Page | 1

Biomolecules - The Study Hub

The Study Hub

Chemistry Classes for 12th/NEET/JEE/NDA/B.Sc.
Biomolecules M.M =07
Carbohydrates: Classification (aldoses and ketoses), mono saccharides:
Glucose, fructose: structure, preparation and chemical reactions,
oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose & maltose) Polysaccharides: (starch
cellulose and glycogen); importance.
Proteins: Elementary idea of amino acids: peptide bond, polypeptides and
primary, secondary, etary and qualemary structure of proteins (Qualitative
idea only), denaturation of proteins; enzymes, lipids & harmones, their
classification & functions.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA (purines and pyrimidines, nucleosides,
nucleotides and fragments up to four nucleotides).
Vitamins: Classification and functions, sources and deficiency diseases.
Biomolecules
Biomolecules may be defined as the complex lifeless chemical
substances which forms the basis of life i.e they not only build up
living systems (creatures) but are also responsible for this growth
maintainance and their ability to reproduce . The various
biomolecules are Carbohydrates , Proteins , Nucleic acids etc.
Carbohydrates
a) Old defination:- The name carbohydrate was originally given to a class
of compounds containing only carbon , hydrogen and oxygen such that the
hydrogen and oxygen present in the same ratio as in water . Thus , simply
carbohydrates were defined as the hydrates of carbon with general formula -
Cx(H2O)y
Limitations of old defination :- Above defination has following limitations
:-
1) There are certain carbohydrates such as – Rhamnose (C6H12O5)
,Deoxyribose (C5H10O4) which donot obey this formula.
2) There are certain compounds which obey this formula but are not
carbohydrates such as formaldehyde (HCHO), acetaldehydes(CH2O)
3) Carbon is not known to form hydrates.
b) Modern definition :- According to the modern concept , the
carbohydrates are the poly hydroxyl aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones and
the compounds which give such products on hydrolysis.

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 2
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

(I)Classification of carbohydrates :- Carbohydrates are also known as

saccharides.These are mainly classified into three types :-
i) Monosaccharides:- Those carbohydrates which are not hydrolysed to
simpler molecules and contain only 3-7 carbonatoms are known as
monosaccharides. These are simplest carbohydrates with general formula
(CH2O)n , where n = 3 – 7
e.g. Ribose (C5H10O6) , Deoxyribose ( C5H10O4) , Glucose ( C6H12O6)
ii) Oligosaccaharides:- Those carbohydrates which give 2-10
monosaccharide units on hydrolysis are known as Oligosaccharides . These
are further classified into the following types depending upon the no. of
monosaccharides obtained upon hydrolysis .
a) Disaccharides :- Such oligosaccharides give two units of
monosaccharides on hydrolysis .
foreg. C12H22O11 +H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Glucose Fructose
Sucrose on hydrolysis gives glucose and fructose .
b) Trisaccharides:- Such oligosaccharides give three monosacharrides on
hydrolysis . foreg. Raffinose on hydrolysis gives glucose , fructose and
galactose .
i.e C18H32O16 + 2H2O →C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
c) Tetrasacharrides:- Such oligosaccharides give for monosaccharides on
hydrolysis and so on.
For eg. C24H42O21 + 3H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Glucose Fructose Galactose
iii) Polysaccharides :- Those carbohydrates which give no. of saccharide
units on hydrolysis are known as polysaccharides .
foreg. Starch , Cellulose & Glycogen with general formula (C6H10O5) where
n = 100 – 3000
(II) Carbohydrates are also classified into sugar and non- sugar :-
( i) Sugars :- Those carbohydrates which are crystalline solids , soluble in
water and sweet in taste are known as Sugars . foreg . All monosaccharides
and oligosaccharides .
(ii) Non – Sugars :- Those carbohydrates which are amorphous solids ,
insoluble in water and are tasteless for eg. All polysaccharides .
(III) Carbohydrates are also classified into sugars and non reducing
sugars:-

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 3
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

(i) Reducing sugars :- Those carbohydrates which reduce tollens reagents

and fehling solution are k/as reducing sugars . foreg. All monosaccharides
and disaccharides except sucrose .
(ii) Non – reducing sugars :- Those carbohydrates which do not reduce
tollen’s reagent and fehling solutions are k/as non – reducing sugars . foreg.
Sucrose and all poly sacharides .
Monosaccharides
Those carbohydrates which are not hydrolysed to simpler molecules and
contains 3-7 C – atoms are k/as Monosaccharides . There are 20
monosaccharides which occur naturally . These are further classified into the
following two types :-
a) Aldoses :- Those monosaccharides which contain an aldehydic group
(CHO) are k/as aldoses .
b) Ketoses :- Those monosaccharides which contain a ketoinic group are
k/as Ketoses . These aldoses and ketones are classified into trioses ,tetroses ,
pentoes etc. Following table explains the classification of monosaccharides .
S. Monosaccha Gen.For General Structure Example
No rides mula
1 Aldotrioses C3H6O3 CH2OH.CHOH.CHO Glyceralde
hyde
2 Aldotetroses C4H8O4 CH2OH.(CHOH)2.CH Threose ,
O Erythrose
3 Aldopentoses C5H10O5 CH2OH.(CHOH)3.CH Ribose ,
O Xylose .
4 Aldohexos C6H12O6 CH2OH.(CHOH)4.CH Glucose
O ,Galactose
5 Ketotrioses C3H6O3 CH2OH.CO.CH2OH Dihydroxy
acetone
6 Ketotetroses C4H8O4 CH2OH.CO.CHOH Erythrulose
CH2OH
7 Ketophentose C5H10O5 CH2OH.CO.(CHOH)2. Ribulose
s CH2OH
8 Ketohexos C6H12O6 CH2OH.CO(CHOH)3 Fructose,
CH2OH Tagatose
Configuration of Monosaccharides or D-L concept in
Monosaccharides

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 4
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

It has been found that dextrorotatory glycerol aldehyde exists in two forms –
a glyceraldehydes in which OH group adjacent to CH2OH is towards left
they are respectively k/as D glyceraldehyde and L-glyceraldehyde having
structures .

