Lesson Objectives

The students should be able to:

 Define the capillary pressure.
 Sketch capillary pressure curve and identify significant
features
 Understand how to convert the laboratory capillary pressure
data to reservoir condition.

Internal 1
 Capillary Pressure Forces
Capillary pressure (Pc) is the pressure difference across the interface of two
immiscible fluids.

The capillary forces are the result of the combined effect of

the surface and interfacial tensions of the rock and fluids,
the pore size and geometry, and the wetting characteristics
of the system.

The capillary pressure between two immiscible fluids

can be calculated as

Pc = pressure in the nonwetting phase – pressure in wetting

phase

Pc  Pnw  Pw
Internal 2
gas oil water
 Capillary Pressure Forces
In the case of Gas-Oil and Gas-Water, the gas phase is usually the nonwetting
phase, so the capillary pressures would be as

Gas-oil capillary pressure Pcgo  Pg  Po

=
Gas-water capillary pressure = Pcgw  Pg  Pw

In the case of Oil-Water, the water phase is usually

the wetting phase, so the capillary pressures would
be as

Oil-water capillary pressure = Pcow  Po  Pw

If the three phases are continuous, the Pc is

Pcgw  Pcgo  Pcow

Internal 3
gas oil water
 Capillary Pressure Forces
The general formula for capillary pressure is

Fluid Property

2  Cos  Rock - Fluid

Pc  Property
r
Rock Property
Pc  f  Sw  (K & f)

Internal
 Mathematical Expression of Pc
The up ward force (Fup), which holds the liquid up, is equal to the force per unit length of
circumference times the total length of circumference

Fup   aw cos  aw  2r Eq.1

air

The upward force is counteracted by the weight

of the water, which is equivalent to a downward P
force of mass times acceleration, or a
air
Fdown  r hg (  w   a )
2
Eq.2 Pw h

Pa1 air
 aw Surface tension between gas and water, dyne/cm
Pw
h Height of capillary rise in, cm
1
w Density of water in capillary tube, g/cm3
a Density of air in capillary tube, g/cm3
water
g Gravity force, cm/sec2
Internal 5
Referring to this Figure, the capillary pressure is the pressure difference between Pa and
Pw, so
Pc  Pa  Pw Eq.3
The pressure of the water phase at Pw is equal to the pressure at Pw1 minus the head
of the water, or:

Pw  Pw1  gh w Eq.4

air
The pressure just above the interface at Pa is
equal to the pressure at Pa1 minus the head of
the air, or: Pa

Pa  Pa1  gh a Eq.5 air

Pw h
It should be noted that the pressure at Pw1
within the capillary tube is the same as Pa1 Pa1 air
outside the tube. So the capillary pressure can
be obtained by Subtracting Eq. 4 from 5. Pw1

Pc  Pa1  gh a  Pw1  gh w

water
Pc  gh(  w   a ) Eq.5
Internal 6
 Pc  gh(  w   a ) Eq.5

From force balance based on Eq. 1 and Eq. 2

Fup  Fdown
air
 aw cos  aw  2r  r 2 hg (  w   a )

By solving this equation for h P

a
2 aw cos  aw air
h Eq.6
Pw h
rg (  w   a )
Pa1 air
A combination of Eq. 5 and 6 leads the
capillary pressure equation Pw
1
2 aw cos  aw
Pcaw  Eq.7
r water

Eq. 6 and 7 are used to calculated the capillary

pressure and its height for gas-water and gas-oil
states with respect to the density of each phase
Internal 7
 In the case of oil-water state, the capillary pressure and its height is
calculated as follow

2 ow cos  ow
h Eq.6
rg (  w   o ) oil

2 ow cos  ow P
Pcow  Eq.7
o
r
oil
P h
Pcow Capillary pressure between oil and water, dynes/cm2
w
Po oil
 cow Interfacial tension between oil and water, dynes/cm
1
Pw
 cow Contact angle between oil and water, dynes/cm
1
o Oil density, g/cm3
w Water density, g/cm3 water
r Capillary radius , cm
g Gravity force, cm/sec2
Internal 8
 EXERCISE 1
Calculate the capillary pressure and capillary rise in an oil-water system from
the following data:

