Prussian education system
The Prussian education system refers to the system of education established in
Prussia as a result of educational reforms in the late 18th and early 19th century,
which has had widespread influence since. It is predominantly used as an American
political slogan in educational reform debates, since it was adopted by all American
K–12 public schools and major universities as early as the late 18th century, and is
often used as a derogatory term for education in the service of nation-building,
teaching children and young adults blind obedience to authority, and reinforcing
class and race prejudice.[1] The actual Prussian education system was introduced as
a basic concept in the late 18th century and was significantly enhanced after
Prussia's defeat in the early stages of the Napoleonic Wars. The Prussian educational
reforms inspired other countries and remains important as a biopower in the
Foucaultian sense for nation-building.[2] Compulsory education on the Prussian
example was soon mirrored in Scandinavia, and United States started to adopt the
Prussian example. Early American adopters include Daniel Coit Gilman, who set up
The General Education Board, later renamed The Rockefeller Foundation, and first
president of Johns Hopkins, John Dewey at the University of Chicago, James
McKeen Cattell at The University of Pennsylvania and Columbia University, Henry
Philip Tappan at The University of Michigan, James Earl Russell at the New York
College for the Training of Teachers, and many more. France and the UK failed to
introduce similar systems until the 1880s.
Johann Julius Hecker memorial in
The term itself is not used in German literature, which refers to the primary aspects Berlin honors him founding the first
prussian teachers seminary in 1748,
of the Humboldtian education ideal respectively as the Prussian reforms; however,
Heckers bust thrones over a future
the basic concept remains fruitful and has led to various debates and controversies. teacher in classical regalia and
Twenty-first century primary and secondary education in Germany and beyond still posture
embodies the legacy of the Prussian education system.
Contents
Origin
Outreach
Drivers and hindrances
Interaction with the German national movement
Interaction with religion School Museum in Reckahn,
Political and cultural role of teachers Brandenburg an der Havelquoting
Mark 10:14 at the entrance. Founded
Spread to other countries
by Friedrich Eberhard von Rochowin
Examples
1773, Reckahn was the firstone-
United States
room school with two age-related
Policy borrowing and exchange classes in Prussia.
Drill and serfdom
Legacy of the Prussian system after the end of the monarchy
Legacy of the Prussian System after 1945
Current debates referring to the Prussian legacy
References
Further reading
Primary sources
Origin
The basic foundations of a generic Prussian primary education system were laid out
by Frederick the Great with his Generallandschulreglement, a decree of 1763,
authored by Johann Julius Hecker. Hecker had already before (in 1748) founded the
first teacher's seminary in Prussia. His concept of providing teachers with the means
to cultivate mulberries for homespun silk, which was one of Frederick's favorite
projects, found the King's favour.[3] It expanded the existing schooling system
significantly and required that all young citizens, both girls and boys, be educated by
mainly municipality-funded schools from the age of 5 to 13 or 14. Prussia was
among the first countries in the world to introduce tax-funded and generally
compulsory primary education.[4] In comparison, in France and Great Britain,
[5]
compulsory schooling was not successfully enacted until the 1880s.
The Prussian system consisted of an eight-year course of primary education, called
Volksschule. It provided not only basic technical skills needed in a modernizing
world (such as reading and writing), but also music (singing) and religious
(Christian) education in close cooperation with the churches and tried to impose a
strict ethos of duty, sobriety and discipline. Mathematics and calculus were not
compulsory at the start and taking such courses required additional payment by
parents. Frederick the Great also formalized further educational stages, the
Realschule and as the highest stage the gymnasium (state-funded secondary school),
which served as a university-preparatory school.[6]
Construction of schools received some state support, but they were often built on
Bruns-Memorial in Reckahn, "He was
private initiative. Friedrich Eberhard von Rochow, a member of the local gentry and a teacher"
former cavalry officer in Reckahn, Brandenburg, installed such a school. Von
Rochow cooperated with Heinrich Julius Bruns (1746–1794), a talented teacher of
modest background. The two installed a model school for rural education that attracted more than 1,200 notable visitors between
1777 and 1794.[7]
The Prussian system, after its modest beginnings, succeeded in reaching compulsory attendance, specific training for teachers,
national testing for all students (of both genders), a prescribed national curriculum for each grade and mandatory kindergarten.[8]
Training of teachers was increasingly organized via private seminaries. Hecker had already in 1748 founded the first
"Lehrerseminar", but the density and impact of the seminary system improving significantly until the end of the 18th century.[9] In
1810, Prussia introduced state certification requirements for teachers, which significantly raised the standard of teaching.[10] The
final examination, Abitur, was introduced in 1788, implemented in all Prussian secondary schools by 1812 and extended to all of
Germany in 1871. Passing the Abitur was a prerequisite to entering the learned professions and higher echelons of the civil service.
