City and Environment Interactions 13 (2022) 100076

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Research Articles

Accessibility disturbances to the biodiversity of urban wetlands due to

built environment
Carolina Rojas a, *, Einer Sepúlveda b, Felipe Jorquera c, Juan Munizaga d, Joan Pino e
a
Instituto de Estudios Urbanos y Territoriales, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile, Centro de Desarrollo Sustentable (CEDEUS), Instituto Milenio de Socio
Ecología Costera SECOS, Chile.
b
Instituto de Geografía, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
c
Instituto de Estudios Urbanos y Territoriales, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
d
Centro Eula, Universidad de Concepción, Chile
e
CREAF Center for Ecological Research and Forestry Applications, Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Urbanization and urban sprawl in Latin America has led to the social and environmental challenges such as loss
Urbanization and fragmentation of wetland areas, negatively impacting their ecological and social benefits and biodiversity.
Urban wetland Urban wetlands are ecosystems that are essential to Latin American cities and are recognized for both their
Accessibility
protection against flooding and use as recreational spaces. Additionally, accessibility to urban wetlands can also
Urban biodiversity
Urban planning
increase urban residents’ well-being. This study analyzes the city model of an urban wetland in the Greater
Concepción area (Chile, South America), an area that has recently experienced urban sprawl. First, it identifies
the urban fabric and modelling the urban variables of density, distance, roads, and green areas surrounding an
inland wetland. Second, it evaluates the accessibility to the wetland and its effect on plant composition using a
biodiversity indicator (% native and introduced plants). Literature and social enviroment movements has been
showing the Concepción city is growing with no regard for its urban wetland, and its biodiversity is not
considered in urban planning. Still, urban wetland remains does have potential benefits for people, species, and
possible recreational opportunities. The study contributes to the discussion of the unsustainable spatial model of
urbanization interacts with wetland accessibility and with disturbance to biodiversity; the results represent input
for urban planning in order to restoring an integrated wetland within cities and improve accessibility by
including natural urban wetlands as green infrastructure.

1. Introduction completely transformed, leading to multiple impacts: heat islands,

ecological footprints, soil sealing, habitat loss, degradation, and frag­
Planet Earth is becoming increasingly urbanized. It is currently home mentation, all of which directly impact biodiversity [14]. Additionally,
to more than 7 billion people worldwide, where 55% live in urban areas, urbanization alters abiotic and biotic environments [13]. These impacts
and this number is expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050, with 68% are of particular concern in Latin American cities [14], which are
concentration in cities [48]. It is generally accepted that the global economically dependent on their natural resources. One of the ecosys­
trends of urbanization include: i) urban areas expanding faster than tems most affected by urban development are wetlands, which are dis­
urban population, leading to an increase in land built cities; ii) urban appearing at an accelerated rate in recent decades, where Latin America
areas modifying their local and regional climate; iii) expansion of built- is a global leader in the loss of wetlands (Darrah et al., 2019), as seen in
up area, drawing heavily on natural resources; iv) expansion occurring Argentina, Brazil, Peru, and Chile [28,46,52,22,37].
in areas adjacent to biodiversity hotspots more rapidly in low-elevation, Moreover, Latin American cities fall short in their access to nature
biodiversity-rich coastal zones; and v) future growth in areas with and green spaces in comparison to cities in the Northern Hemisphere
limited economic development and institutional capacity for the pro­ [32], as one of the many expressions of socioeconomic inequalities.
tection of biodiversity [8]. Consequently, natural landscapes have been However, public and conservation policies do not sufficiently address

* Corresponding author at: Instituto de Estudios Urbanos y Territoriales, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, El Comendador 1916, Santiago de Chile.
E-mail addresses: [Link]@[Link] (C. Rojas), fijorquera@[Link] (F. Jorquera), juanmunizaga@[Link] (J. Munizaga), [Link]@[Link] (J. Pino).

[Link]
Received 12 July 2021; Received in revised form 1 December 2021; Accepted 2 December 2021
Available online 7 December 2021
2590-2520/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
nc-nd/4.0/).
C. Rojas et al. City and Environment Interactions 13 (2022) 100076

