Chapter 4. Design of canals Presented by : Er.

NP Dawadi

4.1 Design capacity of canals

4.2 Sediment transport in canals
4.3 Tractive force approach of canal design
4.4 Design of stable canals.
4.5 Design of stable canals ( Kennedy’s and Lacey’s theory)
4.6 Design of lined canals with economic analysis
4.1 Design capacity of canal
The rate at which water is transported by a canal is called its discharge, and the maximum discharge that any canal can
transport is canal capacity. The canal should be designed to carry maximum discharge to supply water in the field i.e. the
maximum rate of water conveyed by the canal to the required command area at any one time among all the seasons.
Factors affecting the maximum discharge of canal:
i. Area of the maximum wetted cross-section,
ii. Resistance to the flow, or roughness of the bed and sides
iii. Bed slope or longitudinal slope in the direction of water flow.
Note: for numericals:
[If the maximum discharge required in field is Q1 m3/s.
If time factor of 0.70 then , design discharge = Q1 / Time factor. TF = no. of days of canal running / base period
If capacity factor of 0.80, then design discharge = Q1 / (TF x CF) CF = [Average flow depth of canal / full supply depth of
flow in canal.]
4.2 Sediment transport in canal
Flowing water in canal tries to scour its surface. Silt, gravel or even larger boulders are detached from the bed and sides of
banks. These detached particles are flown D/S by the moving water, which is called sediment transport.
Due to scouring and silting of canal, the capacity of canal reduces in one hand and in other strength of canal also decreases.
The change in depth of flow occurs due to silting and scouring. Similarly, on the natural / artificial unlined channels the
formation of sharp and irregular curves on the banks due to flowing water which increases the flow resistance and there by
raising flood level / FSL for the same discharge. The silting of channels / reservoirs reduces storage capacity reducing life,
channels used for navigation purpose are frequently silted up and reduces the clear water depth required for navigation and
huge expenses required for the excavation / dredging of sediments.
The sediment load that is entered / admitted at the canal head work should be carried D/S by the flowing water without silting
on bed and banks.
Sediment loads:
i) Bed load : Sediment moves along the bed / grains roll along the bed with occasional jump into the canal, generally, the
coarser materials.
ii) Suspended load: Sediment materials are maintained in suspension due to the turbulence of flowing water, i.e. Fine
materials of silts / sand /clay particles. Vertical components of eddies / turbulence keeps them in suspension.
4.3 Tractive force approach of canal design
Tractive force approach of design of canal basically used to design canals in coarse alluvial soil. According to this approach if
the sufficient drag force/ tractive force/ shear stress is created to move the sediment particle on the bed which is just equals or
exceeds the resistance offered by the particle to its movement then it starts moving and flows D/S with the flowing water.
Hence, no siltation in channel / canal occurs.

Let us consider the channel of length ‘L’ and cross sectional area ‘A’ . Then, volume of water stored in this reach = A x L
⸫ Wt. of water stored (W) = γw x A x L
Horizontal component of this wt. = wsinɵ = γw x A x L sinɵ
For small angle ‘ɵ’ sinɵ = tanɵ = γw x A x L tanɵ = γw x A x L x S = tractive force or drag force
Unit tractive force = (τo) = tractive force per unit wetted area. = (γw x A x L x S)/ (P X L) = γw. R . S
⸫ unit tractive force or shear stress (τo) = γw. R . S
For wide channel R=D then, (τo) = γw. D . S
wsinɵ
ɵ