The state-controlled Abitur remains in place in modern Germany
.
[11]
The Prussian system had by the 1830s attained the following characteristics:
Free primary schooling, at least for poor citizens
Professional teachers trained in specialized colleges
A basic salary for teachers and recognition of teaching as a profession
An extended school year to better involve children of farmers
Funding to build schools
Supervision at national and classroom level to ensure quality instruction
Curriculum inculcating a strong national identity, involvement of science and technology
Secular instruction (but with religion as a topic included in the curriculum)
Outreach
The overall system was soon widely admired for its efficiency and reduction of illiteracy, and served as a model for the education
systems in other German states and a number of other countries, includingJapan and the United States.[12]
The underlying Humboldtian educational ideal of brothers Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt was about much more than
primary education; it strived for academic freedom and the education of both cosmopolitan-minded and loyal citizens from the
earliest levels. The Prussian system had strong backing in the traditional German admiration and respect for Bildung as an
individual's drive to cultivate oneself from within.[13]
Drivers and hindrances
Major drivers for improved education in Prussia since the 18th century had a
background in the middle and upper middle strata of society and were pioneered by
the Bildungsbürgertum. The concept as such faced strong resistance both from the
top, as major players in the ruling nobility feared increasing literacy among peasants
and workers would raise unrest, and from the very poor, who preferred to use their
.[3]
children as early as possible for rural or industrial labor
The system's proponents overcame such resistance with the help of foreign pressure
and internal failures, after the defeat of Prussia in the early stages of the Napoleonic Collegium Fridericianumin
Königsberg
Wars. After the military blunder of Prussian drill andline formation against the levée
en masse of the French revolutionary army in the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806,
reformers and German nationalists urged for major improvements in education. In 1809 Wilhelm von Humboldt, having been
appointed minister of education, promoted his idea of a generic education based on a neohumanist ideal of broad general knowledge,
in full academic freedom without any determination or restriction by status, profession or wealth. Humboldt's de:Königsberger
Schulplan was one of the earliest white papers to lay out a reform of a country's educational system as a whole.[14] Humboldt's
concept still forms the foundation of the contemporary German education system.[15] The Prussian system provided compulsory and
basic schooling for everyone, but the significantly higher fees for attending gymnasium or a university imposed a high barrier
[16]
between upper social strata and middle and lower social strata.
Interaction with the German national movement
In 1807 Johann Gottlieb Fichte had urged a new form of education in his Addresses to the German Nation. While Prussian (military)
drill in the times before had been about obedience to orders without any leeway, Fichte asked for shaping of the personality of
students: ""[17] The citizens should be made able and willing to use their own minds to achieve higher goals in the framework of a
future unified German nation state.[18] Fichte and other philosophers, such as the Brothers Grimm, tried to circumvent the nobility's
resistance to a common German nation state via proposing the concept of a Kulturnation, nationhood without needing a state but
based on a common language, musical compositions and songs, shared fairy tales and legends and a common ethos and educational
canon.[19]
Various German national movement leaders engaged themselves in educational reform. For example, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778–
1852), dubbed the Turnvater, was the father of German gymnastics and a student fraternity leader and nationalist but failed in his
nationalist efforts; between 1820 and 1842 Jahn's gymnastics movement was forbidden because of his proto-Nazi politics.[20] Later
on, Jahn and others were successful in integrating physical education and sports into Prussian and overall German curricula and
popular culture.[21]
By 1870, the Prussian system began to privilege High German as an official
language against various ethnic groups (such as Poles, Sorbs and Danes) living in
Prussia and other German states. Previous attempts to establish "Utraquism" schools
(bilingual education) in the east of Prussia had been identified with high illiteracy
rates there.[22]
Interaction with religion
Pietism, a reformist group within Lutheranism, forged a political alliance with the
King of Prussia based on a mutual interest in breaking the dominance of the
Lutheran state church. The Prussian Kings, Calvinists among Lutherans, feared the
influence of the Lutheran state church and its close connections with the provincial
nobility, while Pietists suffered from persecution by the Lutheran orthodoxy.