Any configuration which resembles to D – glyceraldehyde belongs to D –

series while the configuration which belongs to L- glyceraldehyde belong to
L- series i.e a molecule is assigned D – confiruration if the –OH group
attached to carbon adjacent to CH2OH group (Least chiral atom) is on the
right hand side irrespective of the position of these group ,on the other hand
a molecule is assigned L- configuration if the -OH group attached to the
carbon adjacent to the –CH2OH group on the left. It has been found that all
naturally occurring carbohydrates belongs to D- series.

Assymetrical carbon atom in monosaccharides :- Those carbon atoms are

attached to four atoms or groups are known as assymetrical carbon atoms or
chiral centres. It has been found all carbohydrates are known to possess
assymetrical carbon atoms and or chiral centres . It has been found that all
carbohydrates are known to process assymetrical carbon atom and hence
show optical isomerism where the no. of optical isomers = 2 n where n is the
no. of asymmetric carbon - atom .

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 5
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

eg glyceraldehyde contains one chiral centre and hence exists in two optical
isomerism form as

Glucose contains four chiral centres and hence exists in sixteen optical
isomerism form out of which important ones are :-

Structure of Glucose
The molecular formula of Glucose is C6H12O6 and studies reveal that its
open chain structure is

Since aldehydes have a property to form hemi acetals with alcohols as –

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 6
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Therefore , C1 and C5 of glucose also form cyclic hemiacetals in which the

two isomers differ in the configuration of -OH on C1. Such pairs of optical
isomers which differ in the configuration only around C 1 atom are known as
anomers and the carbon atom C1 is known as anomeric carbon or
glycosidiccarbon . The configuration in which OH group is present on the
right hand side of first carbon atom is known as α – form where as the
configuration in which it is present on left side is known as β – form . Hence
, glucose exists in following two cyclic forms:-

The above representation are known as fisher projection formula .

Haworth in 1926 showed that the structure resembles the pyran ring

Such structures are known as Pyranose structures or Haworth projection

formula . They are –

Structure of Fructose

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 7
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

The molecular formula of fructose is C6H12O6 and studies reveal that its
open structure is –

Since , a Ketone can form hemiketal with alcohol as –

Therefore , Fructose can form cyclic hemi – ketals between C2 and C5 which
resemble with furan ring .

They are k/as furanosestructures .

There are the fisher – projection formulae.
The furanose structures of fructose are:-

Glucose

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 8
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Glucose is also known as dextrose is the most abundant compound on the

earth is the monomer of many polysaccharides such as starch , cellulose ,
etc. It occurs in nature in free as well as incombined state . It is present in all
sweet fruits .For eg. Ripe grapes contain 20%of glucose .
Preparation :-1) From Sucrose :- Sucrose on hydrolysis by boiling with
dilute HCl or H2SO4 in alcoholic soln . produces a mixture of glucose and
fructose .i.e. C12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
(Sucrose) (Glucose) (Fructose)
2) From Starch :- Starch on hydrolysis by boiling with dil. H2SO4 at 393k
under pressure of 2-3 bar produces glucose .
i.e. (C6H10O5)n + nH2O → n C6H12O6
(Starch) (Glucose)
Chemical Properties :-Glucose has one aldehydic group (CHO) , one
alcoholic groups . Glucose is a pentahydroxyl aldehyde and hence shows
reactions of alcohols as well as aldehydes . Some of its reactions are :-
1) Rxn. of alcoholic group:-i) Rxn .with acetic anhydride (acetylation ) :-
On rxn with acetic anhydride in the presence of anhydrous zinc chloride . It
produces Glucosepentacetate .
CHO CHO
I I
(CHOH)4 + 5(CH3CO)2O →(CHOCOCH3)4
I I
CH2OH CH2OCOCH3
(Glucose) (Glucose pentacetate)

The formation of Penta – acetyl derivatives shows the presence of 5OH

groups in Glucose molecule.
ii) Formation of Glucoside:- Glucose reacts with methyl alcohol in the
presence of dry HCl gas to form glucosides.

2) Reactions of Aldehyde Groups :-

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 9
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

i) Rxn with hydrogen Cyanide :- On reaction with Hydrogen cyanide

glucose produces glucose cyanohydrin .
CHO CH
II
(CHOH)4 + HCN → (CHOH)4
II
(CH2OH) CH2OH
(Glucose) ((Hydrogen Cyanide) (Glucose cyanohydrin)
ii) Rxn with hydroxylamine (NH2OH) :- On reaction with hydroxylamine
Glucose produces Glucose oxime .
CHO CH=NOH
II
(CHOH)4 + H2NOH → (CHOH)4 + H2O
I I
CH2OH CH2OH
(Glucose) (Hydroxylamine) (Glucose oxime)
iii) Rxn with phenyl hydrazine :- Glucose on treatment with one mole of
phenyl hydrazine produces Glucosephenylhydrozone .
CHO CH=NNHC 6H5
I I
(CHOH)4 + H2NNHC6H5 → (CHOH)4 + H2O
I I
CH2OH CH2OH
(Glucose)(Phenylhydrazine) (Glucosephenylhydrozone)
But , with excess of phenyl hydrazine it produces Glucosazone .

 Osazones are a class of carbohydrate derivatives found in organic chemistry

formed when reducing sugars are reacted with excess of phenylhydrazine at
boiling temperatures.

