Introduction to Sustainable Urban

Development Planning

LECTURE 3

Urban Ecology Restoration & Urban Metabolism

Urban Ecology Restoration
Urban Ecology?
Urban Ecology

• Scientific Definition
Studies of the distribution and abundance of organisms in and
around the city and on the biogeochemical budgets of urban
areas

• Urban Planning Definition

In planning urban ecology focuses on ecological justification for
specific planning approaches and on reducing environmental
impacts
Ecology IN the cities
Ecology OF the cities

Ecology IN
The pioneering and most common approach, examines ecological
structure and function of habitats or organisms within cities.

 The urban heat island, climate modification directly related to

urban land cover and human energy use.
 Increased temperatures enhance ozone formation and pollution,
with ozone pollution crop production decreases 5-10%
 Particulate condensation enhances precipitation 5-10%, greater
cloudiness and fog
 Surface runoff increase, evapotranspiration and water infiltration
decrease
Why Urban?

 Most people live in urban environments (creates both risks

& resources)
 Cities are at environmental cross-roads
 Thus have diverse ecosystems & spp
 These lowland biota are at risk & under-protected
 Few citizens see our nature - in remote mountains,
rainforests & offshore islands
 Some positive indicators in cities/towns
 Conservation of nature depends on both ecological &
socio-cultural factors
– it won’t happen if there is not the will
 There must be a critical ecological, visual & ideological
mass of nature so that it is sustainable thru being
equated with society’s sense of its place.
Urban Ecology

The city as an ecosystem

 The idea of the city as an ecosystem in the biological sense is applied
most literally in the field of urban ecology, which sees the city as both a
‘system’ and a ‘natural’ entity (Marcotullio & Boyle 2003).

 Urban ecology has a particular focus on the implications of applying

the metabolism concept to the urban realm, such that the idea that
urban areas should emulate the cyclical and efficient nature of natural
ecosystems is now employed in normative theories of sustainable
urban planning and development (Girardet 2008; Newman & Jennings
2008).
 Visibility
of nature

Sustainable Management & Use

of natural resources

Identification Ecological
Sustainability & Familiarity
with regional biodiversity with nature
& landscape Integrity Feedback
System
Protectiveness
towards natural values
Learning
from natural processes
Enculturation
of natural values
Quality of Life
definition
Why Urban Ecology?

To some extent it is simple….

 Human domination of the
Earth is nearly complete. We
rely on ecosystems for
services, urban ecosystems
are often wrecked. Thus, as
the ‘’Human Enterprise’’
expands, so does our need
to do ecological restoration in
urban areas.

 More than half of the world’s population now lives in cities, and in
response to the dynamic patterns of urbanization, a growing number
of ecologists, urban planners, and landscape architects are focusing
their efforts in and around cities to restore remnants of natural
diversity (Ingram 2008).
How Is Biodiversity Reduced in Urban Areas?

Ecosystem
Destruction

Ecosystem Ecosystem
Degradation Fragmentation

Eliana Kämpf Binelli (2008). Chapter 3: Biodiversity and the Restoration of the Urban Forest Ecosystem 1
 Green spaces do good things for cities
Storm flow:
In (many) urban areas one of the most important
“environmental issues” is managing storm flow.
You don’t want floods washing people, and cars
and things, out into the river. Storm flow can
damage property and can wreck the sewer
system,..which = major problem
 Green spaces do good
things for cities

As urban areas expand. Parking lots expand, cement covers the landscape.
Rain events are concentrated . Relatively minor events in natural ecosystems can
be concentrated to create floods.

Greenspaces including vegetation/soil allows for rainwater to penetrate to sub-

surface aquifers. Standing surface accumulation is reduced, transport is greatly
slowed.

Absorption, Interception…
Urban ecosystems do good things for
cities
Urban Heat Island
“About half the world’s population—3
billion people—now live in cities. In a
couple decades, it’s going to be 5
billion people.” In developing
countries, people often migrate to
cities because of crop failures,
natural disasters, or armed conflicts,
not because cities have robust
economies capable of supporting
more people. In the coming decades,
many new city dwellers will be
desperately poor. With little access to
air conditioning, refrigeration, or
medical care, the world’s urban poor
will be particularly vulnerable to heat
wave health hazards.
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Gree
nRoof/printall.php
Eco-Health Relationship

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s “Eco-Health Relationship Health Science Browser”:
http://www.epa.gov/research/healthscience/browser/
Biophilia Hypothesis:

Humans are healthier and saner when exposed to natural conditions, (E.O.
Wilson).

 Humans heal faster if they can see

a tree from their Hospital window.
 Humans recover from stress more
quickly if they see natural
environments.
 Children have better self discipline
when they can see natural
environments from their house
 Even brief encounters with nature
improves ones mood
 Overall, humans have better lives
if they have access to natural
environments…
http://margaret.tarampi.com/Ulrich_1984.pdf
http://www.uns.ethz.ch/edu/teach/masters/ebcdm/readings/Ulrich_R_1991.pdf
http://web.mac.com/wcsulliv/William_Sullivan/Publications_files/Taylor,%20Kuo,%20Sullivan%202002.pdf
http://sfrc.ufl.edu/urbanforestry/Resources/PDF%20downloads/Hull_1992.pdf
 Oh by the way:
Green spaces …absorb particular
matter.

“Beautify”- aesthetics

Provide habitat for animals

Reduce noise.

Clean water.

Encourage outdoor activity =

healthier populous.

