 25 and 40% in mixes in which all NA was replaced with RA, as seen in
Figure 21.
Ravindarajah et al. (1987) concluded that the reduction in the modulus of elasticity
of concrete with RA increases for higher compressive strengths. They also concluded
that the change in this property is similar for mixes with CNA–CRA and FNA–FRA
replacement.
Ravindarajah and Tam (1985) state that the modulus of elasticity-compressive
strength relationship in RAC does not follow the rules established in the standards,
notably in the CEB–FIP code, while Schulz (1988) demonstrated a linear relationship
between the modulus of elasticity of RAC and its density.
Merlet and Pimienta (1993) obtained reductions between 12 and 35% of the
modulus of elasticity of FRAC relative to conventional concrete.
Figure 21. Modulus of elasticity vs. RA incorporation and c/w ratio (BCSJ, 1978).
Leite (2001) showed a trend in the modulus of elasticity with the replacement ratio
of FNA with FRA contrary to the rest of the literature, with an increase for higher
ratios, when the replacement ratio is below 50%. This can be seen in Figure 22.
Khatib (2005) determined the dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete mixes with
varying replacement ratios of FNA by FRA and found a falling trend as the incorpora-
tion ratio increases, irrespective of the test age. The author reports a maximum loss of
25.5% between the reference concrete and the mix with total replacement at 1 day and
16.4% at 90 days (Figure 23). The author also tried to establish a law to determine the
variation of the modulus of elasticity (Ed) with the compressive strength (S in MPa) in
the mixes tested, expressed in Equation (11), with R2 = 0.93, which, however, appar-
ently does not adequately correlate the lower strength values (below 20 MPa), as can be
seen in Figure 24.

4:88108
S ¼ 4:56 e
Ed
(11)
Solyman (2005) analysed several concrete mixes with FRCA and CDW FRA and
obtained linear variations of the modulus of elasticity with the replacement ratio of
FNA by FRA. In the families with CDW FRA the author recorded losses up to 29%,
mostly because of the presence of non-mineral materials, such as asphalts. The author
analysed mixes with various cement contents and w/c ratios and found no distinctions,
enabling him to state that the variations are similar regardless of the strength level
analysed. For total FNA–FRA replacement the modulus of elasticity decreased between
17 and 25% depending on the type of FRA used. The author proposes Equation (12) to
characterise the dynamic modulus of elasticity as a function of the compressive
strength.
Figure 22. Modulus of elasticity vs. replacement ratio of FNA by FRA (Leite, 2001).
Figure 23. Modulus of elasticity vs. replacement ratio of FNA by FRA at various ages (Khatib,
2005).
Figure 24. Modulus of elasticity vs. compressive strength (Khatib, 2005).
1=3
Ed ¼ 11750 fck (12)
Evangelista and de Brito (2007) found a linear reduction of the modulus of elasticity as
the replacement ratio of FNA by FRCA increases. The maximum loss was 18.5% for
total replacement. The lower stiffness of the paste in the mix with FRA was considered
the main reason for that loss.
Cabral, Schalch, Dal Molin, and Ribeiro (2010) performed a sensitivity analysis in
RAC and concluded that the replacement of CNA by CRA has more influence than the
replacement of FNA by FRA. They also concluded that FRCA incorporation reduces
the modulus of elasticity only by 10%. The equation they propose (Equation (13)) to
determine the modulus of elasticity of FRAC or CRAC is consistent with the
expressions in the standards.
Ec ¼ 2:58 fck0:63 (13)
Pereira, Evangelista and de Brito (2012b) evaluated the influence of using superplasticisers
on the modulus of elasticity of concrete with FRCA. The authors obtained significant gains
with the superplasticisers within each of the replacement ratios tested. Compared with the
reference concrete without superplasticisers, the modulus of elasticity increased up to
20.7% for the current superplasticiser and up to 33% when the last generation
superplasticiser was used. The mixes with 100% replacement had losses in the modulus of
elasticity of 13.2% (mix with FNA and no superplasticiser), 17.0% (mix with current
superplasticiser) and 9.5% (mix with high-performance superplasticiser).
6.5. Shrinkage
Some studies have been performed on the shrinkage of RAC, especially concerning
their coarse fraction and the general finding has been a significant increase in the shrink-
age of the RAC mixes vs. conventional concrete.
Hasaba, Kawamura, Toriik, and Takemoto (1981) determined that the shrinkage of
concrete mixes with replacement of CNA by CRA is around 50% higher than that of
conventional concrete. They also evaluated the shrinkage of mixes with all NA replaced
by RA and concluded that the increase relative to a reference concrete is around 70–
80%. Figure 28 shows their results. They are corroborated by Coquillat (1982) and Fujii
(1988). The latter reported that shrinkage decreases in concrete mixes whose RA have
undergone more than one crushing cycle (Figure 25).
On the other hand, Ravindrarajah, Loo, and Tam (1987) determined that the
shrinkage of concrete with RCA is around twice that of the reference concrete. They
also concluded that the use of FRA affects shrinkage in the same proportion as CRA.
Ravindrarajah and Tam (1985) found that the differences in the shrinkage of
conventional concrete and those with RA were greater for higher strength levels.
Karaa (1986) confirmed the results of CUR (1986) and discovered that the increase
in shrinkage was far less than in concrete with RA than in conventional concrete,
because of the water contained in the RA pores.
Hansen and Boegh (1985) determined that the shrinkage of concrete mixes with
CRA and FRA is around 70% higher than that of conventional concrete, no matter what
quality of RA is used.
Figure 25. Shrinkage of concrete with RA (Hasaba et al., 1981).