the loss of these resources [25]. Indeed, social, and environmental Indeed, urban wetlands in Chile are considered wastelands ready to be
problems are caused by planned and unplanned urbanization, which is drained and filled [24]. However, there is an increasing recognition of
expected to grow as populations increase. Since conurbations will likely the ecological value of these wetlands and awareness to reduce the real
continue to expand and invade adjacent biodiversity hotspots, especially estate market’s ecological impact on them [2,19].
in cities with more than 200,000 inhabitants [41], more exotic species
will be introduced, while the abundance and diversity of native species
will be reduced [13]. Due to a loss of biodiversity in cities, there is an 1.2. Disturbance to urban wetland accessibility
urgent need to understand how urban biodiversity in human societies
interacts in and around cities, especially growing settlements in urban The effects of adjacent cities on urban wetland biodiversity or
areas of developing Latin American countries. This research aims to accessibility are also poorly understood in the literature. Still, it is
study the spatial relationship between urban pattern of growth, acces­ widely accepted that urban density impacts the abiotic and biotic
sibility to green spaces, and loss of wetland biodiversity where evidence environment [13], and changes in land cover in adjacent landscapes are
is scarce. For this purpose, it looks to contribute Sustainable Develop­ one of the significant drivers of plant invasion, as found in Mediterra­
ment Goal 11, specifically 11.4 for protection of natural heritage, 11.6 nean Europe [9,3]. Plant invasions mostly occur in cities [24,30,3].
for ecosystem services provided by wetlands to reduce the environ­ Urban areas act as propagating sources of ornamental species [3].
mental impact of cities, and 11.7 to promote inclusive cities that are Consequently, abiotic homogenization is produced [42] in a scenario
accessible to green spaces. The increase in knowledge of urban wetlands where the transformed areas receive the least amount of attention in
helps make cities more sustainable and resilient terms of conservation [3].
Considering that urban wetlands are a part of cities’ open green
1.1. Relevance of urban wetlands spaces, including the urban green and blue spaces that support
ecosystem services for people, it is especially important to understand
Wetlands are vital water resources and sensitive areas which are the their interaction with gray spaces or urbanized areas. This is especially
most important and productive ecosystem to mitigate and adapt to true for Latin American cities, which are mostly unplanned regarding
climate change [51]. Their ecosystem services of provisioning, regu­ the value of nature, increasing vulnerability to the local environment.
lating and cultural are very well-documented in literature by Mitsch and Chile is the first Latin American country to pass a law to protect urban
Gossilink [21], Millennium Ecosystem Services [20], and [53], wetlands and propose a rational use of these spaces [6]. The damage to
including carbon sequestration, climate regulation, recreation, and urban wetlands in the city of Concepción [36] were key for promoting
others. However, they are also one of the habitats most threatened by this lsaw to authorities. In addition, in terms of accessibility, goods,
unsustainable urban growth. Indeed, it is widely accepted that urban cargo, and services have been prioritized over the wetlands’ ecological
growth affects the size and quality of bodies of water [55], impacting the connectivity [34]. This new regulation is an opportunity to propose new
conservation of biodiversity, provision of ecosystem services, and even urban planning models and propose solutions for the restoration of
flood mitigation [36]. For example, in Chile, the most urbanized Latin biodiversity, improve hydrological regulations, and provide better and
American country, where 87% of the population lives in cities [48], more accessible recreation spaces in cities.
wetlands are disappearing in Concepción, a coastal city in Southern In densely populated areas such as Concepción, wetlands are dis­
Chile, and have been greatly affected by urban expansion [24,33] , appearing even though they can provide urban biodiversity space and
despite the fact that in the case of earthquakes (the last one in February recreational services that can directly improve human well-being. The
2010) or emergency scenarios, they are highly valued attributes study of cultural services such as recreation is relatively lacking[53], but
providing open space for shelter and water supply [50]. Furthermore, if acknowledged in Chilean cities [35] and elsewhere (e.g., in Sweden,
the benefits of having wetlands in cities include the preservation of [26], urban wetlands could contribute to the environmental well-being
urban biodiversity, while providing spaces where people can interact and quality of life of nearby residents more than other urban green areas
with nature and enjoy themselves through recreation. Still, there is little such as forests [35]. Also, one great advancement is being developed in
information about urban wetlands, as research is mostly focused on Chinese cities, where more than 800 national wetland parks are being
coastal wetlands [56], even in Chile [16], and there are few studies built [11], and include the urban wetland within the biodiversity park
available on the interaction of urban growth, green city planning, and design [54]. Thus, wetlands and their biodiversity must be progressively
accessibility with the preservation of urban wetlands and the potential included in metropolitan landscape planning as an investment in green
to receive ecological services such as leisure. infrastructure.
As a key urban biodiversity space, urban wetlands can provide rec­ Therefore, we aim to address the following questions:
reation, promoting the mental and physical health of residents [5] and (i) What urban forms expressed in different urban fabrics are over
making cities more livable. However, finding evidence of cultural ser­ and surrounding the urban wetlands? How accessible are the urban
vices related to accessibility, understood as the ability to reach a wetland wetlands from denser areas? and ii) What are the associated effects of
as an open green space [35], is a challenge [40] as data is scarce [45]. accessibility (namely in terms of human frequentation) on wetland
Recently, the value of recreational services in developed countries [26] biodiversity and their related recreational disservices?
and in developing countries like India [45] was evaluated. However, the The objective of this study is to identify a wetland city model char­
recreational use of urban wetlands can lead to some adverse effects, such acterized by the urban fabric or urban form related to a compact and
as the degradation of their ecological status and ecological functionality. disperse density model. We performed an analysis of Los Batros Wetlands
Also, the intensity with which the tourism industry is increasing visits to in San Pedro de la Paz, a green city that is part of the Greater Concepción
these areas is changing the water quality [45]. It is already known that area that is under a lot of pressure generated by transport infrastructure
progressive urbanization in unsustainable city growth has negatively and an increasing urban density. In the case study, we measure acces­
affected biodiversity in terms of the richness and composition of species. sibility from neighborhoods to urban wetlands compared to the distri­
This has mostly been observed in plants in the metropolitan area of bution of native and introduced plants, in order to evaluate its effect on
Barcelona [27,9,3], but also in the diversity of birds in wetlands in biodiversity regarding the presence of introduced plants and potential
Valdivia, another city in southern Chile [44]. recreation disservices. Therefore, the authors will explore the associa­
The benefits that urban wetlands provide to citizens and built envi­ tion between adjacent urbanization characteristics in different urban
ronment in Latin American cities are relatively misunderstood, yet they fabrics related to different urban forms and infrastructure [47] and
effectively contribute to mitigating the effects of some natural disasters, accessibility with the richness of introduced and native plants to identify
such as tsunamis [36], on cities and provide cultural services [38]. their effects on biodiversity.

