Excerpts from British Civilization An introduction by John Oakland Fifth

edition published in 2002 by Routledge)

BRITISH EDUCATION OPERATES ON THREE levels: schools, higher
educatio ad adult educatio! Schools are "ail# "i$ed%se$,
although there are so"e sigle%se$ schools, ad are divided ito state
&"aitaied 'ro" (u)lic 'uds* ad ide(edet &(rivatel# 'iaced*
sectors &the latter "ail# i Eglad*! But there is o co""o educatioal
orgai+atio 'or the ,hole coutr#! Norther Irelad, Scotlad ad
Eglad-.ales have so"e,hat di''eret school s#ste"s! /urther-adult ad
higher educatio geerall# have the sa"e structure throughout Britai ad
are "ostl# state%'uded!
The 0ualit# o' British educatio cocers (arets, e"(lo#ers, (oliticias
ad studets! School is(ectors have critici+ed stadards i Eglish,
1athe"atics, Techolog# ad ,ritig ad readig s2ills! I 3445, the
.orld Ecoo"ic /oru" clai"ed that Britai ra2ed 67d out o' 86 coutries
i the 0ualit# o' its (ri"ar# ad secodar# schools! A 3445 Natioal
Istitute o' Ecoo"ic ad Social Research stud# sho,ed that British
thirtee%to%'ourtee%#ear%olds ,ere oe #ear )ehid "ost Euro(ea coutries
ad eve 'urther )ehid 9a(a, :orea ad Siga(ore!
;ater, i 7<<3, the Orgai+atio 'or Ecoo"ic Coo(eratio ad
Develo("et &OECD* re(orted that Britai ,as sli((ig do, the glo)al
league ta)le o' secodar# schools &34th out o' 7=*, de'ied )# good (asses
i atioal e$a"iatios!
But the OECD said that Britai leads the ,orld i higher educatio,
de'ied as havig the highest (ro(ortio &68!> (er cet* o' uiversit# graduates
aged t,et#%oe, largel# )ecause o' short &three%#ear* degree courses!
Ho,ever, i Britai itsel' there is criticis" o' degree stadards, so"e
uiversit# courses ad var#ig (er'or"aces )et,ee di''eret uiversities!
But British educatio should ot )e see i a ,holl# egative light!
School e$a"iatio results have i"(roved i recet #ears, although so"e
critics attri)ute this to lo,er stadards!
School histor#
The co"(licated ature o' British &(articularl# Eglish* schoolig ad
curret educatioal cotroversies have their roots i school histor#! To
si"(li'# "atters, this sectio cocetrates o the largest school ele"et,
that o' Eglad ad .ales, ,ith co"(arative re'ereces to Scotlad ad
Norther Irelad! State ivolve"et i educatio ,as late ad the 'irst
atte"(t to esta)lish a atioal s#ste" o' state%'uded ele"etar# schools
ca"e ol# i 3=5< 'or Eglad ad .ales &3=57 'or Scotlad ad 3476
'or Norther Irelad*! But it ,as ot util 34?? that the state su((lied
)oth (ri"ar# ad secodar# schools atioall# ,hich ,ere 'ree ad
co"(ulsor#!
Ho,ever, so"e church schools have log e$isted! A'ter Eglad,
Scotlad, Irelad ad .ales ,ere graduall# coverted to Christiait# i the
'i'th ad si$th ceturies, the church@s (ositio i societ# ea)led it to create
the 'irst schools! These iitiall# (re(ared )o#s 'or the (riesthood! But the
church the develo(ed a ,ider educatioal role ad its structures i'lueced
the later state s#ste"!
Other schools ,ere also (eriodicall# esta)lished )# rich idividuals
or "oarchs! These ,ere ide(edet, (rivatel# 'iaced istitutios ad
,ere variousl# 2o, as high, gra""ar ad (u)lic schools: the# ,ere later
associated ,ith )oth the "oder ide(edet ad state educatioal sectors!
But such schools ,ere largel# co'ied to the sos o' the rich, aristocratic
ad i'luetial! 1ost (eo(le received o 'or"al schoolig ad re"aied
illiterate ad iu"erate 'or li'e!