Merlet and Pimienta (1993) evaluated the shrinkage of various concrete mixes with
FRA (Figure 26). The authors then concluded that the pre-saturation of the aggregates
was beneficial to the mixes and also that the use of superplasticisers largely improved
the mixes’ performance, with shrinkage being similar to that of the reference concrete.
Van Acker (1998) evaluated the performance of concrete mixes containing RA from
crushing concrete elements rejected in pre-casting plants. In mixes with 25% CRA and
FRA incorporation by mass, the author found that shrinkage was similar to that of the
reference concrete with NA only, and sometimes the performance was even better.
Figure 30 shows the results of this research (Figure 27).
Dillmann (1998) determined shrinkage values close to the limits established as
normal by Wesche (1998) for all mixes with total replacement of CNA by CRA and
replacement of FNA by FRA up to 50% for a w/c ratio of 0.50 (Figure 28), as well as
for almost all the mixes with w/c = 0.60 (Figure 29). These graphs show that the
shrinkage of mixes with 100% RCA and up to 50% FRA is comparable to that of
conventional concrete, leading the author to suggest that concrete mixes with these
replacement ratio limits are perfectly viable for use in exposed structures.
Figure 26. Shrinkage of FRAC (Merlet & Pimienta, 1993).
Figure 27. Shrinkage obtained by Van Acker (1998) in concrete with RCA.
Figure 28. Shrinkage of concrete with 100% CRA and various ratios of FRA for w/c = 0.50
(Dillmann, 1998).
Solyman (2005) evaluated the shrinkage of FRAC and found that at one year it was
15% higher in concrete with FRCA than in an equivalent conventional concrete. This
went up to 40% for concrete with CDW FRA (Figure 30).
Khatib (2005) evaluated the shrinkage of concrete mixes with FRCA with 25, 50,
75 and 100% replacement ratios. The author got long-term shrinkage around 50%
higher in the mixes with total replacement of FNA by FRA; this increase was related in
an approximately linear way to the replacement ratio.
Kou and Poon (2009b) analysed SCC mixes that contained RCA and FRA and
concluded that FRCA significantly increases shrinkage in concrete made with them. For
mixes with w/c = 0.53, the 110 day shrinkage of 100% FRA mixes is 170% higher than
that of FNA only concrete. The authors also concluded that a reduction of the w/c ratio
attenuates this effect since the shrinkage of 100% FRA mixes with w/c ratios of 0.35
and 0.44 is 390 and 610 μm/m, respectively. When comparing different types of fine
aggregates, Kou and Poon (2009a) concluded that concrete made with 100% FRA can
have up to about 23% more shrinkage than conventional concrete made with natural
sands.
Jeong (2011) analysed the shrinkage of concrete mixes with partial replacement of
FNA by FRCA and found that the increase in shrinkage due to the FRA can be
mitigated by replacing cement with fly ash.
Figure 29. Shrinkage of concrete with 100% CRA and various ratios of FRA for w/c = 0.60
(Dillmann, 1998).
Figure 30. Shrinkage of concrete with 70% FRA and w/c = 0.66 (Solyman, 2005).
Zega and di Maio (2011) obtained shrinkage values similar for conventional
concrete and mixes with 20% replacement of FNA and FRCA. Shrinkage was slightly
less in the mix with 30% replacement because the effective w/c ratio was slightly lower.
6.6. Creep
The creep of concrete with RA is expected to be higher than in conventional concrete
since it has lower modulus of elasticity because of the lower stiffness of the RA.
Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz (2002) obtained creep values for high-performance
concrete with either CRA or FRA similar to that of the reference concrete and increases
up to 20% when no superplasticisers were used. The authors concluded that the
incorporation of FRA harms the performance of RAC.
Gómez-Soberón (2002) obtained creep values for concrete with CRCA up to 30%
higher than for a reference concrete (Figure 34). The author argues that, when consid-
ered in conjunction with shrinkage creep is not influenced by RA incorporation for
replacement ratios of CNA by CRA up to 30%.
Fraaij, Pietersen, and de Vries (2002) evaluated the creep of concrete with RA,
where the coarse fraction was totally replaced by RCA (from crushed concrete or from
CDW) and 50% of the fine fraction by FRAC. Figure 32 shows the creep of the various
Figure 31. Creep of concrete with CRA (Gómez-Soberón, 2002).