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2. Methods growth and sprawl has affected more than 500 ha of wetlands [33].
Construction in the area has affected biodiversity [24] and directly
2.1. Area of Study: San Pedro de la Paz (Greater Concepción area) caused a loss in nature [43,34], However, wetlands are useful for the
human population, which is especially true in the city of San Pedro de la
Greater Concepción is a conurbation of eleven towns with around 1 Paz.
million inhabitants (2017 Census), displaying a continuous urban
expansion at the expense of urban ecosystems such as wetlands, lagoons,
2.2. Los Batros Urban wetland of San Pedro de la Paz
and urban hills. However, one of its past urban models is relevant, as it
considered the garden city planning and included green spaces. Previous
Los Batros wetland is located in San Pedro de la Paz, an urban sub­
studies show the influence of urban density and distance to roads on the
center of the Greater Concepción area, located 5 km from the city of
transformation of naturalness and richness of native plants in urban
Concepción (Fig. 1 & Photo 1.). San Pedro is a residential city that until
wetlands [34]. Thus, it is well known in Concepción that urbanization is
2015 presented a relevant urban growth rate of 60 ha per year [15], as
a driving factor of biological homogenization [24]. However, increasing
well as the largest population increase in the latest census [12]. As one of
disservices like biological invasions is a common outcome of intensive
the ecosystems most affected by urbanization in the Greater Concepcion
recreational use, which contradicts sustainable urban development and
area, Los Batros wetland is a freshwater marsh, characterized by its
the potential use of wetlands as green infrastructure.
continual or frequent inundation with water, a condition that allows for
The metropolitan area’s urban wetlands are recognized as a key
the development of emergent vegetation adapted to saturated soil con­
element of wild flora and fauna biodiversity and are highly valued by
ditions. Los Batros is composed of the body of water named Estero Los
Concepción locals. However, the urbanization patterns in the Greater
Batros, flooding and low areas of grasslands, whose water flows through
Concepción area demonstrate serious land pressure, where recent urban
to the Chica Lake and Grande Lake in San Pedro.

Fig. 1. Location and Urbanization over the Los Batros Urban Wetland.

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Photo 1. Los Batros Urban Wetland. Credits: Urbancost 2020.