Wilhelm Grimm (left) and Jacob
Bolstered by royal patronage, Pietism replaced the Lutheran church as the effective
Grimm (right) in an 1855 painting
state religion by the 1760s. Pietist theology stressed the need for "inner spirituality"
(de:Innerlichkeit), to be found through the reading of Scripture. Consequently,
Pietists helped form the principles of the modern public school system, including the stress on literacy, while more Calvinism-based
educational reformers (English and Swiss) asked for externally oriented, utilitarian approaches and were critical of internally soul
searching idealism.[23]
Prussia was able to leverage the Protestant Church as a partner and ally in the setup of its educational system. Prussian ministers,
particularly Karl Abraham Freiherr von Zedlitz, sought to introduce a more centralized, uniform system administered by the state
during the 18th century. The implementation of the Prussian General Land Law of 1794 was a major step toward this goal. However,
there remains in Germany to the present a complicated system of burden sharing between municipalities and state administration for
primary and secondary education. The various confessions still have a strong say, contribute religious instruction as a regular topic in
schools and receive state funding to allow them to provide preschool education and kindergarten. In comparison, the French and
Austrian education systems faced major setbacks due to ongoing conflicts with the Catholic Church and its educational role.[5] The
introduction of compusory schooling in France was delayed till the 1880s.
Political and cultural role of teachers
Generations of Prussian and also German teachers, who in the 18th century often had no formal education and in the very beginning
often were untrained former petty officers, tried to gain more academic recognition, training and better pay and played an important
role in various protest and reform movements throughout the 19th and into the 20th century. Namely the Revolutions of 1848 in the
German states and the protests of 1968 saw a strong involvement of (future) teachers.[3] There is a long tradition of parody and
ridicule, where teachers were being depicted in a janus-faced manner as either, authoritarian drill masters or, on the other hand, poor
[24]
wretches which were suffering the constant spiteof pranking pupils, negligent parents and spiteful local authorities.
A 2010 book title like "Germany, your teachers; why the future of our children is being decided in the classroom" shows the 18th and
19th century Enlightenment ideals of teachers[24] educating the nation about its most sacred and important issues.[25] The notion of
Biedermeier, a petty bourgeous image of the age between 1830 and 1848er was coined on Samuel Friedrich Sauter, a school master
and poet which had written the famous German song "Das arme Dorfschulmeisterlein" (The poor little schoolmaster).[24] Actually
the 18th primary teachers income was a third of a parish priest[24] and teachers were being described as being as uppity as
proverbially poor. However German notion of homeschooling was less than favorable, Germans deemed the school system as being
necessary. E.g. Heinrich Spoerls 1933 "escapist masterpiece"[26] novel (and movie) Die Feuerzangenbowle tells the (till the present)
popular story of a writer going undercover as a student at a small town school after his friends in Berlin tell him that he missed out on
the best part of growing up by being homeschooled.
Spread to other countries
State-oriented mass educational systems were instituted in the 19th century in the rest of Europe. They have become an indispensable
component of modern nation-states. Public education was widely institutionalized throughout the world and its development has a
close link with nation-building, which often occurred in parallel. Such systems were put in place when the idea of mass education
was not yet taken for granted.[27]
Examples
In Austria, Empress Maria Theresa had already made use of Prussian pedagogical methods in 1774 as a means to strengthen her hold
over Austria.[28] The introduction of compulsory primary schooling in Austria based on the Prussian model had a powerful role, a
[28]
biopower in the sense of Michel Foucault sense in establishing this and others modern nation states shape and formation.
The Prussian reforms in education spread quickly through Europe, particularly after the French Revolution. The Napoleonic Wars
first allowed the system to be enhanced after the 1806 crushing defeat of Prussia itself and then to spread in parallel with the rise and
territorial gains of Prussia after the Vienna Congress. Heinrich Spoerl's son Alexander Spoerl "de:Memoiren eines mittelmäßigen
Schülers" (Memories of a Mediocre Student) describes and satirises the role of the formational systems in the Prussian Rhine
Province during the early 20th century, in a famous novel of 1950, dedicated toLibertas Schulze-Boysen.