concrete types tested. The presence of RA strongly influences concrete’s creep, since
after 3000 h it was approximately twice that of the reference concrete for the mix with
RA produced solely from crushed concrete and almost three times that of the mix that
also contained CDW RCA.
6.7. Wear resistance

The wear resistance, especially by abrasion, is fundamental to concrete elements whose
surface is directly exposed to continuous erosion, either human-related (e.g. vehicle or
pedestrian traffic) or environment-related (e.g. in hydraulic canals or gates).
Very few studies on this subject involving the use of RA are known, possibly
because this property is essential only to a limited range of concrete structures and ele-
ments, for which only good quality concrete is expected to be used.
Olorunsogo (1999) evaluated the wear resistance of concrete mixes with CRA and
replacement ratios of 30, 50, 70 and 100% and of a reference concrete. The results are
inconsistent since the mixes with 30 and 100% had higher mass loss than the reference
concrete (2.26 and 2.25 mm, respectively, vs. 1.85 mm) and the mixes with 50 and
70% had lower mass loss (1.60 and 1.61 mm, respectively). Even though no law relat-
ing wear resistance and replacement ratio could be established, the author nevertheless
said that the results were quite satisfactory and proved that the wear-related performance
of concrete with CRA is comparable to that of conventional concrete.
Evangelista and de Brito (2007) tested the wear resistance of concrete mixes with
FRCA and found there was a reduction of up to 30% of the wear of these mixes
compared with a reference concrete. The authors argue that the better mechanical bond
between the FRCA and the new cement paste is responsible for this improved
performance.
Pereira, Evangelista and de Brito (2012b) evaluated wear resistance using the same
method but obtained greater mass losses in FRAC than in the reference concrete regard-
less of the superplasticiser use effect, as seen in Figure 33, notwithstanding a small blip.
Figure 32. Creep of concrete with 100% CRCA or CDW RCA and 50% FRCA (Fraaij et al.,
2002).
6.8. Bond
If FRAC are to be used in structures, the bond behaviour of the steel rebars with FRAC
must be understood. Bonding is a phenomenon mostly related to tangential stress, which
itself is related to compressive and tensile strength. These mechanisms have been
extensively studied in ordinary concrete (e.g. Kemp and Wilhelm, 1979; Jiang, Shah,
and Andonian, 1984), but only recently has the work been extended to RAC, mostly for
CRAC.
The first known study of the bond strength of FRAC was by Reis et al. (2009) who
tested FRAC made with 25 and 50% of FRA from CDW. The resulting curves plotted
by the authors (Figure 34) were similar to those reported by Xiao and Falkner (2007)
for the smaller bar diameters, but showed inconsistent results for larger diameters. The
bond strength was reduced to a maximum of 10% for 10 mm bars and 30% for 16 mm
bars when FRA were used. For 10 and 16 mm bars, the authors state that frictional
bond stress is higher for FRAC, since post-peak slope of the curves is smoother. The
authors also found good correlation between bond and tensile strength of FRAC.
Bin (2012) tested the effect of the corrosion on steel rebars on the bond strength
between them and RAC and noted that up to a certain level of corrosion the bond is
improved but decreases more steeply than normal concrete after that limit.
Figure 33. Abrasion wear of FRAC (Pereira et al., 2012b).
Figure 34. Pull-out slip curves (Reis et al., 2009).