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 10
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

3) Oxidation :-
i) By weak oxidizing agents such as Br2water , it is oxidised to Gluconic
acid

ii) By mild oxidizing agents such as :-

a) Fehling soln . (alkaline soln. of CuSO4) :- It reduces fehlingsoln . to red
ppt .

b) Tollen’sreagent (Ammonia soln. of silver nitrate) :- It reduces tollen’s

reagent to metallic silver .

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 11
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

iii)By strong oxidizing agent such as Nitric acid HNO3 it is oxidised to

saccharicacid .

5) Reduction :-i)With sodium amalgam , it produces sorbitol .

ii)With HI / Red P4 at 373 K it is reduced to a mixture of n – Hexane and 2

– iodohexane .

Mutarotation
The two forms of Glucose i.e of αand β– Glucose exists in separate
crystalline forms and have different melting points and optical rotations
when either of these two forms are dissolved in water and allowed to stand
these get converted into the other forms and an equilibrium mixture is
formed with small amount of open chain form .

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 12
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Explanation:- α – D – Glucose has a specific rotation of +1110 while β – D

– Glucose has a specific rotation of +19.20 when α – form is dissolved in
water its specific rotation falls until a constant value of +52.5 0is reached .
On the other hand , when β – form is dissolved in water its specific rotation
increases and becomes constant at +52.50 .
This spontaneous change in specific rotation of an optically active
compound with time to an equilibrium value is called as mutarotation .
During mutarotation , the ring opens and then again closes either in the
inverted position or in the original position giving a mixture of α and β –
forms . Thus , there is an equilibrium mixture of α and β – forms in the
solution .
α – D – Glucose ↔ open chain form ↔ β – D – Glucose
(sp.rotation = +1110) (sp. Rotation = +52.50) (sp. rotation = +19.20)
Disaccharides
These are those carbohydrates or saccharides which on hydrolysis give two
some or different monosaccharides . Their general formula is C 12H22O11 .
The important members belonging to disaccharides are sucrose , maltose and
lactose . On hydrolysis with dilute acids or enzymes these give the following
two molecules of monosaccharides .
i.e.
C12H22O11 + 2H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
(Sucrose) (Glucose) (Fructose)

C12H22O11 + 2H2O → 2C6H12O6

(Maltose) (Glucose)

C12H22O11 + 2H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

(Lactose) (Glucose) (Galactose)
These are briefly described as under :-
1) Sucrose :- It is the most common disaccharide . It is also known as cane
sugar or table sugar . It is the colourless , crystalline and sweet substance . It
is soluble in water and its aqueos solution is dextrorotatory having specific
rotation of +66.50 . Its main source is sugar cane and is obtained by its
hydrolysis as :-
2(C6H10O5)n + nH2O → n C12H22O11
(Sugarcane) (Sucrose)

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 13
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Structure :- Its structure was proposed by Haworth in 1927 . It consists of a

α-D–Glucose and β-D-Fructose joined at C1 and C2 to Glycosidic linkage :-

On hydrolysis , it gives a mixture of Glucose and Fructose .

C12H22O11 + 2H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
(Sucrose) (Glucose) (Fructose)
(Sp.rotation = +66.50) (Sp.rotation = +52.50)
(Sp.rotation = -92.40)
Clearly , the sucrose is dextrorotatory but its solution is leavorotatory with a
specific rotation of -39.90i.e why , it is known as invert sugar and the process
is known as inversion of sugar .
2) Maltose :- It is also known as malt sugar . Since , it is mainly obtained
from malt i.e sprouted barely seeds .
i.e. 2(C6H10O5)n + n H2O → n C12H22O11
Structure :- Its consists of two α-D-Glucose units joined at C1 and C4
through glycosidic linkage.

On hydrolysis , it gives a mixture of α-D- Glucose .

C12H22O11 + H2O →2C6H12O6
(Lactose) (Glucose)
3) Lactose :- It is also known as milk sugar . Since , it is present in the milk
of all mammals . Its molecular formula is C12H22O11 .
Structure :- It consists of β-D-Galactose and α-D-Glucose joined at C1 and
C4 through glycosidic linkage .

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 14
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

On hydrolysis , it gives a mixture of Glucose and Galactose .

C12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
(Lactose) (Glucose) (Galactose)
Polysaccharides
Those saccharides which are not easily hydrolysed by water but on
hydrolysis produce a large no. of monosaccharides are known as
polysaccharides .These are colourless , tasteless and insoluble in water .
These have general formula (C6H10O5)n where , n has very large values .
Some common examples are starch , cellulose and glycogen . These are
briefly discussed as under :-
1) Starch :- It is also known as Amylum . It is a white amorphous and
sparingly soluble in water. It acts as a main reserve for food . It occurs in
all plants particularly in their seeds . Its common sources are wheat , rice ,
maize , potatoes etc.
Structure :-Starch is a polymer of α-D-Glucose and consist of two
components i) Amylose ii) Amylopectin which are briefly discussed as
under -
i) Amylose :- It is a water soluble fraction which forms 10- 20 % of starch
and consists about 100 – 3000 α-D-Glucose units joined at C1 and C4
through glycosidic linkage as shown below :-

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 15
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

ii) Amylopectin :- It is water insoluble fraction which forms about 80 – 90

% of starch and consists of about 20-25 α-D-Glucose units in such a way
that they are linked at C1 and C4 through glycosidic linkage to form no. of
linear chains . These chains are interconnected to each other through C 1 and
C6 . It has highly branched structure :-

Cellulose :- It is the main structural unit of cell wall in plants and is found
up to 40 – 45 % in wood , 90 – 95% cotton and 10 – 20 % in dry leaves . It
is insoluble amorphous and tasteless polysaccharides which is not digested
by our body due to lack of enzyme capable of breaking cellulose molecules .
Structure:- It consists of 300 - 3000 β-D-Glucose units joined at C1 and C4
through glycosidic linkage as shown below –

Its molecules mass in the range of 50,000 – 5 lakh. It is an industrially

important compound . It find uses in textiles , paper and plastics industries .
Functions of carbohydrates :- Carbohydrates are very important
compounds for all living organisms and their main functions are :-
1) Reserve food material :- Starch is the major food reserve material in
plants and glycogen in animals .
2) Structural material for plants :- The polysaccharides cellulose acts as
the chief structural materials of the cell walls of bacteria and plants .