A D wcosɵ w = γw x A x L
ɵ
Cross section L

L- section
Critical tractive force / stress τc:
When the velocity of flow through a channel is very small and channel bed does not move at all and the channel behaves as
rigid boundary channel.
As the velocity increases steadily, a stage is reached when the shear force exerted by the flowing water on the bed particles
will just exceed the force opposing their movement. At this stage few particles will just start moving intermittently. This
condition is called incipient motion condition or critical condition or threshold condition.
Shield was the first investigator who provide semi theoretical analysis of the critical condition of bed motion and used it for
designing of non scouring channels in coarse alluvium.
According to him, critical tractive stress τc is as that of average shear stress τ0 acting on the bed of the channel at which
sediment particles just begins to move.
a) Design of Non scouring stable channel having protected side slopes: Shield’s Method.
Shield said that the particle begins to move when the drag force F1 exerted by the flowing water/ fluid on the particle just
equals or exceeds the resistance F2 offered by the particle to its movement.
Drag force F1 is given by , F1 = K1 [ Cd. D2.1/2 ρw . V02] … (i) by using Karman Prandtl equation
where, K1 factor depends on size of particle V0/V = f1 (V. d /υ)
Cd = drag coefficient = f1 . Re
d = dia. Of particle , V0 = velocity of flow on top of particle at bottom of channel. ⸫V0 = f1. V. Re
ρw = density of fluid / water V = shear friction velocity = √(τ0 / ρw) , υ = kinematic viscosity of fluid.
Coefficient of drag Cd is given by , Cd = f ʹ [ V0 . d /υ ]
= f2 [ V. d /υ ]
Cd = f2 . Re

Putting the value of V0 and Cd in equation (i)

Then, F1 = K1 [ (f2 . Re) . d2 . ½ ρw . (V . f1. Re2)]
⸫ F1 = [ K1. f2. f12. ½ d2 . ρw . V2 . Re2]
Again the particle resistance F2 is given by,
F2 = K2 [d3 . (ρs - ρw ) g ] where, ρs = density of particle
= K2 [ d3. (ρs/ ρw - 1) ρw. g ] Ss = specific gravity of particle
⸫ F2 = K2 . γw d3( Ss – 1) K2 = factor depend upon shape and internal friction of soil.
At critical condition , F1 = F2
[ K1. f2. f12. ½ d2 . ρw . Vc2 . Re2c] = K2 . γw d3( Ss – 1)
(ρw . Vc2) / γw d ( Ss – 1) = (2 K2 / K1. f2. f12). Re-3c But, Vc = √(τc / ρw) ⸫ τc = Vc2 . ρw

τc /γw d ( Ss – 1) = F . Rec (function of Reynold number)

The left hand term is dimension less number called Shields entrainment function and denoted by Fs
Fs = F. Re where, Fs = τc /γw d ( Ss – 1)
At critical stage of bed movement and based on the experiment done by Shield, graphs have been plotted between Fs and Re.
that determines suitable basis for design of channels.
Graph of Fs vs Re
When, Re > 400, Fs is constant to a value of 0.056 τ0 ≤ τc
τc /γw d ( Ss – 1) = 0.056 , if Ss= 2.65 then
γw. R . S/ γw d (2.65-1) = 0.056
R S ≤ d/11 ⸫ d ≥ 11RS
d = min. size of bed material / lining remain on bed for given R & S.
Re>400 represents roughness when d >6mm; coarse alluvial

laminar flow Thershold Turbulent flow

1 10 100 400 1000

Reynold Number (Re)
b. Banks & Bed not protected:
For the stability of horizontal bed, shear stress τ0 = γw. R. S was only one disturbing force but on the side slopes one more
disturbing force i.e. component of wt. of particle also comes.
τcʹ be the shear stress reqd. to move grain of wt. w on side slope. τc be the critical shear stress reqd. to move similar grain on
bed of canal.