2 ow cos  ow
Pcow  Pcow = 4.3*105
r

2 ow cos  ow
h h = 1766 cm
rg (  w   o )

Internal 9
 Dependence of Pc on Rock and Fluid
Properties
r1 r2 Ɵ2
Ɵ1
The Pc is a function of the adhesion tension (σ cosɵ)
and inversely proportional to the pore size (capillary
radius in this case).
h h

In the case of different capillary radius with

same angle, the higher the capillary tube radius, Liquid
the lower Pc. This is because the weight of the
liquid column increases and consequently the Case 1: Ɵ1=Ɵ2 and r1 ≠ r2
Pc decreases.
r1 r2
Ɵ1
2 cos 
Pc  Ɵ2
r
h
h
In the case with same capillary radius and
different contact angle, the smaller the contact
angle, the greater the height of liquid rise
which leads to higher PC. Liquid
Internal Case 2: Ɵ1≠ Ɵ2 and r1 = r2
 Capillary Pressure Of Reservoir
Pc or h Rocks

Displacement
pressure

100% water saturation

Pd

0% Swc 100%
Internal
Sw threshold pressure
 Capillary Pressure of Reservoir
Rocks
Pc curves for different layers
It can be seen that, for decreases in
with different permeabilities
permeability, there are corresponding
increases in capillary pressure at a
constant value of water saturation.

This is a reflection of the influence of pore

size since the smaller diameter pores will
invariably have the lower permeabilities.

Also, the capillary pressure for any sample

increases with decreasing water
saturation.

Internal 12
 Capillary Hysteresis
DRAINAGE

Fluid flow process in which the saturation of the

nonwetting phase increases

IMBIBITION

Fluid flow process in which the saturation of the

wetting phase increases

Internal 13
 Initial Saturation Distribution In A
Reservoir
Oil pay zone, oil +Swc

Transition zone
Pc or h

Oil + water

Pc = Pd
OWC
Pc = 0 Oil water contact, 100% water Pt
FWL
Free water level, 100% water
0% Swc 100%
Internal
Sw
 Fluid
Distribution in
Reservoir
Rocks

100% saturation
above FWL = WOC

Free Water level, FWL

Irreducible water
saturation
Internal
Relationship Between Saturation
Profile and Pore-size Distribution

Internal 16
 Relationship of Reservoir
•CapillarySaturations
Properties To:
•Calibrated Log Response

HEIGHT IN RESERVOIR ABOVE FWL

B
CAPILLARY PRESSURE

Sealing Fault

B A

OWC
A
A
OWC OWC

FWL
0 Sw 1
Rt
Sw Profile in Wellbore Logged Interval

Internal
 Applications Of Capillary
Pressure Data
• Prediction of initial saturation distribution in reservoir
• Prediction of free water level
• Prediction of water oil contact
• Predict rock quality (e.g. permeability)
• Assist in interpretation/calculation of relative
permeability
• Calculate pore size distribution

Internal
 Zonation, Fluid Contacts, And
Initial Saturation Distribution
•Free Water Level (FWL)
The surface of FWL represented by the base of the high saturation curve.
water saturation = 100% and Pc=0
Where:
144 Pd OWC: oil water contact, ft
FWL  OWC  Pd: the displacement pressure, psi
 Δρ: oil and water density difference, Ib/ft 3
•Oil-Water Contact (OWC)
The uppermost depth in the reservoir where a 100% water saturation exist
water saturation = 100% and Pc = Pd

144 Pd
OWC  FWL 


Internal 19
Zonation, Fluid Contacts, And
Initial Saturation Distribution

•Transition Zone
The vertical thickness over which water saturation ranges from 100% to
irreducible water saturation
Where:
144 pc h: height above the plane of 0 capillary pressure, ft
h Pc: capillary pressure, psi
 Δρ: the density difference, Ib/ft 3

•Oil Pay Zone (clean oil zone)

The zone above the upper demarcation line of the transition zone
Oil production is water free