According to a previous study [34], Los Batros has an approximate satellite images from WorldView sensor from October 2018 (0.3 m).
surface area of 133 ha (2014 Rapid Eye boundaries). The first analysis These are classified following the nomenclature of Corine Land Cover
shows the comparison between the wetland’s surface area and its known and expert urban form criteria. We define the different urban fabrics and
original perimeter, studied in 1976 by Ilabaca (1994) with a total of 506 land uses (non-urbanized land) by visual analysis. Urban fabrics
ha. Over 40 years, Los Batros has lost around 73% of its surface area (Table 1).
(373 ha) due to several factors. As for an increase in the occupied built-
up area, 68 ha were recently urbanized (2000 s), equivalent to 14% of 2.5. Urban variables
Los Batros’ original surface area (see Fig. 1). Therefore, relevant urban
expansion has taken place over the wetland’s surface area, which has Urban variables are detected by urban form criteria, these spatial
been reduced by artificial filling for new built-up areas, particularly variables usually explain the structure and growth of cities. They were
since the 1990s, for middle-class neighborhoods and other types of mapped in an area surrounding the urban wetland perimeter within a
residences. buffer of 1,000 m, also by photointerpretation and GIS calculations, in
Fig. 1 also shows the buffer analysis area of 1 km, which is consistent order to determine how the urban city model was promoted and inte­
with a walking distance to the wetland. This was also previously shown grated within the potential ecosystem of leisure services. These are:
as an appropriate area to recognize the influence of the urban wetland
[34]. There are around 52,075 inhabitants living in 18,455 homes - Built-up Area (BA): Corresponds to a percentage of built-up area plus
within this perimeter, representing around 40% of the total population the area covered by houses and buildings, obtained from building
of San Pedro de la Paz. cover urban land uses.
- Population Density (PD): Normally used in statistical models of
2.3. Urban wetland delimitation urban growth, PD is calculated by estimating the population density
based on the results of the 2017 census, divided by the census blocks
The Los Batros wetland was detected in a previous remote sensing surface area.
study done by the authors using a Rapid Eye high-resolution satellite - Dwelling Density (DD): Also calculated by house based on the results
imaging and classifier method with a Support Vector Machine SVM of the census 2017.
technique in “Radial Basin Function” on images from March 2014 [34]. - Distance to City Center (Central Business District - CBD) (DC): Rep­
Rapid Eye has five spectral bands (blue, green, red, red edge, and near- resents the Euclidean distances between census blocks and the
infrared/NIR) and a resolution of 5 m, the most important being Red business center of San Pedro de la Paz.
Edge and Infrared. The preparation data includes radiometric and at­ - Distance to Roads (DR): Represents the distance to roads, calculated
mospheric corrections, normalizing their values between 0 and 1. To by the Euclidean distance between census blocks and main roads.
define Los Batros, hydrophilic vegetation was used as criteria, including - Roads (R): Represent the percentage of surface area of transport
permanently saturated or temporarily flooded hydric soils, saturated infrastructure covered by paved roads and streets.
cover with hydrophilic vegetation with a water mirror, land with - Urban green areas (GA): Derived from the urban land use map, GA
insufficient drainage, and permanently or temporarily flooded or satu­ corresponds to a percentage of open spaces classified between formal
rated cover with dispersing hydrophilic vegetation. The land use/cover (recognition of planning and government) and informal green areas
categories were also detected as Built-up Areas, Undercover Soil, Water covered by any kind of vegetation and/or trees.
Bodies, Native Forest, Grasslands, Plantations, Mixed Forest, and Bea­
ches and Sand. The wetland surface was verified via fieldwork, with 150 Finally, the urban variables are used to carry out statistical spatial
points inside the wetland and 500 points in the rest of the categories. analysis and to model spatial relationships with Ordinary Least Squares
This method was proposed and validated in Rojas et al. [35] and Rojas, regression (OLS). OLS, a multiple linear regression model, was applied
Díaz, and Munizaga [34]. to detect the most intense or urbanized area, as well as to generate
predictions or model a dependent variable in terms of its relation to a set
2.4. Urban fabric of explanatory urban variables. In the statistical model, the variables
were mapped on a 250x250m grid cell analysis that covered all urban
We started by mapping urban fabrics using urban form criteria and fabrics and the wetland size (6.25 ha), to determine the intensification of
photointerpretation of high-resolution images from the WorldView-2 the urbanized area. Built–up area (BA) is the dependent variable, and
satellite with drawing tools in ArcGIS software. The urban fabric vari­ the remaining non-correlated urbanization variables are independent.
ables that help understand the common factor of land density and
occupation were detected by photointerpretation using high-resolution

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Table 1 botanized, and later identified according to references