6.9. Water absorption

The permeability of concrete to fluids, especially water, is a property that is particularly
important since the durability and good performance of concrete throughout a structure’s
service life fundamentally depend on the absorption of fluids.
Water absorption can be evaluated by immersion tests that measure the open
porosity, or capillarity tests that measure the concrete’s capillary absorption due to the
pressure difference between the free surface of liquids on the face of concrete and the
free surface of liquids in the capillary vessels within concrete (Coutinho & Gonçalves,
1997).
Wainwright et al. (1994) evaluated water absorption by immersion of concrete mixes
with FRCA. The results of that test and of the air permeability at 28 days are set out in
Table 3. The authors concluded that it is more damaging to incorporate FRA than CRA,
especially in terms of air permeability. They also noted that the quality of the concrete
from which the RA are sourced seems to influence the porosity more than the compres-
sive strength of the new mixes made with them. This can be seen in Table 3 in which
the discrepancies between mixes whose only difference is the source of the aggregates
(e.g. 3A and 3B or 4A and 4B) are much bigger in terms of the absorption and porosity
than in terms of the compressive strength.
Wirquin, Buyle-Bodin, and Hadjieva-Zaharieva (2000) studied the influence that the
time and type of curing of concrete mixes with FRA have on their water absorption by
capillarity. They established laws of variation of capillary absorption based on the mod-
els proposed by Hall (1989) and Shönlin (according to Balayssac, 1992) for a reference
concrete (named BNN) and a mix with total replacement of NA by FA (called BRR),
with wet curing for 1, 3 and 28 days and curing by immersion in water for 28 days.
The authors found that the length of curing significantly affects the water absorption by
capillarity. Table 4 shows the values of the w/c ratio, initial absorption and sorptivity of
these two mixes. The mix with RA had seven times more initial absorption and 3.5
times more absorptivity than the reference concrete, which derives from the differing
w/c ratios.
Levy and Helene (2007) studied the effect of incorporating FRCA and FRA from
masonry in mixes of various strength levels. The water absorption grew as the ratio of
FRA increased because of the latter’s greater porosity.
The permeability of concrete is directly linked to its porosity. Fumoto and Yamada
(2006) determined the volume of pores between 0.05 and 10 μm and found that the
mixes with 100% FRCA have around 30% more volume of pores than conventional
concrete.
Using mercury intrusion porosimetry, Sagawa, Matsushita, and Kawabata (2007)
analysed the volume of pores of mixes with FRCA from two types of structures (a pre-
stressed slab and a column) and observed 1000% increase in the number of pores
Table 3. Water absorption by immersion and air permeability of the FRAC (Wainwright et al.,
1994).
Water absorption by immersion
(%) Air permeability (×10−7 m2)
Mix 7d 28 d 56 d 168 d 7d 28 d 56 d 168 d
CDW FRAC 16–32 14–22 13–20 13–21 8.5–17.4 3.9–10.5 3.2–9.3 2.2–6.7
Reference concrete 11 10 9 8 5.5 4.3 2.4 2.1
between 50 and 2 μm, thus confirming the greater porosity of FRCA. They also noticed
that the gradient of the pores’ volume relative to the type of FRA used increases with
increasing w/c ratio.
Evangelista and de Brito (2010) tested the water absorption by immersion and capil-
larity of concrete mixes with FRCA. The authors obtained excellent correlations
between the replacement ratio and the absorptions analysed, with increases in water
absorption by immersion and capillarity of 46 and 70.3%, respectively, in mixes where
FNA is fully replaced by FRA.
Ahmed (2011) tested the water absorption of concrete made with FRA from CDW
instead of FNA and found an apparently linear growth as the replacement ratio
increased up to a maximum of about 20%, measured for the concrete made exclusively
of FRA at the age of 56 days. Oddly, the water absorption measured is consistently
greater at 56 days than at 28 days, for which the author offers no explanation. When fly