While the Russian Empire was among the most reactionary regimes with regard to common education, the German ruling class in
Estonia and Latvia managed to introduce the system there under Russian rule.[29][30] The Prussian principles were adopted by the
governments in Norway and Sweden to create the basis of the primary (grundskola) and secondary (gymnasium) schools across
Scandinavia. Unlike in Prussia, the Swedish system aimed to expand even secondary schooling to the peasants and workers. As well
in Finland, then a Russian grand duchy with a strong Swedish elite, the system was adopted. Education and the propagation of the
national epic, the Kalevala, was crucial for the Finnish nationalist Fennoman movement. The Finnish language achieved equal legal
status with Swedish in 1892. France and the UK failed until the 1880s to introduce compulsory education, France due to conflicts
between a radical secular state and the Catholic Church. In Scotland, local church-controlled schools were replaced by a state system
in 1872. In England and Wales, the government started to subsidise schooling in 1833, various measures followed till a local School
Boards were set up under the Forster Act of 1870, local School Boards providing free (taxpayer financed) and compulsory schooling
were made universal in England and Wales by the Act of 1891, schooling having been made compulsory by the Act of 1880.
However, unlike Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, both private schools and Home Schooling remained legal in the United
Kingdom.
United States
Early 19th-century American educators were also fascinated by German educational trends. In 1818, John Griscom gave a favorable
report of Prussian education. English translations were made of French philosopher Victor Cousin's work, Report on the State of
Public Education in Prussia. Calvin E. Stowe, Henry Barnard, Horace Mann, George Bancroft and Joseph Cogswell all had a
vigorous interest in German education. The Prussian approach was used for example in the Michigan Constitution of 1835, which
fully embraced the Prussian system by introducing a range of primary schools, secondary schools, and the University of Michigan
itself, all administered by the state and supported with tax-based funding. However, the concepts in the Prussian reforms of
primordial education, Bildung and its close interaction of education, society and nation-building are in conflict with some aspects of
American state-sceptical libertarian thinking.[31]
In 1843, Mann traveled to Germany to investigate how the educational process worked. Upon his return to the United States, he
lobbied heavily to have the "Prussian model" adopted.[12] In 1852, Mann was instrumental in the decision to adopt the Prussian
education system in Massachusetts. Governor Edward Everett of Massachusetts instituted a mandatory education policy based on the
system.[32] Mann persuaded his fellow modernizers, especially those in his Whig Party, to legislate tax-supported elementary public
education in their states. New York state soon set up the same method in 12 different schools on a trial basis. Most northern states
adopted one version or another of the system he established in Massachusetts, especially the program for "normal schools" to train
professional teachers.[33]
Americans were especially impressed with the Prussian system when they set up normal schools to train teachers because they
admired the German emphasis on social cohesion. That led to the establishment and proliferation of factory model school programs
and facilities through to the end of the 20th century. During the 20th century, however, the progressive education movement
emphasized individuality and creativity more and opted for a less European-inspired curriculum and lower social cohesion and
uniformity.[34] The Progressives faced a major setback with the Sputnik crisis, which led again to more focus on quality education
and selectiveness of the school system.[35] The derogatory use of the term may contrast 19th-century pedagogy (see the poisonous
pedagogy debate in Germany) with the introduction of new technology into classrooms during the Information Age. While Joel Rose
appreciates Mann's commitment to a public education but is aiming at renewing how to deliver it,[35] authors like Conservative Party
of New York State activist John Taylor Gatto and further home-schooling activist Sheldon Richman claim that illiteracy rates in the
[36]
US were lower before compulsory schooling was introduced.
Policy borrowing and exchange
The basic concept of a state-oriented and administered mass educational system is still not granted in the English-speaking world,
where either the role of the state as such or the role of state control specifically in education faces still (respectively again)
considerable skepticism.[27] The actual process of "policy borrowing" between different educational systems has been rather complex
and differentiated.[37] Mann himself had stressed in 1844 that the US should copy the positive aspects of the Prussian system but not
adopt Prussia's obedience to the authorities.[38] One of the important differences is that in the German tradition, there is stronger
reference to the state as an important principle, as introduced for example by
Hegel's philosophy of the state, which is in opposition to
[39]
the Anglo-American contract-based idea of the state.
Drill and serfdom
Current American critics of the Prussian system use purported Prussian drill and Prussian serfdom, actually predating 1807, as
counterclaims against compulsory education.[40][41] However, slavery and the 17th-century Prussian drill, the latter introduced to
America by Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben during the American Revolutionary War,[42] were actually of much longer and continued
influence on the US and its military than in Prussia itself.
