MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Definition of instruments

 An instrument is a device in which we can determine the

magnitude or value of the quantity to be measured.
 The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy
etc.
Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.

[ Note : Tangent galvanometer measure current in terms of the tangent of the angle
of deflection produced by the current, radius, number of turns of the
galvanometer and the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field]

2. Principle of Operation

 In case of measuring instrument, the effect of unknown quantity

is converted into a mechanical force which is transmitted to the
pointer which moves over a caliberated scale.
Example:
 When a current passes through the coil (Fig.1), it produces a
imaginary bar magnet.

 If current carrying coil is placed under the influence of magnetic

field produced by a permanent magnet a force is produced
between them. Due to such interaction, the coil rotates and the
quantity of current is indicated by the dial.

 This principle is utilized in the moving coil type instrument.



Figure 1 : Operating principle

Table 1: Instrument using various Effects of Electric current

Effect Instrument Suitable for
measurement of
Magnetic Ammeter, Voltmeter, I, V, P, E
Wattmeter, Energy (AC & DC)
meter
Thermal Ammeter, Voltmeter I, V (AC & DC)
Chemical Energy Meter DC ampere-hour
Electrostatic Voltmeter V (AC and DC)
Electromagnetic Induction Ammeter, Voltmeter, I, V, P, E
Wattmeter, Energy (AC only)
meter

For satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument three

forces/torque are necessary

I. Deflecting Torque

 When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will

be at its zero position. To deflect the pointer from its zero
position, a force is necessary which is known as deflecting force.
  A system which produces the deflecting force is known as a
deflecting system.

 Generally a deflecting system converts an electrical signal to a

mechanical force.

Figure 2: Pointer Scale

II. Controlling Torque

 To make the measurement indicated by the pointer constant, a

force is necessary which will be acting in the opposite direction
to the deflecting force. This force is known as controlling force.
A system which produces this force is known as a controlled
system.

 When the external signal to be measured by the instrument is

removed, the pointer should return back to the zero position. This
is possibly due to the controlling force and the pointer will be
indicating a steady value when the deflecting torque is equal to
controlling torque.

Td  Tc

A. Spring control

 Two springs are attached on either end of spindle (Fig.3).The

spindle is placed in jewelled bearing, so that the frictional force
between the pivot and spindle will be minimum.

 Two springs are provided in opposite direction to compensate

the temperature error. The spring is made of phosphorous bronze.
  When current is supplied, the pointer deflects due to rotation of
the spindle. While spindle is rotate, the spring attached with the
spindle will oppose the movements of the pointer.

 The torque produced by the spring is directly proportional to the

pointer deflection θ.

Figure : Spring Control

Tc  
Td  I .
 When Td  Tc , the pointer will come to a steady position.
Therefore I 

[Note : Since, deflection is directly proportional to the current, scale of

such instrument which uses spring controlled is uniform.]

B. Gravity control
(Refer Book)
I  sin 
Therefore, the instrument using gravity control is non-uniform

III. Damping Torque

 Deflecting and controlling torque produced by systems are
electro mechanical.
  Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates
about it final steady position before coming to rest. So to bring
the pointer to rest within a short time, damping system is
required.

 To damp out the oscillation quickly, a damping force is

necessary.
 This force is produced by different systems:
 Air friction
 Fluid friction
 Eddy current

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument

 One of the most accurate type of instrument used for D.C.

measurements is PMMC instrument.

Construction:

 A permanent magnet is used in this type instrument. Aluminum

former is provided in the cylindrical in between two poles of the
permanent magnet (Fig. 1.7).
 Coils are wound on the aluminum former which is connected
with the spindle.
 This spindle is supported with jeweled bearing. Two springs are
attached on either end of the spindle.
 The terminals of the moving coils are connected to the spring.
Therefore the current flows through spring 1, moving coil and
spring 2.

Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by

aluminum former.

Control: Spring control is used.

Principle of Operation

 When D.C. supply is given to the moving coil, D.C. current flows
through it.
 When the current carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it
experiences a force. This force produces a torque and the former
rotates.
 The pointer is attached with the spindle. When the former rotates,
the pointer moves over the calibrated scale.
 When the polarity is reversed a torque is produced in the
opposite direction. The mechanical stopper does not allow the
deflection in the opposite direction.
 Therefore the polarity should be maintained with PMMC
instrument.

Note:
 If A.C. is supplied, a reversing torque is produced. This
cannot produce a continuous deflection.
 Therefore this instrument cannot be used in A.C.