I later ceturies, "ore childre )ee'ited as the church created e,
schoolsA local areas develo(ed secular schoolsA ad schools ,ere (rovided
)# ,ealth# idustrialists ad (hilathro(ists 'or ,or2ig%class )o#s ad
girls! But the "iorit# o' childre attedig such istitutios received
ol# a )asic istructio i readig, ,ritig ad arith"etic! The "aBorit# o'
childre received o ade0uate educatio!
B# the ieteeth cetur#, Britai had a ha(ha+ard school structure
&e$ce(t 'or Scotlad*! Protestat churches lost their do"iatio o' educatio
ad co"(eted ,ith the Ro"a Catholic Church, Noco'or"ist
churches ad other 'aiths! Church schools guarded their ide(edece 'ro"
state ad secular iter'erece ad (rovided "uch o' the availa)le schoolig!
The aciet high, gra""ar ad (u)lic schools cotiued to trai the sos
o' the "iddle ad u((er classes 'or (ro'essioal ad leadershi( roles i
societ#! But, at a ti"e ,he the idustrial revolutios ,ere (roceedig
ra(idl# ad the (o(ulatio ,as gro,ig, the state did ot (rovide a school
s#ste" ,hich could educate the ,or2'orce! 1ost o' the ,or2ig class still
received o 'or"al or ade0uate educatio!
Ho,ever, local ad cetral gover"et did )egi to sho, so"e
regard 'or educatio i the earl# ieteeth cetur#! Crats ,ere "ade to
local authorities 'or school use i their areas ad i 3=66 Parlia"et 'uded
the costructio o' school )uildigs! But it ,as ol# i 3=5< that the state
)eca"e "ore activel# ivolved! A Educatio Act &the /orster Act* created
local school )oards i Eglad ad .ales, ,hich (rovided schools i their
areas! State ele"etar# schools o, su((lied o%deo"iatioal traiig
ad the e$istig religious volutar# schools served deo"iatioal eeds!
B# 3==< this s#ste" (rovided 'ree ad co"(ulsor# ele"etar#
schoolig i "ost (arts o' Britai 'or childre )et,ee the ages o' 'ive ad
te &t,elve i 3=44*! The Bal'our Act &34<7* later "ade local gover"et
res(osi)le 'or state educatio ad gave 'udig to volutar# schools! But,
although schools (rovided ele"etar# educatio 'or childre u( to the age
o' thirtee )# 343=, this ,as still li"ited to )asic s2ills!
The 34?? Educatio Act
I 34??, a Educatio Act &the Butler Act* reorgai+ed state (ri"ar# ad
secodar# schools i Eglad ad .ales &34?5 i Scotlad ad Norther
Irelad* ad greatl# i'lueced 'uture geeratios o' schoolchildre! State
schoolig )eca"e 'ree ad co"(ulsor# u( to the age o' 'i'tee ad ,as
divided ito three stages: (ri"ar# schools &'iveDt,elve #ears old*, secodar#
schools &t,elveD'i'tee* ad 'urther (ost%school traiig! A decetrali+ed
s#ste" resulted, i ,hich a 1iistr# o' Educatio dre, u( (olic# guidelies
ad local educatio authorities &;EAs* decided ,hich 'or"s o'
schoolig ,ould )e used i their areas!
The itetio o' the 34?? Act ,as to (rovide uiversal ad 'ree state
(ri"ar# ad secodar# educatio! Da#%release traiig at local colleges ,as
also itroduced 'or e"(lo#ed (eo(le ,ho ,ated 'urther educatio a'ter
'i'tee, ad local authorit# grats ,ere give to studets ,ho ,ished to
eter higher educatio! It ,as ho(ed that such e0ualit# o' o((ortuit#
,ould e$(ad the educatioal "ar2et, lead to a )etter%educated societ#,
ecourage "ore ,or2ig%class childre to eter uiversit# ad achieve
greater social "o)ilit#!