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 16
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Cellulose in the form of cotton is used for making clothes and cellulose is in
the form of wood is used for making furniture , doors , windows etc.
3) Bio – fuels :- Carbohydrates such as glucose , fructose , sugar , starch etc
. act as bio – fuels and hence provide a lot of energy for the functioning of
living organisms .
4) Industrial material :- Carbohydrates provide us raw materials for many
industries like textile , paper , lacquers etc .
5) In nucleic acids :- Ribose and Deoxyribose are the essential components
of nucleic acids which are aldopentoses .
6) In Adenosine trisulphate (ATP):-Ribose is an essential component of
ATP which is an important energy molecule .
Glycogen :- It is a polysaccharide which is found in all animal cells
occurring mainly in muscles and lives . It serves as a reserve carbohydrate of
animals and is therefore known as animal starch . Glycogen is a polymer of
about thousandα-D- glucose units arranged in the form of highly branched
chain .

Q) Glucose or sucrose are soluble in water but cyclohexane or benzene

(simple six membered ring compounds) are insoluble in water. Explain.
Ans. A glucose molecule contains 5 −OH groups while a sucrose
molecule contains 8 −OH groups. Thus, glucose and sucrose undergo
extensive H-bonding with water.
Hence, these are soluble in water.
But cyclohexane and benzene do not contain −OH groups. Hence, they
cannot undergo H-bonding with water and as a result, are insoluble in
water.
Q) What are the expected products of hydrolysis of lactose?
Ans. Lactose is composed of β-D galactose and β-D glucose. Thus, on
hydrolysis, it gives β-D galactose and β-D glucose.

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 17
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Q) How do you explain the absence of aldehyde group in the pentacetate

of D-glucose?
Ans: D-glucose reacts with hydroxylamine (NH 2OH) to form an oxime
because of the presence of aldehydic (−CHO) group or carbonyl carbon.
This happens as the cyclic structure of glucose forms an open chain
structure in an aqueous medium, which then reacts with NH 2OH to give
an oxime.

But pentacetate of D-glucose does not react with NH 2OH. This is

because pentacetate does not form an open chain structure.

Q) Glycogen is a branched chain polymer of α-D-glucose units in which

chain is formed by C1 — C4 glycosidic linkage whereas branching occurs
by the formation of C1 — C6 glycosidic linkage. Structure of glycogen is

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 18
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

similar to __________.
(1) Amylose (2) Amylopectin (3) Cellulose (4) Glucose
Solution. Structure of glycogen is similar to amylopeptin. It is a branched
chain polymer of α-D glucose units in which chain is formed by C 1-
C4 glycosidic linkage and branching occurs by C 1-C6 glycosidic linkage.

Q) Which of the following polymer is stored in the liver of animals?

(1) Amylose (2) Cellulose (3) Amylopectin (4) Glycogen
Solution. Glycogen is stored in the liver of animals.
Q.3. Sucrose (cane sugar) is a disaccharide. One molecule of sucrose on
hydrolysis gives _________.
(1) 2 molecules of glucose
(2) 2 molecules of glucose + 1 molecule of fructose
(3) 1 molecule of glucose + 1 molecule of fructose
(4) 2 molecules of fructose
Solution. Sucrose (cane sugar) is a disaccharide. One molecule of sucrose
on hydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose.

Note: Sucrose is a dextrorotatory sugar on hydrolysis produces a

laevorotatory mixture, so known as invert sugar. Sucrose is a non-reducing
sugar.
Q.4. Which of the following pairs represents anomers?

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 19
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Ans. (iii) Solution. The isomers which differ only in the configuration of
the hydroxyl group at C—1 are called anomers and are referred to as α- and
β-forms.
α – Amino acids
Chemically proteins are condensation polymers in which the manomeric
units are α – amino acids . α – amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins . These are so named because in these acids the amino group is
present on the α – carbon with respect to the carboxylic group . Their
general structure is represented as –

26 different α- amino acids have been isolated by the hydrolysis of various

proteins .
Out of which only 20 amino acids occur in almost in all the proteins while
the remaining six are found only in special tissues .
These amino acids differ from one - another in the nature of side chain
group R
Classification of amino acids :-
1) On the basis of their nature they are classified into following three types
:-

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 20
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

(a) Acidic amino acids :-Such amino acids contain two carboxylic groups
and one amino groups .For eg . Aspartic acid , Glutamic acid .
(b) Basic amino acids :- Such amino acids contain one COOH group and
two NH2 groups. For eg Lysine ,Histidine .
(c) Neutral amino acids :-Such amino acids contain one COOH group and
some NH2 group . For eg.Valine ,Alamine.
2) On the basis of their need in the diet they are classified into following
two types :-
(a) Essential amino acids :-Such amino acids are required in diet but are
not present in our body . These are 9 in number . e.g. Valine, Leucine,
Isoleucine etc.
(b) Non – essential amino acids :-Such amino acids are not required in the
diet , since they are present in our body. These are 11 in number . e.g
Glycine, Alanine etc.
Nomenclatures and Structures
All the amino acid are known by their common name such as glycine is so
named since, it has sweet taste ( in Greek glycos means sweet ) and Tyrosine
is so named because it was first isolated from cheese (in Greek tryros means
cheese) .
The different amino acid which differ in their side chains are :-
S.No Amino acid Three One Side chain R
letter letter
symbol code
neutral
amino
acids
1. Glycine Gly G H
2. Alanine Ala A CH3
E *
3. Valine Val V CH(CH3)2
E *
4 Leucine Leu L CH2CH(CH3)2
E
5 Isoleucine* Ileu
I
E *
6 Phenylalanine Phe F C6H5CH2-
E
7 Methionine* Met M -CH2 - CH2 - S-CH3
E
8 Tryptophan* Trp W