Internal 20
 EXERCISE 2
The reservoir capillary pressure-saturation data of an Oil reservoir is
shown graphically below. Geophysical log interpretations and core
analysis establish the WOC at 5023 ft. The following additional data
are available:

Oil density = 43.5 lb/ft3

• Water density = 64.1 lb/ft3
• Interfacial tension = 50 dynes/cm

Calculate:
• Connate water saturation
• Depth to FWL
• Thickness of the transition zone
• Depth to reach 50% water saturation
Internal 21
Internal 22
 Assignment 2
The SCAL results for a core sample taken from an exploration well is as
follows :

Capillary Water saturation,

i. Convert the capillary pressure pressure, Pc Sw
table to water saturation and (psia) (%)
height, H in ft. Plot H vs Sw.
0 100
ii. Indicate the FWL, OWC and
transition zone on the plot. 4.4 100
5.3 90.1
iii. A sample was taken from a
5.6 82.4
depth 80 ft above the OWC.
10.5 43.7
What is the expected Sw of the
sample at that elevation. 15.7 32.2
35.0 29.8

Water density = 64 lb/ft3

Oil densityInternal
= 45 lb/ft3 23
 Laboratory Methods For Measuring
Capillary Pressure

 Porous Plate Dynamic Capillary Pressure Method

 Air Centrifuge
 Dynamic Capillary Pressure Method
 Mercury Injection

Internal
 Converting Pc Data To Reservoir
Conditions
Since the laboratory fluid system does not have the same surface tension as the
reservoir system, it becomes necessary to convert laboratory capillary pressure to
reservoir capillary pressure.

Pcres  Pclab
   res
Even after the laboratory capillary pressure has been
   lab corrected for surface tension, it may be necessary to make
further corrections for permeability and porosity.

144  Pcres
h
 w  o (in ft)

Internal 25
 Saturation Distribution
Different capillary pressures for different rock-types

26
Internal
 Saturation Distribution
Water saturation profile obtained from Logs and capillary pressure data

27
Internal
Interfacial Tension &
Wettability

Internal 29
 Surface / Interfacial
Tension
• At original reservoir conditions, the three phases, gas, oil, and water
are immiscible. When these immiscible fluids are in contact, these
fluids are separated by interface between gas-oil, gas-water and oil-
water pairs.

• In case of gas-liquid, the term surface tension is used to

characterize the force between the gas and liquid.

• In case of two immiscible liquids, the term interfacial tension (IFT)

is used to describe the IFT between the two immiscible fluids.

• The surface or interfacial tension has the units of force per unit of
length, e.g., dynes/cm or mN/m, and is usually denoted by the
symbol σ.

Internal 30
 Surface / Interfacial
• Tension
Surface tension or IFT results from molecular forces
that cause the surface of a liquid to assume the smallest
possible size and to act like membrane under tension

Oil-water interfacial tension

Air-liquid surface tension

Internal 31
 Surface / Interfacial
Tension
• Surface tension (or IFT) usually can be obtained from pendant drop method
• The drop is generated in a second immiscible fluid and the drop shape image is
captured
• From this image, the IFT can then be computed as follow

gd e2
 
H
  IFT

  density difference between the two immiscible phases

g  accelerati on due to gravity, cm sec 2

Oil
d  max horizontal diameter, cm
e water
H  drop shape factor
Rock
Internal 32
 WETTABILITY
Wettability is the ability of one fluid to
spread or to adhere to a solid surface in the
presence of other immiscible fluids

Internal 33
 Wettability
• Wettability is the ability of one fluid to spread or to adhere to
a solid surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids
– Wettability refers to interaction between fluid and
solid phases
– Adhesion tension is expressed as the difference
between two solid-fluid interfacial tensions

AT   os   ws    ow cos 
• A positive adhesion tension indicates that the denser phase (water)
preferentially wets the solid surface (and vice versa).
• An adhesion tension of “0” indicates that both phases have equal affinity
for the solid surface
Internal 34
 Contact Angle
AT   so   sw
Oil
sow  so   sw
cos  ow 
Oil  Water Oil  ow

sos sws sos AT   ow cos  ow

Solid

As the contact angle decreases, the wetting characteristics of the liquid

increase.
Internal 35
 The Effect of the Contact
Angle
In the case of a wetting fluid, the contact angle is smaller than
90°. If the contact angle is larger than 90°, then the fluid is
referred to as non-wetting.