Early Prussian reformers took major steps to abandon both serfdom and the line formation as early as 1807 and introduced mission-
type tactics in the Prussian military in the same year. The latter enlarged freedom in execution of overall military strategies and had a
major influence in the German and Prussian industrial culture, which profited from the Prussian reformers' introduction of greater
economic freedom. The mission-type concept, which was kept by later German armed forces, required a high level of understanding,
literacy (and intense training and education) at all levels and actively invited involvement and independent decision making by the
lower ranks. Its intense interaction with the Prussian education system has led to the proverbial statement, "The battles of Königgrätz
[43]
(1866) and Sedan (1870) have been decided by the Prussian primary teacher".
Legacy of the Prussian system after the end of the monarchy
In 1918, the Kingdom of Prussia became a republic. Socialist Konrad Haenisch, the first education minister (Kultusminister),
[44] However, Haenisch's and
denounced what he called the "demons of morbid subservience, mistrust, and lies" in secondary schools.
other radical left approaches were rather short-lived. They failed to introduce an Einheitsschule, a one-size-fits-all unified secular
comprehensive school, throughout Germany.[45]
The de:Weimarer Schulkompromiss (Weimar educational compromise) of 1919 confirmed the tripartite Prussian system, ongoing
church influence on education, and religion as a regular topic, and it allowed for peculiarities and individual influence of the German
states, widely frustrating the ambitions of radical leftist educational reformers.[45] Still, Prussian educational expert de:Erich Hylla
(1887–1976) provided various studies (with titles such as "School of Democracy") of the US education system for the Prussian
government in the 1920s.[38] The Nazi government's 1933 Gleichschaltung did away with state's rights, church influence and
democracy and tried to impose a unified totalitarian education system and a Nazi version of the Einheitsschule, with strong
premilitary and antisemitic aspects.
Legacy of the Prussian System after 1945
After 1945, the Weimar educational compromise again set the tone for the
reconstruction of the state-specific educational system as laid out in the Prussian
model. In 1946 the US occupation forces failed completely in their attempt to install
comprehensive and secular schooling in the US Occupation Zone. This approach had
been endorsed by High Commissioner John J. McCloy and was led by the high-
ranking progressive education reformer Richard Thomas Alexander,[46] but it faced
determined German resistance.[46] The fiercest defender of the originally Prussian
tripartite concept and humanist educational tradition was archconservative Alois
Hundhammer, a former Bavarian monarchist, devout Catholic enemy of the Nazis
and (with regard to the individual statehood of Bavaria) firebrand anti-Prussian
coauthor of the 1946 Constitution of Bavaria. Hundhammer, as soon as he was
appointed Bavarian minister of Culture and Education, was quick to use the newly
granted freedoms, attacking Alexander in radio speeches and raising rumors about
Alexander's secularism, which led to parents' and teachers' associations expressing
fears about a reduction in the quality of education.[47] Hundhammer involved
Michael von Faulhaber, Archbishop of Munich, to contact New York Cardinal
Francis J. Spellman, who intervened with the US forces; the reform attempts were
Alois Hundhammer, a Bavarian
abolished as soon as 1948.[47]
defender of the educational legacy of
Prussia, photographed in 1963
Current debates referring to the Prussian legacy
The Prussian legacy of a mainly tripartite system of education with less comprehensive schooling and selection of children as early as
the fourth grade has led to controversies that persist to the present.[48] It has been deemed to reflect 19th-century thinking along class
lines.[49] One of the basic tenets of the specific Prussian system is expressed in the fact that education in Germany is, against the aim
of the 19th-century national movement, not directed by the federal government. The individual states maintain Kulturhoheit (cultural
predominance) on educational matters.
The Humboldt approach, a central pillar of the Prussian system and of German education to the present day, is still influential and
being used in various discussions. The present German universities charge no or moderate tuition fees. They therefore lack the more
lavish funds available for example to Ivy League universities in the US, which make possible a quality of education and research that
enable academics and students to fully realize Humboldt's ideal.[50] The perceived lack of universities on the cutting edge in both
research and education has been recently countered via the German Universities Excellence Initiative, which is mainly driven and
funded at the federal level.