ash was added to the mixes, the water absorption decreased considerably due to the
pozzolanic effect of the fly ash and the formation of secondary C-S-H crystals on the
ITZ.
Yaprak et al. (2011) observed water absorption increases from 1.67 to 1.92% when
they replaced all the FNA by FRCA in mixes with constant w/c ratio.
Zega and di Maio (2011) analysed concrete mixes with FRCA in terms of water
absorption under pressure by immersion and by capillarity. In addition they determined
the shrinkage. They found that the shrinkage of the mixes (with 0, 20 and 30% replace-
ment of FNA by FRA) was similar and linked this with the fact that the FRA absorbed
mixing water, and therefore the effective w/c ratio became lower. The various water
measurements yielded similar values for all mixes, leading the authors to conclude that
it is possible to produce concrete that meets durability demands and replacement ratios
up to 30%.
6.10. Carbonation resistance

Concrete carbonation is directly related to its porosity, and since concrete with RA is
more permeable it is natural that it has less carbonation resistance.
Mulheron (1989), cited by Hansen (1992), studied the durability of steel bars inside
concrete with RCA and found that for normal environmental conditions (temperature of
20 °C and 7 day dry/wet cycles) there was no difference in the initiation of corrosion
between this mix and conventional concrete, nor was there in the way it evolved. How-
ever, the conclusions changed significantly when the wetting and drying process
involved salts, where the RA mix performed worse.
Dillmann (1998) determined the carbonation depth in various concrete mixes with
RA sourced from laboratory concrete with compressive strength of 20 and 55 MPa and
CDW from a commercial recycling plant. The author then produced mixes with 100%
CRA, w/c ratios of 0.50 and 0.60 and varying FRA content. He compared his results
Table 4. Initial absorption and absorptivity of the mixes tested by Wirquin et al. (2000).
BNN BRR
w/c ratio 0.43 0.61
Initial absorption (kg/m2) 0.070 0.474
Absorptivity (kg/(m2 h.5)) 0.069 0.241
with reference values from Gräf and Grube (1986) and concluded that all mixes fulfilled
the minimum acceptance criteria.
In the Solyman (2005) work, the carbonation of FRAC was up to 17% higher after
one year of testing. Once again, the mixes with FRCA had more interesting results with
increases about half of that value.
Levy and Helene (2007) studied the effect of incorporating FRCA and masonry
FRA and obtained slightly lower carbonation depths in the FRAC than in the reference
mix. The authors explained this by the need to incorporate a greater amount of cement
in the FRAC to get the same strength. This higher cement content improves the matrix,
which explains the results.
Corinaldesi and Moriconi (2009) analysed concrete mixes with FRCA and found
there is a linear relationship between the carbonation depth and the square root of time,
just as in conventional concrete. They also found that the incorporation of FRA does
not cause a significant increase in carbonation depth because, even though the matrix is
more porous, the alkaline reserve within the FRCA functions as a barrier to the progres-
sion of CO2 molecules.
The carbonation depth measured by Evangelista and de Brito (2010) in concrete
mixes with 100% FRCA was around 110% higher than in an equivalent conventional
concrete, while for mixes with 30% replacement that value fell to 40%.
Zega and di Maio (2011) analysed concrete mixes containing FRCA and fly ash and
found that the carbonation of the various mixes (with 0, 20 and 30% replacement of
FNA by FRA) was similar, which they associated with the FRA absorbing mixing
water, thereby leading to lower effective w/c ratios.
Sim and Park (2011) analysed concrete mixes with 100% CRA incorporation and
incremental ratios of CDW FRA and found that at 28 days all mixes had reached car-
bonation depths lower than 10 mm, complying with the limits established. They also
concluded that the carbonation depth increases with the use of fly ash because it
decreases the concrete’s alkalinity.
6.11. Chloride penetration resistance

