Chapter 3

HYDRAULICS

Hydrostatics
 Hydrostatics - Definition

Hydrostatics is the study of liquid problems in which there is

no relative motion between liquid elements. i.e. When liquids
are stationary or at rest.

The discussion in this chapter focuses on Fluid pressure and

its measurement.
 2.1 Pressure at a point in a static fluid

Pressure – the force exerted on a unit area.

If the total force, F is uniformly distributed over an area A, then
P= F/A [N/m2]
If the force is not uniformly distributed, the expression of P will be
the average value.
If the pressure varies from point to point, the pressure at any point
is given by:
P = dF/dA
Where, dF = the force acting on an elementary area, dA.
 Pressure at a point … cont’d

Note:
➢ A mass of fluid kept in a container/solid boundary exerts
forces against the boundary surfaces.
➢ The forces are always act in a direction normal to the
surface. Because the fluid is at rest, there are no shear
stresses in it.
 Pressure at a point … cont’d

The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all

directions – Pascal’s Law.
Proof: Consider a two dimensional small wedge shaped fluid
element having unit width normal to plane of the paper.

Let P1, P2 and P3 be the average pressure acting on faces

ab, ac and bc, respectively.
 Pressure at a point … cont’d

Since the wedge of fluid is in equilibrium,

  Fx=0 P1 dz - P3
dz
. sin  = 0 P1 = P3
sin 
Similarly,
1 dx
 F z = 0 ~ P 2 dx -  dz dx - P 3 cos  = 0
2 cos 
1
=
P 2 P3 +  dz
2
If dz shrinks to a point and W becomes zero, thus at a point, P2 = P3

P1 = P 2 = P 3
Therefore, the pressure at a point is independent of its orientation.
 2.2 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest

Consider a small parallelepiped fluid element of size dxdydz at

any point in a static mass of fluid.
Since the fluid is at rest, the element is in equilibrium under the
various forces acting on it.
Let P be the pressure intensity at the midpoint of the element.
 Pressure variation…cont’d

 F x = P A dz - PC dz = 0  F z = PB dx - d w - PD dx = 0
P dx P dz P dx P dz
PA = P - , PB = P - , Pc = P + PD = P +
x 2 z 2 x 2 z 2
p dx p dx
 F x = (P - ) dz - ( P + ) dz = 0
x 2 x 2 p
 =0
x
 Pressure variation…cont’d

With similar analysis in y direction, we can get:

p
 =0
y
This means that there is no change in pressure with the horizontal
distance.
 Pressure variation…cont’d

 Fz=0
p dz p dz
(p - ) dx -  dz dx - (p + ) dx = 0
z 2 z 2
p p
- dz dx -  dz dx = 0 ➔ = - ➔ dP = - dz
z z

Therefore, pressure is only a function of Z and dP = - dz which is

the basic equation of fluid static.
 Pressure variation…cont’d

For homogenous and incompressible fluids,  is constant (so is  ).

Therefore, P = - z + c
Where, c is the constant of integration and is equal to the value of P
at z = 0.
But since z is measured vertically downward, c implies the pressure at
the free surface of the fluid (atmospheric pressure) . Normally
expressed as: P = - z + Po

For a point lying in the free surface of the fluid z= H+Zo and If Po is
the atmospheric pressure at the free surface, then the constant of
integration C = Po +  (H+Zo)
Pressure variation…cont’d
 Pressure variation…cont’d

Substituting this value of C in the above equation gives

P = −z + Po +  ( H + Z o )

Since the point lies in the fluid at a depth h below the free surface
and for this point z = H+Zo-h, substituting for z in the above equation
gives: P = Po + h
For liquids γ is constant
p z1

 dp = -   dz ➔ p =  ( z2 - z1 ) ➔ p =  h or p = g h
0 z2
 Pressure variation…cont’d

The pressure at a point in a static mass of liquid depends only

upon the vertical depth of the point below the free surface and
the specific weight of the liquid, and it doesnot depend upon the
shape and size of the bounding container.

PA = PB = PC
 2.3 Standard Atmosphere

The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces

in contact - atmospheric pressure.

Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude.

Atmospheric pressure is also known as barometric pressure as it

is measured by a barometer

At sea level atmospheric pressure = 101.3Kpa or 1.013 bar or

10.3m of water or 760mm of mercury – it is called standard
atmospheric pressure
 Standard Atmosphere

Two common datum (zeros) for pressure measurement:

1. Absolute zero pressure. When pressure is measured
above absolute zero, it is called absolute pressure.
2. The atmospheric pressure. When pressure is measured
either above or below atmospheric pressure, it is called
gage pressure.

If the pressure of the fluid is below atmospheric

pressure, it is called vaccum pressure or suction pressure
or negative gage pressure.
Standard Atmosphere

Pa= Patm + Pg

Pa= Patm – Pv

Pa = absolute Pressure (+Ve)

Patm = atm. Pressure
Pg = gage pressure (+ve)
Pv = vacuum pressure
 Standard Atmosphere

A device contains cells of air, water and glycerin. What are

the gage and absolute pressures at points 1 through 5 in KPa
What are the equivalent columns of mercury (S.G 13.6).
 Standard Atmosphere

P3= P2 - γg x 3= -6.125 Kpa = 6.125 Kpa (suction, vacuum)

= 95.175 Kpa ( abs )

The standard atmosphere = 101.3 KPa (abs.)

PP5421 == P
γ0P4g3gage
-x γ2.5
w x=m
2101.3
== -25.725
1.25
KPax(abs)
9.8a =x 75.575
KP 2.5 = 24.5 KPa
Kpa (abs)
= 125.8 KPa (aps)
 2.4 Measurement of Pressure

Two common devices for pressure measurement:

1. By balancing the liquid column (whose pressure is to be found out)
by the spring or dead weight. These are called mechanical gauges.

1. By balancing the liquid column (whose pressure is to be found out)

by the same or another column. These are also called tube gauges.
 Measurement of Pressure

Mechanical Gauges
✓ For measuring high pressure
✓ Measuring pressure in boilers or other pipes, where tube gauges can
not be conveniently used.

Bourdon's tube Diaphragm Dead weight

pressure gauge Pressure gauge pressure gauge
 Measurement of Pressure

Tube gages used to measure fluid pressure are:

✓ Piezometer tube
✓ Manometer
Piezometer Tube:
– Simplest form of manometer,
– used for measuring moderate pressure
– The height to which the liquid rises up in the tube gives the
pressure head directly

PA = gh
h

+
A

Piezometer
 Measurement of Pressure

Manometer:
✓ Improved form of a piezometer tube
✓ Can measure comparatively high pressure and
negative pressure

✓Types are:
Simple manometer,
Micromanometer,
Differential manometer, and
Inverted differential manometer
 Measurement of Pressure

Simple manometer

Positive Pressure Negative Pressure

PA +h1 γw = h2 γm PA - h1 γw - h2 γm = 0
PA = h2 γm - h1 γw PA = h1 γw + h2 γm
 Measurement of Pressure

Differential Manometers
– In many cases only the difference between two pressures is
desired, and for this purpose differential manometers may
be used

A and B at the same level A and B at different level and

and containing same liquid containing different liquid
 Measurement of Pressure

Inverted differential manometer

– Used for measuring difference of low pressures, where
accuracy is the prime consideration

PA – γ1 h1 = PB – γ3 h3 – γ2 h2
 Example

Example 1: Calculate the pressure

difference between A and B for
the setup shown in the Figure.

PA + γw × 1.7 - γHg × 1.0 = PB + γw × 0.25+ γHg × 0.76 - γw × 0.56

PA − PB =  w  0.25 +  Hg  0.76 −  w 1.7 +  Hg 1.0 −  w  0.56

=  w [0.25 - 1.7 - 0.56] +  Hg (0.76 + 1.0)

=  Hg 1.76 -  w  2.01
KN KN
= 13.6 x 9.80 3  1.76 m - 9.80 3  2.01 m = 215.1KPa
m m
 Standard Atmosphere