The fluid which spreads more (low

angle) is said to be the wetting
phase fluid.

Internal 36
 Wetting Phase Fluid
• Wetting phase fluid preferentially wets the solid rock
surface.
• Attractive forces between rock and fluid draw the wetting
phase into small pores.
• Wetting phase fluid often has low mobile.
• Attractive forces limit reduction in wetting phase
saturation to an irreducible value (irreducible wetting
phase saturation).
• Many hydrocarbon reservoirs are either totally or
partially water-wet.

Internal 37
 Nonwetting Phase Fluid
• Nonwetting phase does not preferentially wet the solid
rock surface
• Repulsive forces between rock and fluid cause nonwetting
phase to occupy largest pores
• Nonwetting phase fluid is often the most mobile fluid,
especially at large nonwetting phase saturations
• Natural gas is never the wetting phase in hydrocarbon
reservoirs

Internal 38
 Water-wet Reservoir Rock
• Reservoir rock is water - wet if water preferentially wets the
rock surfaces
• The rock is water- wet under the following conditions:
• os > ws

• AT > 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is positive)

• 0 <  < 90 sow Oil

Water

sos sws sos
Solid
If  is close to 0, the rock is considered to be “strongly water-wet”

Internal 39
 Oil-wet Reservoir Rock
• Reservoir rock is oil-wet if oil preferentially wets the rock
surfaces.
• The rock is oil-wet under the following conditions:
• os < ws

• AT < 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is negative)

• 90 <  < 180 sow

Water
Oil

sos sws sos Solid
If  is close to 180, the rock is considered to be “strongly oil-wet
Internal 40
 Factors Effecting The
Wettability
Crude oil composition

Reservoir depth

Brine composition

Reservoir pressure and temperature

Internal 41
 Wettability Classification
Water-wet
In this wettability state, the rock surface has preference for the water phase rather than the crude
oil. Therefore, the oil phase is contained in the center of the pores.

Oil-wet
This wettability state is exactly the opposite of the water-wet state. The asphaltenic components
are the main reason for this type.

Intermediate or neutral wet

In this case, the rock surface has preference for both oil and water. The rock surface has equal
tendency for oil and water to wet the rock surface.

Fractional wettability
reservoir that has local areas that are strongly oil-wet, whereas most of the reservoir is strongly
water-wet.
- Occurs where reservoir rock have variable mineral composition and surface chemistry

Mixed wettability
smaller pores area water-wet are filled with water, whereas larger pores are oil-wet and filled with
oil
- Residual oil saturation is low
- Occurs where oil with polar organic compounds invades a water-wet rock saturated with brine

Internal 42
Impact of Wettability on
Fluid Flow

Internal 43
Impact of Wettability on Fluid
Flow

Internal 44
 Drainage and Imbibition
Processes
Drainage and imbibition processes are the principal flow process for any
Drainage and imbibition processes are the principal flow process for any
reservoir. These two processes are dependent on which of the reservoir
reservoir. These two processes are dependent on which of the reservoir
fluids will be identified as wetting or nonwetting
fluids will be identified as wetting or nonwetting

Drainage process: The wetting phase (water) is displaced by nonwetting

phase (oil or gas). This drainage process establishes the fluid saturations
which are found when the reservoir is discovered.

Imbibition process: The nonwetting phase (oil or gas) is displaced by

wetting phase (water). This process simulates the fluid saturations after
primary or water flooding processes.

• Saturation of the wetting phase increases and the nonwetting phase

saturation decreases
• Mobility of wetting phase increases as wetting phase saturation
increases
• Water will occupy the smallest pores.
Internal 45
 Impact of Wettability on
Fluid Flow

• Saturation of the wetting phase increases and the nonwetting

phase saturation decreases
• Mobility of wetting phase increases as wetting phase
saturation increases
• Water will occupy the smallest pores
Internal 46
Questions

Internal 47