Similar to carbonation, the chloride penetration resistance of concrete is strongly
influenced by its permeability, and therefore it is natural that RAC performed worse
than conventional concrete, for the reasons set out above.
The penetration of chlorides in concrete is a complex phenomenon that occurs
through various mechanisms, and is therefore difficult to analyse. Stanish, Hooton, and
Thomas (2000) provide a good overview of the problem, indicating a wide range of
useful methods to obtain an index or factor to evaluate this aspect of the performance
of concrete.
Levy and Helene (2007) determined the electric resistivity of concrete mixes with
FRCA and got values between 14.2 and 7.2 kΩ cm, 15.0 and 7.4 kΩ cm, and 15.8 and
7.5 kΩ cm for compressive strengths of 20, 30 and 40 MPa, respectively. Based on
CEB Bulletin 192 (1989), the authors concluded that corrosion attack is very probable
in the mixes with 100% FRCA.
Fraaij et al. (2002) tested chloride penetration in concrete mixes with varying repla-
cement ratios of FNA by FRA and 100% CRA. The authors concluded that the RA
content does not influence the performance of concrete in terms of chloride ion perme-
ability. Figure 35 shows the variations in chloride concentration measured at various
depths for the different mixes tested.
Figure 35. Chloride content vs. depth in concrete (Fraaij et al., 2002).
Kou and Poon (2009b) concluded that FRCA in SCC have a beneficial effect, reduc-
ing the current that runs through the test specimens by up to 35 and 44% for w/c ratios
of 0.55 and 0.44, respectively. The authors account for the improved performance by a
filler effect (more particles below 300 μm) that makes the matrix denser. These results
contradict those of Hwang, Ko, and Jeon (2007), who report an increase in the number
and diameter of the pores of the FRA matrices.
Corinaldesi and Moriconi (2009) tested the chloride penetration in concrete mixes
with FRCA through a process proposed by Paury et al. (1990). The authors obtained
depths that changed linearly with the time of exposure to the saline solution. These
results seem to indicate that the diffusion coefficient is much lower in the FRAC even
though these results are conditioned by the big difference in w/c ratio between the FNA
mix (0.56) and the FRA mix (0.35).
Kou and Poon (2009a) tested the use of different types of fine aggregates on concrete
and established that for mixes with a constant w/c ratio the use of FRA leads to a small
decrease in chloride penetration resistance (about 10%), compared to control concrete.
Evangelista and de Brito (2010) tested the chloride penetration resistance in concrete
mixes with FRCA using the method proposed by NT BUILD 492 (Nordtest, 1990) and
arrived at chloride diffusion coefficients 12.0 and 33.8% higher than that of the
reference concrete for the 30 and 100% FRA mixes, respectively.
Sim and Park (2011) analysed concrete mixes containing 100% CRA and incremental
ratios of CDW FRA and fly ash as cement replacement. The authors concluded that the
CDW FRA do not significantly affect concrete, since approximately the same electric
current crossed all the specimen mixes without fly ash. When this addition is 30% by
cement weight, the current decreases by around 25% relative to the initial value and the
incorporation of FRA has no effect up to a 30% ratio, but it more than doubles after that.
7. Tests of reinforced concrete prototypes