Example 2. Determine the pressure

at A,B,C and D in kpa

PA = γw (4m) = 9.8 x 4 = 39.2 KPa

PB = PA
PC = PB + (3 γw) x 3
= 39.2 + 9 x 9.8 = 127.4 KPa
PD = PB + (3γw) 2 = 98.10 KPa
 Standard Atmosphere

Example 3. If a pressure in a tank is 345 kpa, find the equivalent

pressure head of :
1- Water 2-Mercuy 3-Oil with S.G. = 0.92

345
hwater = = 35.2m
p 9.8
h=
 345
hmercury = = 2.95 m
13.6  9.8

345
hoil = = 38.27 m
0.92  9.8
 2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

• A static mass of fluid comes in contact with a surface exerts a force

on the surface in a direction normal to the surface. This force is
known as total pressure force.
• The point of application of total pressure force – center of pressure.
• The fluid may be in contact with:
• plane surface
✓ Horizontal plane surface
✓ Vertical plane surface
✓ Inclined plane surface
• Curved surface
 2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

• Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces:

For design purposes, it is essential
to calculate the magnitude,
direction and location of total
forces on surfaces submerged in a
liquid.

A) Horizontal Plane Surfaces

The surface is at a depth h below the free surface of the liquid.
Since every point on the surface is at the same depth, the pressure is
constant over the entire plane surface. i.e. P = h
Therefore,

Acting at the centroid of the surface F = A h

 2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

B) Force on a vertical plane surface:

Here, since the depth of liquid
varies from point to point on the
surface, the pressure is not constant
over the entire surface. Therefore, the
total pressure force on the entire
surface is:

dF = pdA = h (bdh)
F =  dF =   hdA
A

A A
where  h dA is the first moment of the area about 0-0  hdA = A h

F = A h
 2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

For a vertical plane surface, the CP does not coincide with the centeroid of
the area. Since the pressure increases with depth, the CP lies below the
centroid of the surface area. This position can be determined as follows.

Taking the moment of F about O-O, Fhc ---- (1)

( )
The total force on the strip is dF = pdA = h dA and its moment about
O-O is
dFh = h (dA)2

Thus, the sum of the moments of the force on all the strips,
 dFh =   h dA --- (2)
A 2

Equating (1) and (2),

Fhc =   h 2 dA
A

A
but I o =  h 2 dA is the second moment of inertia.
 2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

 Io I o Io
Therefore,Fhc =  I o hc = hc = hc =
F Ah Ah

Further from the parallel axis theorem,I o = I CG + Ah

2

I CG + Ah 2 I CG
hc = hc = h +
Ah Ah
Where,I CG is the moment of inertia of the area about an axis passing
through the centeroid of the area and parallel to axis O-O.
I CG
Since for any plane surface the factor is always positive, hc  h
Ah
i.e. the center of pressure is always below the centroid of the area.
 2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

• Forces on inclined Plane Surfaces:

dF = pdA= hdA
dF = y sin dA=  sin ydA

F =  dF =  sin   ydA
A

where  A y dA is the first moment

of the area about 0  A ydA = A y

 F =  sin  A y F = A h
 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

The moment of the force dF about 0 is

dFy = dAhy = dA( y sin  ) y
dFy =  sin dAy2
This may be integrated over the area
and set equal to Fyc
 Fyc =  sin   y2 dA
A

A 2
 y dA is the second moment of the area about 0-0
2
I 0  sin  = I O = I CG +
Ay
= I CG + y ( I CG moment of Inertia)
yc =
 sin  A y A y A y A y A y
yc acts at the center of pressure which is at a distance e below the center
of gravity such that
e = I C.G
Ay
 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

But
hc h
yc = and y=
Sin Sin
I CG Sin2
hc = h +
Ah

For  = 90o , the equation is the

same as that for vertical plane and

For  = 0o the equation holds true

for horizontal plane surface

Where, IC.G = moment of inertia about the horizontal axis o-o through
the center of gravity.
Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces
Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces
Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces
Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces
 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

Forces on curved surfaces

 FH =  dFH =  pdA sin  = hc Av

 FV =  dFV =  pdA cos  = V

F = F v2 + F 2H
Fv = the weight of the liquid above the surface
Fh = the force exerted on the vertical projection of the curved surface.
Av = the projected area of the curved surface on the vertical plane BD
V = the volume of the water prism extending over the curved area to the free
surface
 FV 
The direction of the resultant force, F  = tan  
−1

 Fh 
Pressure Diagram
 Practical application of pressure force & center of pressure

It is very important for hydraulic structures design such as dams, gates and tanks.