The state school s#ste"
State educatio i the U: is 'ree ad co"(ulsor# 'or childre )et,ee the
ages o' 'ive ad si$tee! The vast "aBorit# o' childre are educated i state
(ri"ar# ad secodar# schools! But the state s#ste" is co"(licated )#
re"ats o' the 34?? Act ad a diversit# o' school t#(es throughout the
coutr#!
The ide(edet &'ee%(a#ig* school sector
The ide(edet school sector e$ists "ail# i Eglad, is se(arate 'ro"
the state school s#ste" ad caters 'or so"e > (er cet o' all British childre,
'ro" the ages o' 'our to eightee at various levels o' educatio! There
are 7,?<< ide(edet schools ,ith over 8>6,8<< (u(ils!
Its 'iacig derives 'ro" ivest"ets ad the 'ees (aid )# the (u(ils@
(arets 'or their educatio, ,hich var# )et,ee schools ad ca a"out
to several thousad (ouds a #ear! The ide(edet sector is de(edet
u(o its charita)le ad ta$%e$e"(t status to survive! This "eas that the
schools are ot ta$ed o their ico"e i' it is used ol# 'or educatioal
(ur(oses! There are a "iorit# o' scholarshi( holders, ,hose e$(eses are
covered )# their schools!
So"e 78< (u)lic schools &(rivate, ot state*, such as Eto, Harro,
ad .ichester, are the "ost 'a"ous o' the ide(edet schools, ad are
usuall# de'ied )# their "e")ershi( o' the Head"asters@ Co'erece! The#
,ere origiall# created &o'te )# "oarchs* to (rovide educatio 'or the
sos o' the rich ad aristocratic! Such schools are "ail# )oardig esta)lish"ets,
,here the (u(ils live ad are educated durig ter" ti"e,
although "a# o' the" o, also ta2e da#%(u(ils ,ho do ot )oard i!
Pu)lic ad other ide(edet schools (la# a sigi'icat role i British
educatio, ad "a# leadig 'igures have )ee educated at the"! Etr#
toda# is co"(etitive, or"all# )# a etrace e$a"iatio, ad is ot
co'ied to social class, coectios or ,ealth, although the a)ilit# to (a#
the 'ees is i"(ortat! Ide(edet (re(arator# schools &(ri"ar# level*
(re(are their (u(ils 'or ide(edet secodar# school etrace ad (arets
,ho decide to sed their childre to a ide(edet school ,ill o'te give
the" a E(re( school@ educatio 'irst!
Ide(edet schools ca var# cosidera)l# i 0ualit# ad re(utatio!
The sector has gro, ad has a attractio des(ite its si+e ad icreasig
school 'ees! Isurace sche"es 'or the (a#"et o' 'ees give o((ortuities
'or ide(edet educatio to the less a''luet! But so"e (arets "a2e great
'iacial sacri'ices so that their childre ca )e ide(edetl# educated!
O(iio (olls o'te suggest that "a# (arets ,ould sed their childre
to a ide(edet school i' the# could a''ord it )ecause o' the 0ualit# o'
the educatio ad )ecause such schoolig "a# give social advatages i
later li'e!
The ide(edet sector is critici+ed 'or )eig elitist, sociall# divisive
ad )ased o the a)ilit# to (a# 'or educatio! I this vie, it (er(etuates the
class s#ste"! The ;a)our Part# i o((ositio historicall# argued 'or the a)olitio
o' ide(edet schools ad the re"oval o' their ta$ ad charita)le
status, ,hich the ;a)our gover"et is curretl# evaluatig! But ide(edet
schools are o, 'ir"l# esta)lished ad 'or "a# (rovide a ele"et
o' choice i ,hat ,ould other,ise )e a state "oo(ol# o educatio!
School orgai+atio ad e$a"iatios
The school da# i state ad ide(edet schools usuall# rus 'ro" 4!<<
a!"! util ? (!"! ad the school #ear is divided ito three ter"s &autu",
s(rig ad su""er*! Classes i British schools used to )e called E'or"s@
ad i secodar# schools ,ere u")ered 'ro" oe to si$! But "ost schools
have ado(ted #ear u")ers 'ro" 5 to 33 i secodar# schools, ,ith a t,o#ear
si$th 'or" 'or advaced ,or2!
