CVE 104

GEOLOGY AND SOIL ENGINEERING

Lecturer: Laudina Gloria Mends

1
Civil Engineering Department
Ho Technical University

7/5/2022
 2 Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
 Discuss how water occurs in soil
 Identify the effect of water on soil
 Determine permeability of soil in the laboratory and on
the field.
 Solve basic soil problems with regards to soil and water
occurrence.

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 3
Introduction

 The earth is 71% water, 97% of

the water is salty and found in
the oceans. 3% is freshwater.

Of the 3%, 79% of it is found

in glaciers and ice caps. 29%
groundwater and 1% surface
water.
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 The Hydrologic Cycle
4

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 5 The Hydrologic Cycle
 The water cycle begins with the energy of the sun, where
it warms up the earth and forces water on the earth’s
surface to move in the form of water vapour.
 This water vapour coalesce and falls as precipitation.
Some of the precipitation directly ends up in open
waters, some are absorbed back and others infiltrate into
the soil.
 So therefore one can say that groundwater is the water
that infiltrates into the soil and travels farther down to
the saturated zone or water below the water table.

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 Occurrence Of Water In Soil
6

https://www.ope
7/5/2022

n.edu/openlearn
 7 Water in soil
Groundwater in soils may be of two types:
 Phreatic or gravitational water which
Subject to gravitational forces
Saturates the pore spaces in the soil below the water table
Has an internal pore pressure greater than atmospheric
pressure
Tends to flow laterally
 Vadose water
 Transient percolating water moving downwards to join the phreatic
water below the water table
 Capillary water held above the water table by surface tension forces
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 8 Water in Soil cont’d
 Water table or Phreatic surface
The level at which the pore water pressure is equal to that of the
atmosphere is termed as the water table of a phreatic surface.

 Capillary Water
This is the water that is held above the water table by surface
tension which is the attractive force exerted at the interface or
surface between materials in different physical states i.e
liquid/gas, solid/liquid ....

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 Water in Soil
9

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 10 Pore Pressure and Effective Stress
 When an external stress is applied to a soil mass that is
saturated with pore water, the immediate effect is an increase
in the pore pressure. This produces a tendency for the pore
water to flow away through adjoining voids.

 The pore pressure decreases as a result and the applied stress

is transferred to the granular fabric of the soil. At a time t,
the applied total stress will be balanced by two internal stress
components.

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 11 Pore Pressure and Effective Stress
 Pore Pressure (u): this is the pressure induced in the
fluid(either water, or vapour and water) filling the pores.
Pore fluid is able to transmit normal stress, but not stress
and is therefore ineffective in providing shear resistance.
 Effective stress (ϭ’): this is the stress transmitted through
the soil fabric via intergranular contacts.
ϭ’= ϭ – u
effective stress is the difference between the total stress
and the pore pressure.

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 12 Pore Pressure
 The hydrostatic pore pressure under natural field conditions
of no flow is represented by the water table or phreatic
surface level.
 If water table lies at a depth dw below the surface, then at z,
the hydrostatic pressure is given by uz=9.81(z- dw). When z
is greater than dw, uz will have a positive value and vice
versa.
 N/B: it is necessary to calculate the static effective
overburden stress at a given depth
ϭz’= ϭz – u

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 Pore Pressure in Partially – Saturated
13 Soils
 Partially - saturated soils is composed of water
liquid(incompressible) and air/water vapor which is highly
compressible.

 U=pore water pressure(uw) and the pore air pressure (ua)

therefore u=ua-x(ua-uw)
where x is a parameter dependent on the degree of
saturation and to a lesser extent the soil fabric structure.
Sr varies between 0 to 1. Sr = 0 (dry soil), Sr = 1 (wet soil)

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 14 Worked example
The soil layers consist of :
0-4 BS gravel-sand (ᵞsat = 20kN/m3 , ᵞ = 19.2kN/m3 )
4-9 BS clay (ᵞ = 18.0kN/m3 )
Draw an effective stress/total stress profile b/n 0 to 9m BS,
when the water table is 1m above the top of the clay.
Stresses (kN/m3)
Depth Total stress Pore pressure Effective stress
BS (m)
ϭz ϭz uz ϭ’z= ϭz – uz

0 0 0 0
3 19.2*3=57.6 57.6 0
4 20*1=20 77.6 9.81*1=9.8
9 18*5=90 167.6 9.81*6=58.8 7/5/2022
 Worked example
15
0 ϭ’z , uz (kN/m3)

57.6 WT
3
9.6 77.6
4

uz ϭ’z
ϭz
z

56.6 167.6
9

z
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 16
Permeability and Seepage
The pore spaces between particles of soils are all interconnected
so that the water is free to flow within the soil mass. In such a
porous media, water will flow from zones of higher to lower
power pressure.
Bernoulli’s equation states three head components:
𝑢 𝑣2
ℎ = ℎ𝑧 + +
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔
ℎ𝑧 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑢
= 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑢
𝛾𝑤
𝑣2
= 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ
2𝑔
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 Water Flow
17
In saturated conditions, one dimensional flow is governed by
Darcy’s law which states that the flow velocity is proportional to
the hydraulic gradient:
𝑣 ∝ 𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖
Where v = flow velocity
k = the flow constant or coefficient of permeability