Urban Fabric. [17,10,31,39,29,49], Finally, the plants were classified as Native or
Urban Fabric Exotic (Introduced).
Continuous medium-density urban
residential fabric. 3. Results
Urban form characterized by between
50% and 80% of construction with 2- 3.1. Modeling the spatial relationship of urbanization and accessibility
story housing, low density, and low
vegetation coverage.
The wetland’s area of influence is made up of different urban resi­
dential fabrics: 1) Continuous medium-density urban residential fabric,
2) Continuous residential block fabric, 3) Discontinuous low-density
residential fabric, and 4) Discontinuous dispersed residential fabric.
The Discontinuous low-density residential fabric is the most represen­
tative (63%), consisting primarily of public housing from the 1970 s and
Continuous block residential fabric
Urban form characterized by between
1980 s, as well as self-built housing, generally scattered attached multi-
50% and 80%, with apartments. unit housing, enclosed gated communities with large, detached homes
Category 1: social apartments in blocks. built just over the wetland, and homes built during the garden city ur­
Category 2: apartments in 5-story banization of the 1960 s. This is followed by the Continuous medium-
buildings.
density urban residential fabric (16%), characterized by housing in
subdivisions constructed during the 1990 s and 2000 s, built over the
wetland with an irregular transportation network. Then we find the
discontinuous dispersed residential fabric (15%), located across from
the wetland on the coast (Boca Sur), made up of public and informal
housing from the 1990 s, as well as improvised housing on land previ­
Discontinuous low-density ously used for agriculture. Finally, we find the continuous residential
residential fabric fabric in blocks (6%), the most compact but interrupted of all urbani­
Urban form made up of dwellings and
zation, made up of consolidated urban areas from the 1960 s, charac­
green areas with 1- and 2-story
detached houses plus gardens. The terized by villages of apartment blocks (four floors) and attached
level of construction is between 50% housing (Table 2. and Fig. 2).
and 80%. Next, we examine the spatial relationship between the urban fabrics
Category 1: Low-density areas with and the urban variables by cells (see Fig. 3). Built-up area (BA) is rep­
housing for lower-middle and lower
socioeconomic classes.
resented by cells ranging from 0% to 100% of continuous and discon­
Category 2: Low-density upper- and tinuous urbanized areas.
middle-class areas with good Average population density (PD) is quite low (26 inhab/ha), which is
accessibility by transport infrastructure spatially representative of medium values in more urbanized cells. PD
for cars.
reaches a maximum high density by cell of around 500 inhab/ha in the
Discontinuous dispersed residential continuous residential blocks and in part of the discontinuous low-
fabric density areas. Of course, the lowest densities are located west of the
Urban form made up of dwellings and wetland, mainly associated with the discontinuous and disperse urban
green areas with dispersed houses up to fabric, as well as the great cover forest plantation areas.
2 stories, with an occupation between
15% until 50%. It includes field plots or
Dwelling density (DD) also has a low average of 9 houses per hectare,
dispersed collective homes with with a maximum of 146 houses per hectare in continuous residential
deficient infrastructure. fabrics. The greatest concentration of housing units is found among the
new public housing complexes and the new private neighborhoods
(continuous medium density urban fabric).
The average distance to roads (DR) is short, less than 3 km, and in­
creases as houses move away from the main route. On average, roads
cover 6%, where it is possible to maintain the impervious surface,
2.5. Modeling population accessibility to wetland and disturbance to reaching a maximum of 44%. Naturally, the highest percentage values of
biodiversity roadways are concentrated around the main road, followed by denser
residential complexes.
Considering that the expansion of introduced species is more Meanwhile, the coverage of green urban areas is quite high, aver­
frequent and abundant in habitats affected by urbanization, we aging 34% and presenting a maximum value of 100% in the mixed forest
measured a Euclidean distance function of accessibility of denser areas plantation area. But most of the urban neighborhoods do not have green
in buffers of 500 m and 1000 m from Los Batros wetland in GIS. The space planning, especially the area west of the wetland, due to the
results of accessibility are compared with collected plant distribution to prevalence of denser residential urban fabrics, characterized by large
determine if there is a connection between urban spatial patterns,
accessibility, and urban plant biodiversity.
To evaluate the plant distribution corresponding to a wetland Table 2
vegetation sample, ten random points of vegetation in the Los Batros Urban Fabric.
wetland area were studied in January 2016 (summer). Two 30-m long Urban Fabric Area (Ha.) % of Total
transects were used for each of the ten sample points, all of which Continuous medium-density urban residential fabric 59.3 16
contained ten 1 m2 quadrants (see Fig. 1). The percentage of coverage of Continuous block residential fabric 22.5 6.1
the surface marsh plant species was determined by observing the per­ Discontinuous low-density residential fabric 233 63
centage of the area in each quadrant occupied by each plant species. In Discontinuous dispersed residential fabric 55 14.9
Total area 369.8 100
order to identify the different plant species, samples were collected,

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Fig. 2. Urban Fabric Surrounding Urban Wetland.

expanses of public housing and closed housing complexes that are Using Pearson’s correlation coefficient to define the non-
lacking in green spaces. The oldest housing complexes, surrounding the correlational independent urban variables, it is not surprising that the
Grande Lake, are part of the continuous medium-density area and pre­ analysis shows high degrees of correlation between Population Density
sent the highest percentages of green spaces. Here, we also find a section and Dwelling Density (1), therefore we decided to eliminate the latter.
of the Los Batros wetland used as a part of the Grande Lake Park. GA does not present a high correlation but rather an indirect relation­
The behavior of distance variables shows that the average distance to ship (-0.47), while the percentage of roads (R) positively correlated with
the city center (DC) is 2,755 m, with the outlying areas presenting a BA (0.57). DR shows a normal negative relationship, as does DC. Built-
maximum of 5,000 m. The distance to highways is an average of 1,115 m up area is the least correlated with PD (0.73) and is, therefore, the most
and is directly related to the main highway network (see Fig. 3). appropriate for OLS analysis, in accordance with other studies [3,34].

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Fig. 3. Urban Fabric Variable Distribution by Cells.