The production and testing of structures is the undisputed final verification of the viabil-
ity of using FRA in structural concrete. Reinforced concrete structures made with
concrete containing RA have been analysed where CRA-only mixes have been used and
where CRA plus FRA mixes have been used. There are no similar works with
FRA-only mixes. Preliminary studies suggest that elements made with RAC have lower
strength and greater deformability (Maruyma, Sogo, Sogabe, Sato, & Kawai, 2004;
Yagishita, Sano, & Yamada, 1993).
Kishore (2007) tested several beams made with 100% CRA and 50% FRA and two
types of reinforcement (under-reinforced and balanced reinforcement) and found that
there was a maximum reduction of 7% in the ultimate load for the specimens with RA,
but the capacity was still 26.7–42.6% higher than the theoretical values. The author
observed 15.6% more deflection in RAC specimens and an increase of about 29% in
ultimate load strain for the same beams.
Sato, Maruyama, Sogabe, and Sogo (2007) also studied a large group of RAC
beams with different combinations of 100% CNA and CRA and 100% FNA and FRA,
in which the RA were made from two original concrete mixes (with w/c ratios of 0.45
and 0.63). The results led the authors to conclude that it is possible to design concrete
beams made with RA based on current models and practices. Although the results seem
adequate for the ultimate limit states, the serviceability performance should be consid-
ered more carefully and consider the specific properties of the RA.
Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz (2007) performed an extensive series of tests on
beams and columns made with both CRA and FRA from demolished precast concrete.
From the results, the authors concluded that the failure of the elements that belonged to
the same range of concrete strength was basically the same regardless of the amount of
RA used. However, the measured strains differed considerably. The load bearing capacity
was somewhat lower (about 3.5%) in the elements made with RAC. Regarding deforma-
tions, the authors indicate that these parameters are where the main differences lie.
Beams made with RA showed immediate deformations for probable service loads up to
100% higher than those measured in NAC. On the other hand, the authors report that col-
umns made with RA have greater ductility than those made with NAC. Later, the same
authors (Ajdukiewicz & Kliszczewicz, 2011) published the continuation of the previous
study analysing the long-term effects on the same type of elements. They found that the
presence of RA was now relevant as the long-term deformations (in beams and columns)
increased significantly with the presence of CRA and FRA.
Schubert, Hoffmann, and Leemann (2012) tested slabs without shear reinforcement
made with CRA and FRA (from different mixes) at replacement ratios of 50 and 100%
and compared the results with those provided in the Swiss design codes. In the flexural
tests with two linear loads parallel to the supports, they observed that the number of
cracks was higher in the RAC than in the NA mixes. The shear performance was com-
patible with the design codes with only a small disparity in the case of CRA made from
a mixture of concrete, rubble and masonry.
8. Conclusions
Although the use of FRA in concrete production is currently considered unacceptable
by a major part of the scientific community, it is feasible that this position is too conser-
vative. The results that have been cited in this paper prove that if the problem is
approached correctly, considering the particularities that FRA have in the method used
for the mix design and production, it is possible to make concrete containing FRA that
affords high performance, even exhibiting, at some levels, a behaviour similar to a
high-performance concrete. The results achieved so far for structural elements seem to
indicate that the use of FRA is not only a theoretical possibility but also an established
fact, which should be further investigated.
Nevertheless, there are still several difficulties that must be overcome before we can
safely state that this type of concrete can be used at an industrial scale without
restrictions, namely:
It is necessary to develop a standard method to determine the water absorption of