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 21
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

9 Serine Ser S -CH2OH

10 Cysteine Cys C -CH2SH
11 Glutamine Gln Q -CH2CH2CONH2
E
12 Threonine* Thr T
13 Tyrosine Tyr Y

14 Proline Pro P

Acidic amino acids

15 Aspartic Asp D -CH2COOH
acid
16 Asparagine Asn N -CH2CONH3+
17 Glutamic Glu E -CH2CH2COOH
acid
Basic
amino
acids
E *
18 Lysine Lys K -CH2(CH2)3NH2
19 Arginine Arg R

E
20 Histidine* His H

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 22
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Properties of α - Amino acids :-

1) Amino acid are colourless ,non volatile and crystalline solids
2) These are soluble in water and have high melting point.
3) These exists as dipolar ion known as Zwitter ion.

4) Except Glycine, all α -amino acids are optically active since , (α - carbon
of glycine is not chiral ).
Hence, they exists in two stereo isomeric forms D and L- form. It has been
found that all naturally occurring amino acids belong to L- series which
have NH2 group on the left has OH group in L- glyceraldehydes.
5) In acidic medium , these exists in cationic form and hence move towards
cathode in external electric field . While in basic medium these exists in
anionic form and hence move towards anode in external electric field .
However, at some intermediate pH there is no net migration of amino acids
in external field. Since , the concentration of its forms become equal. This pH
is known as Isoelectric point of amino acid.
For eg. For glycine pH = 6.1
For neutral amino acids , it is slightly less than 7 .
For acidic amino acids , it lies between 3.0 -5.4 .
For eg :- Aspartic acid has pH = 3.0
For basic amino acids , it lies between 7.6 and 10.8
For lysine pH = 9.7

R R R
I I I
H3N ─ C ─ H
+
H3N ─ C ─ H
+
H 2N ─ C ─ H
I I I
-
COOH COO COO-
(cationic form) (I) (Zwitter form) (II) (Anionic form) (III)
Q) The melting points and solubility in water of amino acids are
generally higher than that of the corresponding halo acids. Explain.
Ans: Both acidic (carboxyl) as well as basic (amino) groups are present
in the same molecule of amino acids. In aqueous solutions, the carboxyl

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 23
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

group can lose a proton and the amino group can accept a proton, thus
giving rise to a dipolar ion known as a zwitter ion.

Due to this dipolar behaviour, they have strong electrostatic interactions

within them and with water. But halo-acids do not exhibit such dipolar
behaviour.
For this reason, the melting points and the solubility of amino acids in
water is higher than those of the corresponding halo-acids.
Peptides
Peptides are the amides formed by the condensation of amino group of one α
- amino acid and carboxyl group of another molecules of the same or
different amino acid with the elimination of H2O molecules . They are
further classified into dipeptides.,tripeptides, tetrapeptides and soon
depending upon the number of α -amino acids condensing ..

Similarly , when we condensed Valine, Alanine and Glycine, we get a

tripeptides.

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 24
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Similarly , when we condense large number of α - amino acids we get a

polypeptides

This linkage is known as peptide linkage :-

Proteins
The name proteins has been derived from a greek word proteios meaning
prime important.These are so named because these are important chemical
substances which are essential for growth and maintainance of life.These are
the constituents of cells and are present in all living bodies.Chemically
proteins are the polymers of α-amino acids linked by peptide bonds and have
molecular mass greater than 10000 .
Classification:-1)Depending upon their molecular structure , they are
classified into following two types :-
i)Fibrous proteins :-These proteins are in the form of thin threads joined
side by side to form thick fibres. These proteins are insoluble in water and
other common solvents. These are the main structural material of animal
tissues. The common examples are :- keratin (found in hair , nails and skin) ,
Myosin (found in muscles)
ii)Globular proteins :-The polypeptide chain in this proteins are folded
around itself in such a way so as to give the entire protein molecule and
almost spherical shape.These are soluble in water or aqueous solutions of
acids , bases and salts.These proteins maintain and regulate life processes.
Therefore , these act as enzymes and harmones .e.g. Albumin(white portion
of egg) , insulin (present in pancreas)

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 25
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

2)Classificaton on the basis of hydrolysis products , these are classified

into three types :-
i)Simple proteins:- Such proteins give only α-amino acids on complete
hydrolysis. i.e. Proteins  α-amino acids
Some common examples are albumin and keratin.
ii)Conjugated proteins:-Such proteins give some non –protein parts called
as prosthetic groups along with α-amino acids on complete hydrolysis i.e.
Conjugated proteins →α-amino acids + prosthetic group
E.g. In Glucoproteins , prosthetic group is sugar or carbohydrates
iii)Derived proteins:- These are the degraded products of proteins produced
on their partial hydrolysis.i.e.
Proteins →Proteoses→Peptones →Polypeptides →α-amino acids
Therefore ,proteoses , peptones and polypeptides are derived proteins are
called as derived proteins.
Importance of proteins :-Proteins constitute and indispensable part of our
food .Some of the important biological functions of proteins are:-
i)Structural materials:-One of the most important function of proteins is
that the serve as the important structural material of animal tissues.These are
approximately one half of the bodies total protein content. E.g. Keratin in
hair , skin and nails and Myosin in muscles
ii)Transport agents:-Certain protein serve as transport agent in the
body.There transport the cellular necessities such as oxygen , metals ,
harmones , etc.e.g. Haemoglobin transports oxygen from lungs to all parts
of the body.
iii)Enzymes:- Certain proteins act as enzymes and hence catalyse the
biological reactions. E.g.pepsin decomposes the proteins.
iv)Harmones or metabolic regulators:- Some globular proteins regulates
metabolic processes. E.g insulin from pancreas maintains glucose level in
the blood.
v)Antibiotics:-Some proteins can also acts as antibiotics. E.g.Gamma
globulins act as antibiotics.
Structure of proteins
Proteins are bio – polymers obtained by condensation of a large number of
α-amino acids joined together through peptide bonds having three
dimensional structures . The structures of proteins are quite complex . Their
complete structures are usually discussed at four different levels .i.e Primary

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 26
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

, Secondary , tertiary , quaternary structures . Each level being more

complex than the previous one.