Example: What should be the

minimum weight of the dam not
to be overturn by the force of
water ponded on its upstream.

Take moment about the toe of

the dam (about O),
3
F  H =W  x
2
3H
W (min .) = F 
2x
 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

A rectangular gate 2m wide is

hinged at point B and rests against
a smooth wall at point A as shown.
Calculate:
a) The pressure force on the gate
due to the sea Water (S.G.
1.034)
b) The force exerted by the wall at
point A.
c) The location of the center of
pressure. (neglect weight of
gate)
 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

F =  A h = 1.034  9.8  (5  2) 8.5 = 861.3 KN

2  53
I C.G 12 = 14.314 m
yc = y + = 14.167 +
Ay 10  14.167
 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

Taking moment about B = 0

10
F ( - 14.314) - R A  3 = 0
0.6
 R A = 675.5 KN
F  2.353 - R A  3 = 0

 Fx=0

R Bx + F sin  - R A = 0 R Bx = 158.7 KN

Fz=0
 R BZ = 689.04 KN
R BZ - F cos  = 0
 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces
The tank shown in the figure contains oil and
water as shown find the resultant force on side
ABC which is1.2 m wide.

F oil =  A AB h
= 0.8  9.8 (3  1.2) 1.5 = 42.336 KN
1.2 x 33
I CG 12 = 2.0 m
hc = h + = 1.5 +
A AB h (3  1.2)  1.5

Convert the oil height to equivalent pressure

Poil =  oil hoil = 0.8  9.8  3 = 23.52 kN

F oil = PABC = 23.52 (1.8  1.2 ) = 50.8 kN
F water =  w ABC h = 9.8 (1.8  1.2) 0.9 = 19.05 kN
 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces
1.2  1.83
hc = h + I CG = 0.9 + 12 = 1.2m
Ah (1.2  1.8) 0.9

R = F oil + F oil + F w
= 42.536 + 50.8 + 19.05 = 112.186 KN

Moment about C
R.e = F oil (2.8)+ F oil  0.9 + F w  0.6
42.336  2.8 + 50.8  0.9 + 19.05  0.6
e =
112.186

= 1.566 m from C or 3.234 below A

 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

Find the moment M at O to hold the

gate closed. Determine P on the
upper surface of fluid

P +  w (1.2 + 0.6 + 0.3)= 5  w (0.3)

 P = 1.5  w - 2.1 w = - 0.6  w = - 5.88 KPa

i.e the tank is pressurized under Vacuum

KN
F 1 = PAgate = 5.88 2
(1.2 2 x 1.8) = 17.96 kN acting at the C.G of the area
m
 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

 1.2 
Fw =  A h = 9.8    1.8   0.6 = 9.979 KN
 sin 45 
o

I
y c = y + CG
Ay
1.8  1.697 3
y c = 0.848 + 12 = 0.848 + 0.283 = 1.131 m
(1.8  1.697) 0.848

Moment about 0 = F1 x 0.848 - Fw x1.131

= 17.96x 0.848 - 9.979 x1.13
= 3.944 N.m counter clockwise
Moment required to hold the gate is 3.944
N.m clockwise.
 Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces
Compute the horizontal and the vertical component of the
hydrostatic force on the roller gate shown in sketch.
Fh = horizontal hydrostatic pressure
force on the vertical projection
of the curved surface of the gate

 1.0 2 9807  1 N
= = = 4903
2 2 m
Fv = vertical buoyant force which is equal
in magnitude to the weight of the fluid
mass displaced
 1.0 2 9807  3.14  1.0 N
=  1= = 7698
4 4 m
2 4 1
y =  1.0 = 0.67 m x =  = 0.42 m
3 3 
Thank you