The OLS spatial model uses BA as the dependent variable, and the Therefore, the positive relationships explain the built-up area in­
remaining non-correlated variables as the independent variables: PD, crease in denser areas when there are more residential homes and in the
DC, DR, R, and GA. The model presents an adjusted R2 of 0.62 (greater presence of a transport network, especially for private transport use. The
than0.5), which is consistent when explaining more than 60% of the negative relationships show the built-up volume decreases slightly with
urbanization over and around the wetland, with a 95% confidence level. the presence of GA and when the DC or proximity to city center is longer.
The value of the VIF coefficient is less than 7.5, and F is 105.6 with p (Table 4).
0.00000, showing a high significance for the model, and the Jarque-Bera The grey and light orange cells represent average values and are
statistic shows a significant p-value (0.000000*), indicating a non- close to the estimated value, corresponding to urbanization on the
normal residual distribution (Table 3). border of the wetland, interacting with agricultural and forest plant
The urban variables (PD, GA, R, DR, DC) present an error equal to zones. The graduation of orange and red color cells represents values
zero (StdError), so that it can explain the variation in the dependent estimated correctly by the model; these urbanized areas coincide with
variable for an unbiased model. Four explanatory variables are signifi­ the denser urban fabrics (Fig. 4).
cant (P value), GA, and DC present a negative coefficients and R are PD
are positive with the actual urbanization. Moreover, the variance 3.2. Plant biodiversity
inflation factor (VIF) values all below the threshold of 7.5, that indicate
there are no problems of multicollinearity among the explanatory We collected a total of 41 plant species, belonging to 20 families. The
variable main species detected correspond to the Cyperaceae (42%, 4 species),
Juncaceae (15%, 2 species), Poaceae (12%, 7 species), and Polygo­
naceae (8%, 4 species) families (Table 5). Additionally, in Los Batros
Table 3 wetland, it was possible to identify different plant groupings, whose
OLS Regression Diagnostics. distribution is directly related to the flood regime and soil type. Biodi­
Values versity of vegetation is characterized by sections of permanent flooding,
Number of observations 314
which can surpass 1.5 m in depth, and wide homogeneous zones covered
Akaike’s Information Criterion (AICc) 2028.6 in emergent aquatic macrophytes, over 2 m in height. Among these, the
Multiple R-Squared 0.63 native plant Schoenoplectus californicus (known as totora or batro) stands
Adjusted R-Squared 0.62 out. Also, because of temporary waterlogging during the winter period,
Joint F-Statistic 105.66
these floodplains are characterized by a dense herbaceous cover and the
Prob(>F), (5,427) degrees of freedom 0.000000*
Joint Wald Statistic 390.22 absence of trees, although some have been introduced, such as the
Prob(>chi-squared), (5) degrees of freedom 0.000000* poplar Populus nigra.
Koenker (BP) Statistic 120.52 The sampled points show native plant distribution that varies from
Prob(>chi-squared), (5) degrees of freedom 0.000000* 45% to 80%, and introduced species between 7% and 46%.
Jarque-Bera Statistic 4033.18
Prob(>chi-squared), (2) degrees of freedom 0.000000*

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Table 4
Summary of OLS Model.
Variable Coefficient StdError t-Statistic Probability VIF

Intercept 7.337677 1.181144 6.212346 0.000000* ——————

PD 0.103505 0.00796 13.003587 0.000000* 1.46194
GA − 0.037584 0.010921 − 3.441445 0.000671* 1.462362
R 0.238715 0.057052 4.184198 0.000042* 1.861072
DR − 0.000373 0.000573 − 0.650675 0.51574 1.409013
DC − 0.00116 0.000355 − 3.266195 0.001226* 1.312256

P > 0.05.

Fig. 4. OLS Results for Urban Variables.

3.3. Accessibility disturbances to wetland biodiversity population density. In the case of accessibility by 500 m, the estimated
values ranging from 0 to 101,000, with a mean value of 8,486.
The Accessibility indicator is measured at points every 50 m within Considering 1,000 m, the accessibility increases in range from 0 to
the studied area. The function of accessibility is calculated by buffers of 231,080 with a mean level of 33,595. The accessibility maps are shown
500 and 1000 m at each of these points. Therefore, the higher values in Fig. 5, where estimated accessibility values were obtained by the
indicate a closer proximity to the wetland and a greater value of spatial interpolation method (IDW – Inverse Distance Weighted) in GIS.