∆ℎ
𝑖 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
∆𝑙

∆ℎ = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝑙

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18 Water Flow

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 Water Flow
19

Quantity of flow, q

𝑞 = 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝑘𝑖
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒

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 Seepage velocity and seepage
20
pressure
The movement of water through a soil mass is generally termed
seepage. The velocity through the pores is termed as the seepage
velocity.
 Consider a soil of porosity 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑉 /𝐴
For a given flow rate 𝑞 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴𝑉 𝑉𝑆
Where A = section area of soil perpendicular to flow direction

𝐴𝑣 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠

𝑉𝐴 𝑣 𝑘𝑖
∴ 𝑉𝑠 = = =
𝐴𝑣 𝑛 𝑛

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 Seepage velocity and seepage
21 pressure

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 Seepage velocity and seepage
22 pressure
 The work done by water during seepage results in a seepage force
(J) which is exerted on the particles.
 Consider a column of soil shown in fig 2. When the valve at A-A
is wide open, flow takes place under the influence of ℎ𝑠 , thus an
upward-acting seepage force is exerted on the soil particles
between C-C and B-B
 When the value at level A-A is closed, the water level will rise
until it reaches 0-0 where it will remain stationary. At this point,
there will be no seepage. it may concluded that the seepage force
has now been balanced by the additional weight of water between
A-A and O-O

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 Seepage velocity and seepage
23
pressure
∴ 𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐽 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑠 𝐴
But since the flow velocity is constant, the seepage force acting on
the soil will also be constant between C-C and B-B so the seepage
force per unit volume is given as:
𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑠 𝐴
𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝐽 =
𝐿𝐴
ℎ𝑠
𝑎𝑠 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑖
𝐿
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐽 = 𝑖𝛾𝑤
The seepage force per unit volume (J) is usually referred to as the
seepage pressure.
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 Quick condition and critical
24 hydraulic gradient
The effect of upward-flowing water in a soil mass in creating a
seepage pressure on the particles is to reduce the intergranular or
effective stress.
If a sufficiently high enough flow rate is achieved, the seepage
pressure can cancel out the effective stress completely causing a
quick condition.
This is a condition in which the soil has no shear strength since the
intergranular stress has been reduced to zero.
Equating forces at C-C:
𝛾𝑤 𝐿 + ℎ + ℎ𝑠 𝐴 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐿 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ 𝐴
𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑠 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 𝐿
𝛾𝑤 𝑖𝑐 = 𝛾 ′
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 Quick condition and critical
25
hydraulic gradient
Where 𝑖𝑐 is termed the critical hydraulic gradient that is the
hydraulic gradient at which the quick condition occurs. A numerical
value may be obtained for 𝑖𝑐 thus;

𝛾 ′ 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤
𝑖𝑐 = =
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤
𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒 𝛾𝑤
− 𝛾𝑤
= 1 + 𝑒
𝛾𝑤
𝐺𝑠 − 1
=
1+𝑒

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 26 Coefficient of Permeability
The capacity of a soil to allow water to pass through it is termed its
permeability (or hydraulic conductivity). k is defined as the flow
velocity produced by a unit hydraulic gradient. k is a measure of the
resistance of flow offered by the soil, and it is affected by several
factors:
• The porosity of the soil
• The particle size distribution
• The shape and orientation of soil particles
• The degree of saturation or presence of air
• The type of cation and thickness of adsorbed layers associated
with clay minerals (if present)
• The viscosity of the soil water which varies with temperature.
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 27 Approximations of k
There are several approximations of k, however none of them is more
realistic. It is more realistic to obtain estimates for k using field
pumping tests or a laboratory method. The most frequently used
approximation is one suggested by Hazen for filter sands.

𝒌 = 𝑪𝒌 𝒅𝟐𝟏𝟎 (mm/s)
Where 𝑑10 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝑘 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

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 28 Determination of k in the laboratory
 k can be measured in the field or laboratory, however several
problems are associated with laboratory testing with regards
to
• Reliability of sample i.e obtaining a good representative sample
• Reliability of laboratory measurements i.e reproducibility of
results
• Reproduction of field conditions. On the field, the conditions
such as bedding and existence of structures within the soil can
greatly affect the permeability of the area and thus the ability to
reproduce field conditions can contribute to obtaining near
accurate results.
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 Laboratory tests for k determination
29

There are three ways of determining the k in the laboratory but

we will be looking at two widespread ones
• Constant head test: suitable for gravels and sands with value
of k>10–5m/s
• Falling head test: suitable for fine sands, silts and clays with
k values between 10–4 and 10–7
• Hydraulic cell test: suitable for soils with very low
permeability.

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 30
The Constant Head Test
 The apparatus used is called a constant head permeameter. De-
aired water is added to the sample whiles valves B and A
remain open. Valve C is closed.

 The water that drains through valve A is collected in a beaker

and weighed to know the quantity. When a steady state is
attained, the pressure readings are recorded from a pair of
manometer connected to the setup.