w.cosɵ = R = 0.75 γw R S
W.sinɵ w
Flow dirn per. to paper = γw R S

τc ʹ shear stress distribution in trapezoidal channel section

τc = w tanφ
Wsinɵ int. friction bed
R. tanφ w
Now, from free body diagram, or, τcʹ2 + τc2/ tan2φ . sin2ɵ = τc2/ tan2φ . cos2ɵ . tan2φ
τcʹ2 + (wsinɵ )2 = (R. tanφ )2 or, τcʹ2 = τc2 [ cos2ɵ - sin2ɵ/ tan2φ ]……. (i)
or, τcʹ2 + w2 sin2ɵ = w2cos2ɵ . tan2φ or, τcʹ2 / τc2 = cos2ɵ [ 1- tan2ɵ/ tan2φ ]
Cont..
⸫ τcʹ / τc = cosɵ √[ 1- tan2ɵ/ tan2φ ]
OR
τcʹ2 = τc2 [ cos2ɵ - sin2ɵ/ tan2φ ]……. (i)
τcʹ2 / τc2 = [ 1-sin2ɵ - sin2ɵ/ tan2φ ]
= 1- sin2ɵ ( 1+ 1 / tan2φ )
= [1- (sin2ɵ . sec2φ)/ tan2φ ]
= 1- (sin2ɵ . 1/ cos2φ / sin2φ/ cos2φ )
⸫ τcʹ / τc = √(1- sin2ɵ/ sin2φ) Here, τcʹ / τc have +ve value less than 1
⸫ τcʹ / τc < 1
So, τcʹ < τc Shear stress required to move grain in side slope is less than that required on the bed.

**Note:
Mittal & Swamy had provided relation between τc and d ; for any size of d , Ss = 2.65.
τc = 0.155 + [(0.409d2mm) / (√ 1+0.177d2mm)] Strickler’s formula for determining Manning’s coefficient
N = 1/24 . d 1/6 where, d is in meter.
4.4 Design of stable canals
Canal should be designed in such a way that silt should not deposited in the bed and side slope of the canal as well as there
should not be scoured of bed and side materials. Silting cause to reduce the section of the canal and hence carrying capacity of
canal is decreased. Similarly silt have to be excavated / dredged out which increases the maintenance cost of canal. Again,
scouring of bed and sides increases the cross sectional area of canal hence reduction in depth of flow as well as chance of
breaching of canal by decreasing strength of banks.
The velocity of canal should be maintained as non silting and non scouring velocity so that the flowing water does not let the
silt load to be deposited as well as it should not scour the bed and sides of canal.
For design of canal following data should be known.
1. Discharge of flow Q. FB
2. Surface and soil properties , coefficient of rugosity N.
3. Longitudinal slope S.
4. Side slope of canal n:1 (H:V) n: 1 D
5. B/D ratio is fixed according to discharge B
Design consists of following procedure.
a) Find cross sectional area of canal. A= BD + nD2 e) Discharge Q = A x V
b) Find Wetted perimeter . P = B + 2D √( 1 + n2)
c) Find Hydraulic mean depth . R = A/P
d) Find Velocity of flow V . Which is the function of ( N, R, S) using Manning’s equation or Chezy’s equation.
V = 1/N . R2/3 . S ½ Manning’s equation OR V = C√(R.S) Chezy’s equation
4.5 Design of stable canal by Kennedy’s theory
Kennedy’s theory :
R. G. Kennedy carried out his investigation on the Upper Bari Doab canal in Punjab which was not the silt free canal for the longer
period. From his observation he concluded that

‘ silt supporting power in the canal cross section was mainly dependent upon the generation of eddies rising to the surface. These
eddies are generated due to the friction of flowing water to the surface of the bed. The vertical component of eddies try to move the
sediment particle up while wt. of particle tries to bring it down. So, velocity of sufficient strength is provided to canal water for
generation of eddies, which helps the sediments in suspension and hence silting will be avoided.’
According to this concept he introduced critical velocity and gave its relation to depth of flow as ,
Vc = C1. D C2 where, C1 and C2 are constant and D = depth of flow.
Vc = 0.55 D 0.64 He gave the value of C1 = 0.55 and C2 = 0.64
for other channels he introduced the factor depending upon the type of soil named as critical velocity ratio C.V.R ‘m’.
m = Va /Vc Vc = 0.55 m D 0.64
Design procedure:
1. Determine critical velocity using formula Vc = 0.55 m D 0.64 by taking any trial value of D.
2. Find out cross sectional area of channel by A = Q /Vc
3. Calculate the channel width dimension B, wetted perimeter P and hydraulic mean depth R.
1 0.00155 0.00155
4. Find actual velocity by using Kutter’s formula Va = C√(R . S) where, 𝐶 = + 23 + / (1+ (23 + ) . N /√R)
𝑁 𝑆 𝑆
5. Check Va / Vc ratio, if Va / Vc = m, then assumed depth D is the required canal depth. And if Va / Vc ≠ m, then choose another
trial value of D and carry out the procedure till Va / Vc = m.
4.5 Lacey’s theory of canal design :