A reduced )irth rate i recet #ears led to a decrease i the u")er
o' schoolchildre, resultig i the closure o' schools i rural ad ur)a
areas! Nu")ers have sice icreased ad the ;a)our gover"et is
co""itted to reducig average class si+e 'or (ri"ar# schools to )elo,
thirt#, although "a# secodar# schools have classes ,ith over thirt#
(u(ils!
1ost teachers are traied at the uiversities ad other colleges! There
is a serious shortage o' teachers i Britai i all su)Bects, )ut es(eciall# i
"athe"atics, techolog#, (h#sics ad 'oreig laguages! Potetial teachers
icreasigl# see the (ro'essio as uattractive ad "a# (ractisig teachers
leave 'or )etter%(aid Bo)s or retire earl#! Teachers at (reset are su''erig
'ro" lo, "orale a'ter )attles ,ith the gover"et over (a#, coditios
ad educatioal re'or"s, ad 'ro" ,hat the# (erceive as the lo, status
a''orded the" )# gover"et ad the geeral (u)lic! The teachig (ro'essio
has )eco"e ver# stress'ul ad su)Bect to greater (ressures, such as
assaults u(o teachers )# (u(ils ad icreased )ureaucrac#! The 0ualit# o'
teachig i state schools has attracted "uch criticis" i recet #ears!
The "ai e$a"iatios are the Ceeral Certi'icate o' Secodar# Educatio &CCSE*,
,hich is ta2e
usuall# )# si$tee%#ear oldsA Advaced Su)sidiar# &AS* 0uali'icatiosA ad the
Ceeral Certi'icate o' Educatio at
Advaced ;evel &CCE A%level*, ,hich is or"all# ta2e at the ed o' the
secod #ear i the si$th 'or" )# eightee%#ear olds! Results i all e$a"s
ted to )e )etter i sigle%se$ girls@ schools!
The CCSE is ta2e i a rage o' su)Bects, the 0uestios ad "ar2ig
o' ,hich are uderta2e )# ide(edet e$a"iatio )oards ,hose stadards
have attracted criticis" i recet #ears! I additio to ,ritte
e$a"iatios, (roBect ,or2 ad cotiuous assess"et o' (u(ils are ta2e
ito accout i arrivig at a 'ial grade! It ca )e ta2e i a# su)Bect&s*
accordig to idividual choice! But "ost cadidates ,ill atte"(t si$ or
seve su)Bects ad the )asic su)Bects re0uired 'or Bo)s ad 'urther educatio
are Eglish, "athe"atics &or a sciece* ad a 'oreig laguage! The
CCSE ,as iteded as a )etter evaluatio o' (u(ils@ a)ilities tha (ure
e$a"iatios ad ,ould give (ros(ective e"(lo#ers so"e idea o' the cadidate@s
a)ilit#! But, although stadards cotiue to i"(rove, a third o'
studets did ot achieve high (asses ad so"e = (er cet did ot (ass a
sigle su)Bect i 3444!
The CCE A%level is associated ,ith "ore acade"ic childre, ,ho are
ai"ig 'or etr# to higher educatio or the (ro'essios ad ,ho s(ed t,o
#ears o their studies i the si$th 'or" or i si$th%'or" colleges! Cood
(asses are o, essetial )ecause the co"(etitio 'or (o(ular courses i the
uiversities ad other colleges has )eco"e sti''er!
Should a (u(il o)tai the re0uired e$a"iatio results at A% or alterative
levels, ad )e success'ul at itervie,s, he or she "a# go o to a istitutio
o' higher educatio, such as a uiversit# or college! The studet, a'ter
a (rescri)ed (eriod o' stud# ad a'ter (assig e$a"iatios, ,ill receive a
degree ad )eco"e a graduate o' that istitutio! I the (ast ol# a s"all
(ro(ortio o' the age grou( i Britai (roceeded to higher educatio, i
cotrast to the higher rates i "a# "aBor atios! But, 'ollo,ig a recet
ra(id icrease i studet u")ers &,ith the ratio o' 'e"ale to "ale studets
)eig three to t,o*, the u")ers are o, 66 (er cet i Eglad ad
.ales, ?< (er cet i Scotlad ad ?8 (er cet i Norther Irelad!