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Table 5 great natural value and human survival need for environmental and
Taxonomic composition of native (N), introduced (I), and cosmopolitan (C) cultural services, making for an important opportunity to implement
plants collected in Los Batros wetland. green infrastructure investment. First, the urban fabric does not have
Family Species Origin adequate walkability access from the urban fabrics in order for people to
Alismataceae Alisma plantago-aquatica L. I
visit the wetland for improved recreational use, and the actual informal
Amarillaceae Nothoscordum gramineum (Sims) P. Beauv. N accessibility has a negative effect on plant composition, which would
Apiaceae Daucus carota L. I need to be addressed.
Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Gard. Dict. I The city model reflected in the urban fabric presents a heterogeneous
Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L.F. I
urban density. It includes dispersed urban fabrics that are not associated
Araceae Lemna gibba L. I
Lemna minuscula Herter N with green urban planning, which would easily integrate natural spaces
Asteraceae Carduus pycnocephalus L. I with urban areas (Holden, 2014) such as wetlands, so that they can be
Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. I enjoyed by the diverse socioeconomic neighborhoods found in Latin
Hypochaeris radicata L. I American cities. In the study area, we can observe differences in con­
Caryophyllaceae Cerastium glomeratum Thull I
Cyperaceae Eleocharis palustris (L.) Roem. & Schult. N
struction typology over a short distance, while attempting to recognize
Carex pseudocyperus L N an urban wetland that has been completely fragmented by the transport
Cyperus eragrostis Lam. f. N network [36]. The Los Batros wetland surface area has been consider­
Schoenoplectus californicus (C.A. Mey.) Soyák N ably reduced by the denser housing and increase in transport infra­
Convolvulacea Convolvulus arvensis L. I
structure associated with low- and middle-income neighborhoods.
Fabaceae Galega officinalis L. I
Lotus corniculatus L. I Unfortunately, the current urban fabrics have not been planned to
Lotus pedunculatus Cav. I include green areas or open green spaces, as they decrease the proximity
Trifolium repens L. I to roads. The only exception is the low- to medium-density continuous
Fumariaceae Fumaria capreolata L. I areas that were constructed in the 1960s in association with the garden
Juncaceae Juncus imbricatus Laharpe N
city model.
Juncus procerus E. Mey. N
Hydrocharitaceae Limnobium laevigatum (Humb. Et Bonpl.) Heine I The problem is that the urban fabrics that have inherently more
Onograceae Ludwigia peploides (Humb., Bonpl. & Kunth) P.H. C sustainable properties need to be optimized and extended throughout
Raven the city [47]. For example, in a context of a wetland city such as San
Plantaginaceae Plantago lanceolata L. I
Pedro de la Paz, the urban fabric has a direct impact on accessibility.
Poaceae Avena fatua L. I
Holcus lanatus L. I Walking, public transit, and private transport urban fabrics also have
Hordeum murinum L I different urban metabolisms. For example, in the urban fabric sur­
Lolium multiflorum Lam. I rounding the Los Batros wetland, we can detect some relatively more
Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud C walkable areas closer to the Grande Lake that could be used as access for
Poa annua L I
continuous medium-density residential use, showing a city model that is
Poa sp.
Polygonaceae Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx I more integrated with natural spaces. In contrast, on the opposite end,
Polygonum persicaria L. I the urban fabric is discontinuous, with low-density and dispersed areas,
Rumex acetocella L. I which are more associated with transport infrastructure for cars,
Rumex crispus Murray I
considering that the most significant urban variable is a percentage of
Ranunculaceae Ranunculus repens L. I
Rosaceae Rubus ulmifolius Schott I
cover by transport network. Of course, improving accessibility through
Thypaceae Typha domingensis Pers. C transport infrastructure increases the opportunity for reducing in­
Scrophulariaceae Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. I equalities in connection for more remote neighborhoods, but here it has
been done at the cost of the wetland’s surface area. This contradiction is
one of the challenges of Latin American cities, where conservation is a
It can be observed that the highest values (red color) are found around
constant dilemma when facing new housing developments and transport
the medium-density residential urban fabric and decrease when urban
infrastructure [4].
density is lower (see degradation of red color to orange).
In contrast, an urban fabric that favors a walking model could in­
Accessibility increases on both sides of the wetland boundaries when
crease the potential number of visitors, which would promote environ­
the urban fabric is denser, although it is more intense on the right side.
mental education, as residents would understand the wetland’s natural
Comparing the distribution of plants to accessibility, the effect of 500 m
value and help protect the urban green space. This would also improve
is different than 1000 m; the regression model indicates that native
the lack of recreational spaces. Nonetheless, environmental education is
plants present a reduced R2 effect of 0.069, therefore, the trend is to
needed, as an increase in visitors can also disturb the wetland’s
decrease as accessibility increases. Likewise, their coverage is equal to or
ecological function. For example, water quality has deteriorated past the
greater than 60% when accessibility is close to 1. In the case of intro­
threshold to allow for swimming [45]. Also, urban planning must pro­
duced plants, the R2 effect is 0.21, which indicates a positive relation­
mote urban sustainability, because improving accessibility can also
ship and a cover of 30% when accessibility is 1. In sum, as accessibility
affect land and housing prices [7]. To promote sustainable development,
increases, the coverage of introduced plants also increases. The highest
ecological planning of a fragmented urban wetland is essential for
coverage is greater than 45% (Fig. 6).
improving accessibility to nature. It cannot simply focus on residents’
The 1,000-meter model indicates that native plants present a positive
access to recreation or an increase in green areas as usually recom­
R2 relationship of 0.10, but this tends to decrease as accessibility in­
mended by sustainability indicators. Rather, it also needs to restore
creases to values greater than two, reaching coverage up to 30%. The
native vegetation in urban areas to improve biodiversity.
model for introduced plants at 1000 m of accessibility presents a R2 of
Green space accessibility is usually associated with social and
0.56, where the effect of the increase in introduced plants is more
physical benefits for people. While this is often the case, more evidence
intense, reaching coverage over 45%.
of its effect on biodiversity is required, considering the most important
attributes of visitors in urban wetland parks [54]. In this case, it is
Discussion
observed that plant composition has been affected by an increase in low-
density neighborhoods, as they grant more people informal access to the
The urban fabric surrounding the Los Batros wetland is totally erratic
wetland. The city of San Pedro de la Paz is also characterized by an
based on density patterns, having been built without considering the
unsustainable land occupation with the development of single-family

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C. Rojas et al. City and Environment Interactions 13 (2022) 100076

Fig. 5. Accessibility Maps.