Gerald Lacey was a civil engineer of irrigation department UP India and carried out his own investigation on the design of
stable channels in alluvium. On the basis of his research, he found drawbacks in Kennedy’s theory and therefore he invented
his own theory called Lacey’s theory.
According to Kennedy channel is said to be in the state of regime if there is no silting and no scouring in the channel. But
lacey said that even a channel showing no silting and no scouring may actually not be in regime. There he differentiate
different regime conditions.
1. Initial regime : when only the bed slope of the channel varies and its cross section , wetted perimeter remains unaffected,
even the channel exhibit no silting and no scouring condition called initial regime. When water flows through excavated
channels with narrow dimension and defective slopes, the silt carried by water gets dropped at the upper reach and
increasing the bed slope, consequently velocity of flow increases and hence no silting equilibrium is reached called initial
regime. Sides of such channels subjected to lateral restraints and could be scoured if the bank soil would have been in true
alluvium. But in practice there may either be grassed or be of clayey soil and may not get eroded at all. But infact they are
not in regime and only have achieved working stability due to rigidity of their banks. Regime theory is not applicable to
them as they are not the channel in alluvium.
2. True Regime: the silt load entering the channel must be carried out by the channel section. There can be only one channel
section and one bed slope at which a channel carrying a given discharge and a particular quantum and type of the silt
would be in regime. Hence, artificial channel having a certain fixed section and bed slope can behave in regime only if the
following conditions are satisfied,
a) Discharge is constant b) flow is uniform c) silt charge and grade is constant d) channel is flowing through material
which can be scoured as easily as it can be deposited i.e. incoherent alluvium. So, such all conditions can never be satisfied
and thus artificial channels can never be in true regime. They can either be in initial regime or final regime.
3. Final Regime :
If there is no resistance from the sides and all the variables such as depth, perimeter , slope etc.. are equally free to vary and
finally get adjusted according to the discharge and silt grade. Such channel is said to have achieved stability called final
regime. Regime theory is applicable to such channels only but not to all regime channels as described by Kennedy.

In such channels where all variables are free to vary has a tendency to attain a semi elliptical section. Coarser the silt flatter
would be the semi ellipse i.e. greater its width of water surface and finer the silt more nearly the section attains semi circle as
in figure.

Lacey’s Equation and their derivations for different canal parameters:

Three basic equations of Lacey are:
V = 10.8 R2/3 S1/3 ….. (1)
A f 2 = 140 V5 ……..(2)
V = √( 2/5. f . R ) ……(3)
f = 1.76√dmm ……..(4) silt factor f and its relation with diameter of particle d.
Other derived equations: from eqn. (2) multiply both sides by V
Then, V x A f 2 = 140 V5 x V
Q. f 2 = 140 V6
⸫ V = (Q. f 2 / 140 )1/6 ……(5)
From equation (3), on squaring
V 2 = 2/5 . f . R Discharge per unit wetted perimeter q = Q/P
⸫ R = 5/2 ( V2/f ) …….(6) q = Q / 4.75 √Q
⸫ q = 0.21√Q ……(9)
Again from eqn. (3) V = √( 2/5. f . R ) on double squaring
V4 = 4/25 f 2 R2 …..(a) Again, from eqn. (8) R = 0.48 (Q/f) 1/3
from equation (2) A f 2 = 140 V5 R = 0.48. (q2 / 0.212 )1/3 / f 1/3
f 2 = 140 V 5 /A ⸫ R = 1.35 (q2/f )1/3 ……(10)
Putting the value of f 2 in (a) V4 = (4/25) .140 .(V 5 /A ) .R2
1 = 22.4 (V/A) . (A2/P2) from eqn. (1) V = 10.8 R 2/3 S 1/3
P 2 = 22.4 Q (Q f 2/140) 1/6 = 10.8 [0.48 (Q/f)1/3 ]2/3 S 1/3
P = 4.7328 √Q Q 1/6 f 1/3 / 2.278 = 10.8 ( 0.613 Q2/9 f -2/9 ) S1/3
⸫ P = 4.75 √Q …(7) S = [1/15.081 ( Q -1/18 . f 5/9 )] 3

Again, from eqn. (3) on squaring it, V2 = 2/5 (f . R) ……(b) ⸫ S = 1/3340 . (f 5/3 / Q 1/6 ) … (11)
Putting the value of V from (5) in (b) [(Q. f 2 / 140 )1/6] 2 = 2/5 (f . R)
Q1/3 . f -1/3 = 2.077 R
⸫ R = 0.48 (Q/f)1/3 …..(8)
4.6 Design of lined canal
Lined canal is designed either of triangular or trapezoidal shape. For discharge less than 100 m 3/s triangular shape is designed
and for discharge greater than 100 m3/s trapezoidal shape is designed.
1. Triangular Section: o Wetted perimeter P = 2 y cotɵ + 2 y ɵ
ɵ ɵɵ ɵ ⸫ P = 2y ( cotɵ + ɵ )
y cotɵ y y y
yɵ yɵ R = A/P = y2 ( cotɵ + ɵ ) / 2y ( cotɵ + ɵ )
⸫R=y/2

Let , the central depth = radius of circle = y , ɵ = side slope angle in radian
Area of section A = 2 . ½ y. y cotɵ + 2 . ½ y . y ɵ = y2 cotɵ +y2 ɵ
⸫ A = y2 ( cotɵ + ɵ )
2. Trapezoidal Section : A = By + y2 ( cotɵ + ɵ ) , P = B +2y (cotɵ + ɵ ) & R = A / P

ɵ ɵ ɵ ɵ
y cotɵ y y y y y cotɵ

yɵ B yɵ
Justification for lining existing canal with economical analysis:
For justification of lining, Economic analysis is carried out. i.e. B/C ratio is analysed. If B/C ratio ≥ 1 , then lining should be
done.
Calculation of Annual benefits (B) :
Irrigation water is sold to the farmers at certain rate. Let it be Rs. R1 per m 3/s. if q cumecs of water is saved by lining the
canal annually. Then,
Annual money saving by lining = R1 x q
Lining saves the maintenance cost of canal, the average cost of annual maintainance can be worked out from the previous
records before lining the canal. Let it be Rs. R2, and if M is the percentage fraction of the saving in maintenance , then
Amount saved annually in maintenance = R2 x M
Total annual benefit from lining the canal (B) = R1 q + R2 M ………………………(i)
Annual Costs (C):
If the capital expenditure required in lining be Rs. E and it has the life of T years , then
Annual depreciation loss = E/T.
if I % is the rate of interest, locked up capital E would earn annually E x I /100 and the capital value of the asset decreases
from C to 0 up to T years.
So, average annual interest loss may be taken i.e. (E/2 x I) / 100 = E I / 200
Total annual cost (C) = E/T + E I /200 ……………….(ii)
⸫ B/C ratio = (R1 q + R2 M) / (E/T + E I /200) where, the value of M can be taken as 40% .
End of Chapter 4….

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