 The manometer gives pressure head readings.

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31

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 32 The Constant Head Test
Using Darcy’s equation 𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴𝑖
𝑞 𝑄𝐿
𝑘= =
𝐴𝑖 𝐴ℎ𝑡
Where Q= quantity of water collected in time, t(s) = Q
(ml)*103(mm3)
A= cross sectional area of sample (mm2)
h= difference in manometer level (mm)
L= distance between manometer tapping points (mm)

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 Worked Example
33
 During a test using a constant-head permeameter, the following
data were collected. Determine the value of k. Take diameter of
sample to be 100mm, KT=1.09, temperature of water =17°C,
Distance between manometer tapping points =150mm.
Quantity collected in 2mins (ml) 541 503 509 474

Difference in manometer 76 72 68 65
levels(mm)

Π𝑑 2 Π(100)2
Cross sectional area = = = 7854𝑚𝑚2
4 4
Flow quantity, Q =𝑄 𝑚𝑙 ∗ 103 𝑚𝑚3
Flow time, t = 2*60 = 120s
𝑄𝐿 𝑄 ∗ 103 ∗ 150
𝑘= =
𝐴ℎ𝑡 7854 ∗ ℎ ∗ 120
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K= 0.19Q/h (mm/s)
 34 Worked Example
Flow quantity Head difference (h) mm K= 0.19Q/h
Q(ml) (mm/s)
541 76 1.13
503 72 1.11
509 68 1.19
474 65 1.16

Average k = 1.15mm/s
Corrected k = 1.15*1.09 = 1.25mm/s

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 The Falling Head Test
35
The rate of flow for some soils are too small to enable accurate
measurements using the constant head permeameter hence the
falling head test.
The test is conducted by filling the standpipe with de-aired water
and allowing seepage to take place through the sample. The height
of water in the standpipe is recorded at several time intervals
during the test and the test is repeated using standpipes of different
diameter.
From Darcy’s law, 𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴𝑖
𝑑ℎ
The standpipe falls dh in a time dt thus 𝑞 = −𝑎 with a
𝑑𝑡
ℎ
hydraulic gradient 𝑖 =
𝐿
𝑑ℎ ℎ
So that 𝑞 = −𝑎 = 𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
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36

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 37 The Falling Head Test
Where a = cross sectional area of the standpipe
A = cross sectional area of the sample
Rearranging and interpolating
ℎ2
𝑑ℎ 𝑘𝐴 𝑡2
−න = න 𝑑𝑡
ℎ1 ℎ 𝑎𝐿 𝑡1
ℎ2 𝑘𝐴
−ln = (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
ℎ1 𝑎𝐿
aLln( ℎ1/ ℎ2 )
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑘 =
𝐴(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
2.3𝑎𝐿 log10 (ℎ1 /ℎ2 )
𝑘=
𝐴(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
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 Worked Example
38
During a test using the falling-head permeameter, the ff data were
recorded. Determine the average value of k.
Diameter of sample= 100mm
Length of sample = 150mm
Π𝑑 2 Π(100)2
Cross-sectional area of sample, 𝐴 = =
4 4
Π𝑑 2
Area of standpipe, 𝐴 =
4
aLln( ℎ1/ ℎ2 )
𝑘=
𝐴(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
𝑑2 ∗ 150 ∗ ln(ℎ1 /ℎ2 )
1002 ∗ (𝑡2 /𝑡1 )
0.015𝑑2 ln(ℎ1 /ℎ2 )
(𝑡2 /𝑡1 ) 7/5/2022
 Worked Example
39
Recorded data Computed
Standpipe Level in standpipe Time ℎ1 K(mm/s)*10
diameter, d(mm) interval ln –3
ℎ2
ℎ1 ℎ2 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )𝑠
5.00 1200 800 82 0.4055 1.854
800 400 149 0.6931 1.744

9.00 1200 900 177 0.2877 1.975

900 700 169 0.2513 1.807
700 400 368 0.5596 1.847

12.50 1200 800 485 0.4055 1.959

800 400 908 0.6931 1.789
Av
k=1.85*10–3
mm/s7/5/2022
 40 Field Permeability Test
Pumping tests involve the measurement of a pumped quantity from a
well together with observations in other wells of the resulting
drawdown of the groundwater level.
 Aquifer: an underground layer of water bearing permeable rock,
rock fractures or unconsolidated materials.
• Confined aquifer: they are overlain by relatively impermeable rock
or clay that limits groundwater movement into or out of the confined
aquifer.
• Unconfined aquifer: not overlain by any confining layer but has a
confining layer at its bottom. In other words, it has a free draining
surface layer underlain by an impervious base

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41 Pumping test in a confined aquifer

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 42 Pumping test in a confined aquifer

𝑞 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
 In a confined aquifer, k =
2𝜋𝐷(ℎ2 −ℎ1 )

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 Pumping Test in an Unconfined
43 Aquifer

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 Worked Example
44

𝑞 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
In an unconfined aquifer, k =
𝜋(ℎ22 −ℎ12 )

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