Figure : PMMC (Refer Text BOOK)

Torque developed by PMMC

Force produced in the coil is

F  BIL sin
when   90 , the force produced for N turns of coil will be
F  NBIL
 The torque produced by the coil :
T  width* F  BINA
Td  I
1-Φ Energy-Meter

Figure : Energy Meter

Construction :

A single phase induction type energy meter generally has:

1. Driving system

2. Moving system

3. Braking system

4. Registering mechanism

 Driving system
It consists of series magnet, shunt magnet whose core is made up of
silicon steel laminations.
Series magnet:
 Consists of a number of U-shaped laminations assembled
together to form a core.

 The wound coil is known as current coil and is connected in

series with the load so that it carries the load current.

 The series magnet is placed underside the aluminium disc and

produces magnetic field proportional to and in phase with the
current.
Shunt Magnet:
 The shunt magnet consists of a number of M-shaped
laminations assembled together to form a core.

 The wound coil is known as pressure coil and is connected

across the load so that it carries current proportional to supply
voltage.

 In order to obtain deflecting torque, current in the pressure

coil must lag behind the supply voltage by 90 degrees. This
phase shift is obtained by placing a copper shading over
central limb of shunt magnet.

 This copper ring acts as a short circuited transformer

secondary. As its inductance is high as compared with its
resistance, the current circulating in the ring will lag by nearly
90 degrees behind the voltage producing it.

 Moving system:

 Consists of a light aluminium disc mounted on a vertical

spindle.
 The spindle is positioned between series and shunt magnets.

 There is no pointer and control spring so that the disc makes

continuous rotation under the action of deflecting torque.

 Braking magnet
 The speed of aluminium disc is controlled to the required
value by the C-shaped permanent braking magnet .
  The magnet produce its own magnetic field.
 As the disc rotates, currents are induced in the disc because it
cuts the flux produced by the breaking magnet.

 The direction of the current in the disc is such that it opposes

the rotation of the disc.

 Since the induced currents in the disc are proportional to the

speed of the disc, therefore, breaking torque is proportional to
the disc speed.

 Recording mechanism:
Records continiously a number which is proportional to the
revolution made by the aluminium disc.

Working:

 When the energy meter is connected in the circuit to measure

electrical energy, the current coil carries the load current
whereas the pressure coil carries current proportional to the
supply voltage.
 The magnetic field due to current coil is in phase with load
current whereas the magnetic field produced due to pressure
coil lags approximately 90 degrees behind the supply voltage.
Both the coil produces alternating fluxes. Part of these fluxes
link with the disc and induce emf in it. Due to these emfs eddy
currents are induced in the disc.
 The current coil field produces eddy currents in the disc which
reacts with the field due to the pressure coil. Thus, a driving
force is created which causes the disc to rotate.
 The braking magnet provides the braking torque on the disc.
By altering the position of this magnet, desired speed can be
obtained.
 The spindle is geared to the recording mechanism so that
electrical energy consumed in the circuit is directly registered
in kWh.

Let V=supply voltage

I2= current passing through pressure coil proportional to V
Φ2=Flux produced by I2
I1=Current through current coil
Φ1=Flux produced by I1
I2 lags V by 90°as pressure coil is highly inductive and copper shading
bands
Φ2 and I2 are in phase

while I1 lags V by an angle Φ

Φ1 and I1 are in phase

E1=induced emf in disc due to Φ1

E2=induced emf in disc due to Φ2
Ish=Eddy current due to E1
Ise=Eddy current due to E2

E1, E2 lags the respective flux producing it by 90°

The eddy current are in phase with the induced emf producing them.
Now, there is interaction b/w Φ1 and Ish ,
So torque (T1) will produce

Similarly interaction b/w Φ2 and Ise ,

will produce torque (T2)
T2 is in opposite direction to that of T1.

Td  T2  T1
  2 I se cos     1 I sh cos 180    
  2 I se cos     1 I sh cos  
2  I 2  V
I sh  E2  I 2  V

I se  E1  I1

1  I1
 Td  K1VI1 cos   K 2VI1 cos 
 VI1 cos 
Now braking torque proportional to the speed with which disc rotates.
Tb  N
For constant speed
Tb  Td
 NVI1 cos 
Multiplying both side by time
Nt  VI1 cos  t  Pt
Number of revolution in time t is proportional to the energy supplied
Thus by counting number of revolutions,electrical energy consumed can be
measured.
Figure: Phasor Diagram