homes, showing urban sprawl [15], which is well-known to have a larger accumulation of debris, and plant extraction [55]. Also, vegetation
environmental cost than compact cities [23]. The wetlands area has also heterogeneity is greater in this area due to an increased presence of
been affected by an increase in the continuous medium-density urban introduced plants, in agreement with the pattern shown by Rojas, et al.
residential fabric, especially the residential gated community model [34], where wetlands with a larger number of native species and greater
constructed over the wetland and its associated urban variables, such as naturalness are farther from urban sources. Therefore, it is irrefutable
an irregular or cul-de-sac transport network and increasing housing that urban wetlands are associated with greater plant alteration and a
prices, creating a private wetland border that can only be enjoyed by large loss of biodiversity [43], although when evaluating the greater or
residents of the gated community. The unsustainable occupation is lesser concentration of plants introduced into the wetland, the ecosys­
worrisome, as the extension of roads is also associated with a decrease in tem’s climatic and hydrological variables must be considered.
the population of native fauna species [1]. The results of introduced For urban planners, these accessibility results are an opportunity to
plant composition are similar to those shown in studies of other coastal promote a sustainable city model where nature can be integrated in the
cities, such as Barcelona, Spain [3] and Concepción, Chile [34], where design of public spaces and the planning of land use zones, such as an
the highest concentrations of introduced plants are mostly located in urban wetland park. A restoration plan is urgently needed for the
anthropic habitats, although in some cases they are also found in natural wetland border to improve biodiversity. Biodiversity is most valuable
habitats, as well as areas affected by human activities and urbanization. attribute according to visitors in urban wetland parks in China, followed
Therefore, the key problem is that the wetland is not recognized as a by information facilities [54]. This is especially true in the area closest to
natural space and not green enough to be considered an official green the river, where the wetland is surrounded by mostly low-income
area in the city. dispersed and low-density housing, which lack access to different ser­
The urban fabric’s spatial effect depends on its proximity to the vices such as urban parks and opportunities for biodiversity observation
perimeter of the wetland border, as we know density and built-up areas and landscape conservation. An adequate accessibility treatment,
are variables that have been mentioned as propagators of ornamental together with a biodiversity treatment, can improve the social in­
species [3]. The continuous medium-density residential fabric in blocks equalities caused by a lack of open green areas, especially when they
and medium-density urban residential fabric located on the edge of the contribute to several quality-of-life aspects, such as enjoying nature and
Grande Lake are the least invasive for biodiversity, as they correspond to experiencing beauty [26] and even positive results for mental health in
planning that is oriented towards a relatively more compact urban the treatment of anxiety and/or depression [18]. As has been observed
development and are ecologically landscaped. The situation is different in other mid-sized Chilean cities [35], a concrete solution is to include
in the fragmented area, where aside from dispersing introduced species, the wetlands as green areas or green infrastructure in urban planning.
the intervention can lead to effects such as more frequent public access, This analysis suggests and agrees with transforming informal or natural
noise caused by the circulation of cars, people and animals, spaces into formal green spaces [2]. In addition, better management of

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C. Rojas et al. City and Environment Interactions 13 (2022) 100076

Fig. 6. Native and Introduced Plants in 500- and 1000-m Accessibility.

wetlands with low-impact development techniques is important for species, which has negative implications for the recreational ecosystem
biodiversity restoration. service that a wetland can provide for urbanized areas. Given its con­
dition, it is still possible to find native plants distributed in areas that are
Conclusions more distant from urbanization, yet still accessible by the population.
The restoration of native plants and landscape design is urgent and
This study aims to provide a conceptual and methodological essential for the promotion of its natural value. This is especially true for
contribution to the understanding of how a city model’s spatial patterns the low-income neighborhoods surrounding the wetland. High accessi­
and accessibility to urban wetlands affect biodiversity distribution bility will allow for contact with nature, a widely valued experience in
(native and introduced plants), and the consequence of reducing the terms of the perceived richness of species, which could evoke positive
probability of providing key ecosystem services like recreation and lei­ affective responses, therefore reducing the effect of urban sprawl and
sure from open green spaces in a growing Latin American city. We have integrating the urban wetland as a benefit for the surrounding urban
focused on the built environment, which corresponds to 62% of spatial population and improving environmental justice.
dynamics, due to the fact that, for decades, this urban wetland has lost
surface area because of urbanization, having its surface and adjacent CRediT authorship contribution statement
land transformed to be occupied by different urban residential fabrics
and fragmented by transport networks. It has been affected by the Carolina Rojas: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
pressures of urban planning and transport infrastructure Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administra­
The recent urbanization of Los Batros wetland has affected plant tion, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft,
composition, whose distribution is directly related to the flooding Writing – review & editing. Einer Sepúlveda: Data curation, Formal
pattern of vegetation, density, and accessibility. The results confirm that analysis, Methodology. Felipe Jorquera: Data curation, Formal anal­
the urban wetland has been disturbed and altered by urbanization, with ysis, Visualization. Juan Munizaga: Data curation, Formal analysis,
species introduced by the expansion of low- and medium-density resi­ Visualization. Joan Pino: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Meth­
dential use. The accessibility modeling showed that urbanization has odology, Writing – review & editing.
both a negative and positive effect on plant composition. As urban
fabrics get denser and more accessible, more people can access the
wetland, but there is a greater percentage of exotic or introduced

11
C. Rojas et al. City and Environment Interactions 13 (2022) 100076

Declaration of Competing Interest (Eds). En las costas del neolineralismo, Geolibro, Santiago de Chile, pp. 287–312.
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interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Geogr 2020;116(102166):1–14.
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