1)Primary structures :-The sequence in which the amino acids are linked
in one or more polypeptide chains of a protein is called as primary structures
of proteins .
The sequence of amino acids of a protein determines its function and any
change in the sequence creates a different protein .
The importance of primary structure of a protein lies in the fact that even a
change of 1- amino acid can change the properties of entire protein . For eg .
Normal haemoglobin has 574 amino acid units and changing just one amino
acid in the sequence results in defective Haemoglobin found in patients
suffering from sickle cell anaemia .
Normal haemoglobin – Val – His – Leu – Thr – Pro – Glu – Lys .
Sickle cell haemoglobin -Val – His – Leu – Thr – Pro – Val – Glu – Lys –
2)Secondary structures :-Secondary structure gives the manner in which
polypeptide chains are folded or arranged .
Therefore , it gives the shape or confirmation of the proteins molecule by
means of X- ray studies Linus Pauling suggested the following two types of
secondary structures –

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 27
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

i) α – Helix structure :- The α – Helix model was

proposed by Linus Pauling in 1951.
On the basis of theoretical considerations which
was later verified experimentally.
In this structure formation of hydrogen bonding
between amide group and carbonyl group with in
the same chain causes the peptide chains to coil
up into a spiral structure .
That is called as α-helix , it is also known as 3.613
helix because each turn of helix contains
approximately 3.6 amino acid and a 13 membered
ring is formed by H-bonding.
This type of structure is found in keratin in hairs ,
nails , etc.
ii) β-pleated sheet structures :- This structure was
also prepared by Linus Pauling in 1951.
In this structure , the long peptide chains lie side by
side in a zigzag manner to form a flatsheet.
Each chain is held to the neighbouring chains by H-
atoms.
These sheets are stacked upon one another to form a
three dimensional structure called as β-pleated sheet
structures.
This type of structure is found in silk fibron.
iii)Tertiary structures:- The structures arises due
to the folding , coiling and bending of polypeptide
chains producing chains producing
three dimensional structures. It
arises due to the folding and
superimposition of various
secondary structures. The tertiary
structure involves four types of
bonds:1. Ionic bonds, 2. Disulfide
bridges, 3. Hydrophobic forces
and 4. Hydrogen bonds. e.g.
Globular proteins have such
structures.

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 28
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

iv)Quartenery structures:- There are certain proteins which exist as

assemblies of two or more polypeptide chains called as sub units or
protomers.
The quartenery structure refers to the determination of the number of
subunits and their spatial arrangements with respect to each other with an
aggregiate protein molecule. The quaternary is the final 3D conformation.
Denaturation of proteins
The process by which the physical and biological properties of the proteins
change without effecting its chemical properties is known as denaturation of
proteins and the protein so obtained is known as denaturated protein.
This process occurs either by physical changes like change in temperature or
by chemical changes like change pHor by adding certain chemical agents.
The most common examples of denaturation of protein are:-
a)The coagulation that occurs when milk is heated with an acid (lemon
juice) leading to the formation of cheese.
b)Curding of milk is also an example of denaturation of proteins which is
caused due to the formation of lactic acid by the bacteria present in milk.
c)The coagulation of albumin present in the white portion of egg on heating
is also an example of denaturation of proteins.
During this process globular proteins present in albumin changes into rubber
like insoluble mass.
Due to denaturation , the secondary and tertiary structures of the proteins
change while the primary structures remains as it is.
Q) Where does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg?
Ans: When an egg is boiled, the proteins present inside the egg get
denatured and coagulate. After boiling the egg, the water present in it is
absorbed by the coagulated protein through H-bonding.
Q) Classify the following into monosaccharides and disaccharides.
Ribose, 2-deoxyribose, maltose, galactose, fructose and lactose
Ans: Monosaccharides: Ribose, 2-deoxyribose, galactose, fructose.
Disaccharides: Maltose, lactose.
Q) What do you understand by the term glycosidic linkage?
Ans: Glycosidic linkage refers to the linkage formed between two
monosaccharide units through an oxygen atom by the loss of a water
molecule.
For example, in a sucrose molecule, two monosaccharide units, ∝-
glucose and β-fructose, are joined together by a glycosidic linkage,

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 29
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

HARMONES
Harmones are a group of molecules which are produced by endocrine
(ductless glands) and are carried to the different parts of the body by the
blood stream where they control various metabolic processes.
Therefore, harmones are chemical messangers and they are not stored in the
body but are produced continuously.
In mammels , the secretion of harmones is controlled by interior lobe of
pituitary gland.
Classification of harmones:-Harmones are classified on the basis of their
structure and their site of the activities in the cells as :-
I)Steroidal Harmones:-Such harmones
contain steroid nucleus. i.e. three fused
cyclohexane rings and one cyclopentane
ring as shown below:-
They are of two types:-
i) Sex Harmones:- These harmones are
responsible for primary sexual processes
and secondary characterstics such as
voice , facial hair , texture of skin etc.
which differentiate males from females.
They are further of three types:-
S.No Name Organ of Function
secretion
1. Testosterone or Testes i) Control the development &
Androsterone or normal function of male
Androgen sexual
ii) Responsible for male
characterstics (Deep voice)
facial hair , general physical
constitution
2. Estrogen or Ovary i) Control the development &