FRA, as well as an agreed mixing process.
Although some properties have already been studied to some extent, there are
others that need further investigation, in particular those that concern the
durability of concrete.
Due to the vast heterogeneity of these materials, some method of FRA
classification is required that takes into account the type and amount of recycled
materials present in FRA.
There is still a long road ahead in terms of defining constitutive relations for FRA
concrete, stress–strain relationships, relationship between different mechanical
properties and parameterised expressions to relate durability parameters to
permeability to fluids.
10. Acronyms
CDW - construction and demolition waste
CDW FRA - undifferentiated (construction and demolition waste) fine recycled
aggregates
CNA - coarse natural aggregates
CRA - coarse recycled aggregates
CRAC - coarse recycled aggregates concrete
CRCA - coarse recycled concrete aggregates
FNA - fine natural aggregates
FRA - fine recycled aggregates
FRAC - fine recycled aggregates concrete
FRCA - fine recycled concrete aggregates
FTIR - Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
ITZ - interfacial transition zone
NA - natural aggregates
RA - recycled aggregates
RAC - recycled aggregates concrete
RCA - recycled concrete aggregates
SCC - self-compacting concrete
SEM - scanning electron microscopy
XRD - X-ray diffraction analysis
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the ICIST Research Institute, the National
Laboratory of Civil Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico of the Technical University of Lisbon
and FCT (Foundation for Science and Technology).
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Concrete Withfine Recycled Aggregates A Review

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European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, 2014

Vol. 18, No. 2, 129–172, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2013.851038

Concrete with ﬁne recycled aggregates: a review

*Corresponding author. Email: jb@civil.ist.utl.pt

© 2013 Taylor & Francis

2. Initial works and existing regulations

2.2. Existing regulations on the use of FRA

Table 1. General summary of the use of FRA in concrete in national speciﬁcations.

3. Production and treatment of FRA

Figure 1. Vertical axis impactor (Metzo, Inc.).

Figure 2. Evolution of the water absorption of CDW FRA (Leite, 2001).

Figure 3. Water absorption of FRA (Solyman, 2005).

4.1.2. Methods to determine water absorption

4.2. Microscopic analysis of the FRA

Figure 6. SEM image of FNA (Solyman, 2005).

Figure 7. SEM image of FRA (Solyman, 2005).

Figure 8. Photogrammetric scheme and analysis of FRA particles (Solyman, 2005).

4.3. Chemical and mineralogical analysis of FRA

5. Mixing procedures of FRAC

6. Properties of concrete with RA

Pereira, Evangelista and de Brito (2012a) noticed a loss of performance of the

6.2. Compressive strength

Figure 13. Compressive strength vs. replacement ratio of NA by RA (Leite, 2001).

Figure 16. Compressive strength vs. replacement ratio (Solyman, 2005).

6.3. Tensile strength

6.4. Modulus of elasticity

Figure 24. Modulus of elasticity vs. compressive strength (Khatib, 2005).

Figure 25. Shrinkage of concrete with RA (Hasaba et al., 1981).

Figure 26. Shrinkage of FRAC (Merlet & Pimienta, 1993).

Figure 31. Creep of concrete with CRA (Gómez-Soberón, 2002).

6.7. Wear resistance

Figure 33. Abrasion wear of FRAC (Pereira et al., 2012b).

Figure 34. Pull-out slip curves (Reis et al., 2009).

6.9. Water absorption

6.10. Carbonation resistance

6.11. Chloride penetration resistance

7. Tests of reinforced concrete prototypes

 It is necessary to develop a standard method to determine the water absorption of

Schulz, R. R. (1988). Concrete with recycled rubble - developments in West Germany. In

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It is necessary to develop a standard method to determine the water absorption of