Germany still focuses on a broad Allgemeinbildung (both 'generic knowledge' and 'knowledge for the common people') and provides
an internationally recognized in-depth dual-track vocational education system, but leaves educational responsibility to individual
states. The country faces ongoing controversies about the Prussian legacy of a stratified tripartite educational system versus
Comprehensive schooling and with regard to the interpretation of the PISA studies.[51] Some German PISA critics opposed its
utilitarian "value-for-money" competence approach, as being in conflict with teaching freedom, while German proponents of the
PISA assessment referred to the practical usability of Humboldt's approach and the Prussian educational system derived from[23]
it.
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37. Phillips, David; Ochs, Kimberly (December 2004). "Researching policy borrowing: Some methodological challenges
in comparative education".British Educational Research Journal. 30 (6): 773–784.
doi:10.1080/0141192042000279495(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0141192042000279495) .
38. Democratizing Education and Educating Democratic Citizens: International and Historical Perspectives Leslie J.
Limage Routledge, 8 October 2013
39. Hegel at Stanford.edu (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/)
40. Compare The Deliberate Dumbing Down of America: A Chronological Paper rail
T (http://www.deliberatedumbingdow
n.com/MomsPDFs/DDDoA.sml.pdf)(1999) ISBN 978-0-9667071-0-6 by Charlotte Thomson Iserbyt
41. The Prussian-Industrial Model The Roots of Modern Public Schooling(http://www.thenewamericanacademy.org/inde
x.php/home/our-philosophy-menu/the-prussian-industrial-model)
, web entry of The New American Academy
42. Lockhart, Paul. The Drillmaster of Valley Forge: The Baron de Steuben and the making of the American Army
. New
York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers
43. See Thomas Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte 1866–1918, Volume Arbeitswelt und Bürgergeist.
44. Andrew Donsion, "The Teenagers' Revolution: Schülerräte in the Democratization and Right-Wing Radicalization of
Germany, 1918–1923," Central European History(2011) 44#3 pp 420–446.
45. Peter Braune: Die gescheiterte Einheitsschule. Heinrich Schulz. Parteisoldat zwischen Rosa Luxemburg und
Friedrich Ebert. Karl-Dietz-Verlag, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-320-02056-0
46. James F. Tent, "American Influences on the German Educational System", inThe United States and Germany in the
Era of the Cold War, 1945–1968, edited by Detlef Junker, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Publications of the German Historical
Institute, 2004), pp. 394-400.
47. Zeitgeschichte Opfer der Umstände(http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-14020639.html), Der Spiegel article from
1983 referring to de:James F. Tent, Mission on the Rhine: reeducation and denazification in American-occupied
Germany. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1982
48. "CESifo Group Munich – Home"(http://www.cesifo-group.de/portal/page/portal/ifoHome/B-politik/05stp/_stp?item_lin
k=stp073.htm). Cesifo-group.de. Retrieved July 1, 2013.
49. "German school system reflects nineteenth century"(http://www.justlanded.com/english/Germany/Forums/Educatio
n/German-school-system-reflects-nineteenth-century). Justlanded.com. 2007-06-19. Retrieved July 1, 2013.
50. Citation Needed
51. PISA Under Examination: Changing Knowledge, Changing ests,
T and Changing Schools, Miguel A. Pereyra, Hans-
Georg Kotthoff, Robert Cowen Springer Science & Business Media, 24 March 2012
Further reading
Bott, Arthur. Prussia and the German System of Education
Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson. The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase
of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization (1920) online
Müller, Detlef, Fritz Ringer, and Brian Simon, eds.The rise of the modern educational system: structural change and
social reproduction 1870–1920(Cambridge University Press, 1989).
Ramsay, Paul. "Toiling together for social cohesion: International influences on the develo
pment of teacher education
in the United States," Paedagogica Historica(2014) 50#1 pp 109–122.
Ringer, Fritz. Education and Society in Modern Europe(1979); focus on Germany and France with comparisons to
US and Britain
Sagarra, Eda. A Social History of Germany, 1648–1914 (1977) online
Soysal, Yasemin Nuhoglu, and David Strang."Construction of the First Mass Education Systems in Nineteenth-
Century Europe," Sociology of Education(1989) 62#4 pp. 277–288in JSTOR
Van Horn Melton, James.Absolutism and the eighteenth-century origins of compulsory schooling in Prussia and
Austria (Cambridge University Press, 1988).
Primary sources
Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson ed.Readings in the History of Education: A Collection of Sources and Readings to
Illustrate the Development of Educational Practice, Theory
, and Organization (1920) online pp 455–89, 634ff, 669ff
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