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 30
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Estrone or normal function female sex

Estrodial or Estriol organ
ii) Responsible for female
characterstics.
iii) Participates in control of
menstrual cycle
3. Progesterone or Corpuslutecum Prepare uterus for
Oestrogen implantation of fertilised
egg(Control the development
and maintainance of
pregnancy.
ii)Adernal cortex Harmones(Corticoids):- They are produced by cortex by
adrenal glands . Its common examples are aldosterone , cortisone ,
corticosterone.
Function:- 1) Regulate the metabolism of fats , proteins , proteins and
carbohydrates.
2) Control the balance of water and minerals in the body,
II)PeptideHarmones:-The four most important peptide harmones are:-
S.No Name Organ of Function
secretion
1. Insulin Pancreas i) Control the metabolism of
glucose
ii)Maintain glucose level in
the blood
2. Oxytocin Posterior i)Control the contraction of
pitutary gland uterus after child birth
ii)Release milk from
memory gland.
3. Vasopresin Posterior Control the reabsorption of
pitutary gland water in the kidney.
4. Angiopensin Blood plasma Contracts the blood vessels.
(Person with
high BP)
III)Amine Harmones:- These are either amines or amino acid. The two
important amine harmones are:-
S.No Name Organ of Function
secretion

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 31
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

1. Adernaline Adernal It was the first harmone to be

or medulla isolate
Epinephrine i)Prepare anyone animals and
humans for emergencies in
many ways by raising the pulse
rate and B.P etc.
ii)Stimulate the break down of
glycogen fats.
iii)It prepares the animals and
human beings for flight. That is
why , it is also called flight or
fight harmones.
2. Thyroxine Thyroid gland Controls metabolism of
carbohydrates , lipids and
proteins.
Enzymes
Enzymes are the bio catalyst which accelerate the rate of bio chemical
reaction. Chemically they are globular protein which may contain some
prosthetic groups such as ions or vitamins.
Characteristic of enzymes :-
1) Activity :- They are highly active in nature i.e increase the rate of a
biochemical reaction to a high extent.
e.g In absence of enzymes, it takes millions of years to digest the single loaf
of bread.
2) Selectivity :- They are highly selective in nature i.e an enzymes can
catalyse a particular biochemical reaction but not the other. e.g.

3) Enzyme activators :- Such substance increase the activity of an enzyme

and are also known as co-enzymes. e.g vitamins and metal ions (Na+, Mn2+,
Co2+, Cu2+).
4) Enzymes inhibitors :- Such substance decreases the activity of enzymes.
e.g Heavy metals ionssuch as `(Hg2+ and Ag+) and certain drugs.
5) Optimum temperature and pH :- They work at an optimum temperature
of (25 – 37)0C and a pH of around (5-7)pH.

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 32
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Mechanism :- It works on lock and key mechanism which was put forward
by Fischer and states that, “enzyme can catalyse a particular bio chemical
reaction just as a key can open a particular lock”.
It completes in following three steps :-
1)Enzyme combine with substrate to form enzyme substrate complex

2)Enzymes substrate complex is converted into enzyme product complex

3)Products are obtained with the release of enzyme.

Lipids
These are naturally occurring compounds related to fatty acids and include
fats , oil , waxes and other related compound.

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 33
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

They are important constituent of diet and are stored in adipose tissues.
They are hydrophobic in nature and dissolve in organic solvent.
Classification:-Based upon their composition lipids are classified as:-
I)Simple lipids:-They are ester of fatty acid and alcohol. They include:-
i)Natural fat (Triglycerides):- They are trimesters of fatty acid like palmitic
acid , stearic acid or oleic acid with glycerides.
CH2OH CH2OCOR
I I
CHOH + 3R – COOH → CHOCOR
I I
CH2OH CH2OCOR
(Glycerol)

In case of triglyceride is saturated then it is fat while in case of triglyceride is

unsaturated then it is oil .e.g.
CH2OCOC17H35 CH2OCOC17H33
I I
CHOCOC17H35 and CH2OCOC17H33
I I
CH2OCOC17H35 CH2OCOC17H33
(Triglycerate) (Trioleate)
(Fats) (Oil)

ii)Waxes:- These are the ester of fatty acid with long chain monohydric
alcohol. The fatty acid contain C14 – C36 and alcohols contain C16 – C36 .
Most of the waxes are mixture. They have higher melting point than fats.
II)Conjugated lipids(Heterolipids):-Such lipids contain some additional
group. They include:-
i)Phospholipids:- These lipids contain a phosphoric group. Nitrogeneous
base and other substituents. They are the structural unit of cell.
ii)Glycolipids:- They are the ester of fatty acid with carbohydrates and may
contain nitrogen but not phosphorus.
III)Derived lipids:- Such lipids are obtained by the partial hydrolysis of
simple and conjugated lipids. They are sometime present at waste product of
metacollision.
Function of lipids:-1) They are important food reserves of plants and
animal cells.
2)Phospolipids are structural components of cell membrane.
3)They are shock absorbing pads in our body.

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 34
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

4)They burn in tissues and give energy.