The uiversities
There ,ere 76 British uiversities i 34><! A'ter a (eriod o' e$(asio i
the 34><s ad re'or"s i 3447 ,he e$istig istitutios such as (ol#techics
,ere give uiversit# status, there are o, so"e =5 uiversities
ad >? istitutios o' higher educatio, ,ith 3!6 "illio 'ull%ti"e studets
i 3444! The O(e Uiversit# ad the ide(edet Uiversit# o' Buc2igha"
are additioal uiversit#%level istitutios!
The uiversities ca )e )roadl# classi'ied ito 'our t#(es! The aciet
uiversities o' O$'ord ad Ca")ridge &co"(osed o' their "a# colleges*
date 'ro" the t,el'th cetur#! But util the ieteeth cetur# the# ,ere
virtuall# the ol# Eglish uiversities ad o''ered o (laces to ,o"e!
Ho,ever, other older uiversities ,ere 'ouded i Scotlad, such as St
Adre,s &3?33*, Clasgo, &3?8<*, A)erdee &3?4?* ad Edi)urgh &38=6*!
A secod grou( co"(rises the Ered)ric2@ or civic uiversities such as ;eeds,
;iver(ool ad 1achester, ,hich ,ere created )et,ee 3=8< ad 346<!
The third grou( cosists o' uiversities 'ouded a'ter the Secod .orld
.ar ad i the 34><s! 1a# o' the latter, such as Susse$, For2 ad East
Aglia, are associated ,ith to,s rather tha )ig cities! The 'ourth grou(
co"(rises the Ee, uiversities@ created i 3447 ,he (ol#techics ad
so"e other colleges attaied uiversit# status!
The co"(etitio to eter uiversities is o, ver# strog i (o(ular
su)Bects, ad studets ,ho do ot do ,ell at A% or e0uivalet levels "a#
)e ua)le to 'id a (lace! So"e 35 (er cet o' studets o, dro( out o'
higher educatio )ecause o' ,or2, 'iacial or other (ro)le"s! But the
"aBorit# ai" 'or a good degree i order to o)tai a good Bo), or to cotiue
i higher educatio )# doig research &"asters@ degrees ad doctorates*!
The )achelor@s degree &Bachelor o' Arts or Bachelor o' Sciece, BA or BSc*
is usuall# ta2e i 'ial e$a"iatios at the ed o' the third #ear o' stud#,
although so"e degree courses do var# i legth i di''eret (arts o' Britai
&such as Scotlad ,ith a 'our%#ear 1A degree*! The degree is divided ito
'irst%, secod% ad third%class hoours! So"e degrees de(ed etirel# u(o
the e$a"iatio results, ,hile others iclude cotiuig assess"et over
the (eriod o' stud#!
Uiversities are su((osed to have ui'or" stadards, although there
are cetres o' e$cellece i (articular su)Bects ad there has )ee recet
criticis" a)out levels i so"e uiversities ad so"e su)Bects! Studets
ca choose 'ro" a i"(ressive arra# o' su)Bect areas ad teachig is "ail#
)# the lecture s#ste", su((orted )# tutorials &s"all grou(s* ad se"iars!
The studetDlecturer ratio at British uiversities has icreased )ecause o'
e$(aded recruit"et! 1ost studets ted to live o ca"(us i uiversit#
acco""odatio, ,hile others choose to live i reted (ro(ert# outside the
uiversit#! Util recetl# 'e, British studets chose uiversities ear their
(arets@ ho"es ad "a# see"ed to (re'er those i the south o' Eglad!
But 'iacial reasos o, (ersuade "a# studets to live at ho"e or
locall#!
Uiversities are ide(edet istitutios created )# ro#al charter,
eBo# acade"ic 'reedo", a((oit their o, sta'', a,ard their o, degrees
ad decide ,hich studets to ad"it! But the# are i (ractice de(edet
u(o gover"et "oe#!