5)They are also used as detergents to emulsify fats for transport with in the
body.
Vitamins
The term vitamin was coined by Casimir Funk in 1912 and it refers to a
group of biomolecules other than fats , carbohydrates and proteins which are
essential dietary products most of which cannot be synthesised by our body
and hence must be supplied in the diet for the normal growth , health and
maintainance of the body . They are about 25 vitamins which are designated
by alphabets A,B,C.D…….. etc .after the word vitamin . On the basis of
order of their discovery . The sub groups of individual vitamins are
designated by the subscript 1,2,3etc. foreg. Vit.B1 ,Vit.B12.
Classifications of Vitamins :- Vitamins are classified into following 2 types
:-
1) Fat soluble vitamins :- Such vitamins are soluble in fats but not in water
. These include vitamin A , vitamin D , vitamin E and vitamin K . These are
briefly discussed as under :-
(i) Vitamin A :- It is chemically known as Retinol. I t is also known as brigt
eye vitamin
Sources :- Butter , curd , Ghee , greenleafy vegetables , yellow fruits , carrot
, tomato , mango etc.
Properties :- It is stable to heat acids and bases but are oxidised easily.
Functions :-1)It promotes proper growth of the body , increases life span
and protects against infections.
2)It helps in maintaining proper eye sight.
3)It helps in maintaince of healthy, glowing and soft skin .
4) It is also essential for healthy teeth structure .
5) It is essential during pregnancy and lactation period .
Deficiency :- Its deficiency can cause night blindness , retarted growth ,
thickening and drying of skin (xerosis).
(ii) Vitamin D :-It is also known as calciferol or sun shine vitamin . It is
formed in the skin under the action of sun shine . Its daily dosage is .025 mg
Sources :- Sunlight , milk , bread , butter , ghee , cheese , egg yolk etc .
Properties :- It is stable towards acids , bases and oxidation .
Functions :-(i) It helps in normal growth of bones and teeth .
(ii) It also controls the calcium level in the body .
(iii) It regulates a metabolism of Calcium and Phosphorus .

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 35
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Deficiency :- Its deficiency causes rickets (a disease of children in which

bones beams soft ).
(iii) Vitamin E :- Its chemical name is Tocopherol .
Its daily requirement is 5g .
Sources :- Dairy products , egg , meat green leafy vegetables , whole
germinated seals , nuts , tomatoes etc .
Properties :- It is stable towards heat , acids and bases .
Functions :- (i) Its protects liver .
(ii) It increases muscular strength in animals .
(iii) It promotes fertility in animals .
Deficiency :- Its deficiency causes muscular weakness and sterility i.e loss
of sexual power of reproduction .
(iv) Vitamin K :- It is also known as Phylloquinone or Anti – haemorrhagic
or Blood Coagulation vitamin .
Sources :- Cauliflower , Cabbage , Tomato , Soyabean , Egg yolk .
Properties :- It is destroyed by oxidising agents , strong acids and light but
these are stable to heat .
Function :- (i) It helps in blood clotting .
(ii) It helps in the prevention of haemorrage
(iii) It helps in newly born infants .
Deficiency :- Its deficiency increases the times of blood clotting .
2)Water Soluble Vitamins :- These vitamins soluble in water . These are
briefly discussed as under :-
(i) Vitamin B :- Vitamin B includes 100 gm more water soluble compounds
. Some of them are :
(a) Vitamin B1 :- Its chemical name is thiamine .
Sources :- Rice , whole grains , pulses green leafy vegetables , milk , egg ,
soyabean etc .
Properties :- It is stable towards less heat but gets destroyed on heating
under pressure .
Functions :- (i) It promotes growth .
(ii) It stimulates appetite and helps in digestion .
(iii)It is essential during pregnancy and lactation period .
(iv) It helps in normal functioning of various tissues .
Deficiency :- Its deficiency causes loss of appetite and heri – beri.
(b) Vitamin B2 :- It is chemically known as Riboflavin .

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 36
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Sources :- Green leafy vegetables , dairy products , Bananas , wheat , meat

and fish .
Properties :- It is stable to heat , acids , bases and oxidation , but sensitive
to light .
Functions :- (i) It includes growth , general health .
(ii) It is essential for respiration , reproduction and location .
Deficiency :- Its deficiency causes skin disorders such as cracking of skin ,
lips and corners of the mouth .
(c) Vitamin B6 :- It is also known as Adermin or Pyridoxime . Infact , it is a
mixture of three substances pyridoxime , pyridoxal and pyridocamine .
Sources :- Cabbage , meat , fish , rice bran ,molasses, whole grain , egg etc .
Properties :- It is soluble in water and alcohol . It is stable towards heat and
acids but unstable towards light and oxidisingagents .
Functions :- It plays an important role in metabolism .
Deficiency :-Its deficiency causes aneimia , nervous disorders , irritability ,
pallagra .
(d) Vitamin B12:- (i) It is also known as Cyanocobalamin.
(ii) It contains cobalt.
Sources:-milk , egg , meat , liver etc .
Properties :- This vitamin is required in small amount and is stable to heat .
Functions :- (i) It is essential for the metabolism of nervous tissues .
(ii) It is necessary for the formation of healthy blood and proper growth of
the body .
(iii) It is essential for preventing a disease known as pernicious anaemia
Deficiency :- Its deficiency causes pernicious anemia and inflammation of
tongue and mouth .
Vitamin C :- It is chemically known as Ascorbic acid or Anti – scorbutic
vitamin .
Sources :- Citrus fruits like Amla , orange , lemon , tomato , sprouted pulses
, chillis , green leafy vegetables etc .
Properties :- (i) Out of all vitamins it is highly soluble in water .
(ii) It is very sensitive to heat , acids and bases .
Functions :-(i) It helps in the growth of good teeth .
(ii) It helps in appetite and also in general growth .
(iii) It helps in curing cold .
(iv) It helps in heeling of cuts and wounds .
(v) It gives resistance to our body against diseases and infections .

Biomolecules- The Study Hub

 Page | 37
Biomolecules - The Study Hub

Deficiency :- Its deficiency causes scurry (bleeding of gums ) , pain in

muscles , skin disorders and pyorrnea (loosening and bleeding of teeth )
Vitamin H :- It is chemically known as Biotin . It is neither soluble in water
nor in fats .
Sources :- Milk , Kidney and liver .
Deficiency :- Its deficiency causes depression , loss of hair and paralysis .

Biomolecules- The Study Hub