Give kids a place to play

Buffer wind
So can we agree that green
spaces in cities are useful
to humans?
Beyond that though…..
Is this an ecosystem?
Urban Ecosystem Services

 Urban ecosystem services are generated in a diverse set of habitats,

including: green spaces, such as parks, urban forests, cemeteries,
vacant lots, gardens and yards, campus areas, landfills; and blue
spaces, including streams, lakes, ponds, artificial swales, and storm
water retention ponds.
 Urban ecosystem services are generally characterized by a high intensity
of demand/use due to a very large number of immediate local
beneficiaries, compared for example to ecosystem services generated in
rural areas distant from densely populated areas

Source: Elmqvist, T., et al (2015). Benefits of restoring ecosystem services in urban areas
 Air quality Pest & disease
control

Wild species & habitat protect

Carbon sequestration & storage

Soil formation & fertility

Plant pollination
Watershed protection & regulation
Urban Ecosystem Services
Examples of services provided by green and blue infrastructure in
urban areas:

Micro-climate
Regulation

Cultural,
Recreational &
Water Regulation
Educational
Services

Pollution
Habitat Reduction &
Health Effect

Source: Elmqvist, T., et al (2015). Benefits of restoring ecosystem services in urban areas
Ecosystem Services and Ignorance. So What?

• All economic production

depletes ecosystem
structure
• All economic production
generates waste
• Resource extraction and
waste emissions
necessarily degrade
ecosystem services
• Ecosystem services have
become the scarcest
resources
Ecosystem Services & the Economy
1. Environmental Goods
food, freshwater, fuel, fiber
2. Regulating Services
climate regulation, flood
regulation, water filtration
3. Supporting Services
nutrient cycling, soil formation
4. Cultural Services
aesthetic, spiritual, educational,
recreational
Product Inputs
Production Process Inputs
Stable Business Operating
Context
Healthy worker
fundamentals (e.g., clean
air, adequate amounts of
water, food, etc.)
Contributors to ‘license to
operate’
The Economic Problem

 How do we allocate finite ecosystem structure

between:

– Economic production

– Production of life sustaining ecosystem goods and

services

 How should we distribute resources among

individuals?

– Who is entitled to ownership of ecosystem goods?

– Is anyone entitled to ecosystem services?

Relative Values

 Both economic production and ecosystem

services essential to our survival.
 Economics looks at marginal value—value of one
more unit:
– More we have of something, the less one more unit
is worth
– Value of economic production is decreasing
– Value of ecosystem services is increasing
– When do we stop converting?
 Law of economics: stop doing something when
marginal costs exceed marginal benefits.
 Estimated value of global ecosystem services
twice that of economic output.
The Property Rights Issue
 Private property rights

– Is it fair for landowners to degrade ecosystem services

that entire community depends on?

 Public property rights (government ownership)

– Is it fair to prevent landowners from using their land as

they wish?

– How do you feel about a paper mill on private property?

 No property rights

– Waste absorption capacity

– Aquifers?
Solving the Problem

 Market Solutions

– one dollar, one vote—plutocracy

– Provides incentives that may make us all better off

in some circumstances

 Effective for many types of goods and services

– Those that can be owned

– Those for which use by one person prevents use

by another
Solving the Problem

 How do make decisions about resources that can't

be owned, and my use does not leave less for you to
use?
– Markets don't exist

– No market incentive to provide resources

– One citizen one vote? Democracy?

– Cooperative provision, cooperative use?

• Existing property rights give owners the right to do

as they choose with ecosystem goods (structure),
hence control over ecosystem services.
What are the Desirable Ends?

 Goal of most economists is economic growth

 Per capita income has increase 10x since 1900, total

income has increased 40x

 Per capita income in 1969 was 35% of today's

– Was life less good then?

 Should our goal be to ensure that our children consume

2x as much as we do? Our grandchildren 4x as much?
Other Desirable Ends

 Sustainability

 Justice (just distribution)

 Health

 Education

 Stability (safe, secure jobs and environment)

 Happiness and satisfaction with life as a whole

 Efficiency

– What is the cost of achieving these goals?

Some Urban Ecology Questions:

 How much cooling can be created by adding

green space.

 Carbon storage by urban system.

 Stormwater mitigation associated with

increasing green space.

 Socioecology. What do you understand by this

concept?
Restoration in an Urban Setting?

 How do you define reference conditions?(natural,

unnatural, what works?)

 How do you manage the social setting?

 How do you manage the anthropogenic influences (salt,

nitrogen, people walking ‘round)

Reconciliation Ecology

The idea that we do not have natural areas enough to

preserve what must be preserved. We have to integrate
ecological preservation/ restoration into the human
enterprise.
Ecological Restoration

George Perkins Marsh

(1801 – 1882)
Man & Nature (1864)

Contemporaneous with
Romantic-Transcendalists
(e.g., Emerson, Muir, Thoreau)

DD / MM / YY

Marsh’s “key insight” –

anthropogenic imbalances in Nature
“did not correct themselves automatically…
Humans had to restore what humans had disturbed.”

Photo of Marsh (U.S. diplomat & philologist) from Wikimedia Commons; Quote from S. Kingsland (2005)
Ecological Restoration
Jared Diamond
(b. 1937)
Collapse (2005)

DD / MM / YY

Human history is replete with examples of over-exploitation

& habitat destruction without restoration that resulted in
societal collapse (i.e., societies that were not
operating sustainably)

Photo of Diamond from Wikimedia Commons; image of book jacket from amazon.com
Ecological Restoration
“…the process of intentionally altering a site to establish a defined, indigenous,
historic ecosystem. The goal of the process is to emulate the structure,
function, diversity and dynamics of the specified ecosystem…”
(Society for Ecological Restoration 1991)

DD / MM / YY

Crissy Field, San Francisco Crissy Field, San Francisco

Before restoration After restoration

Photos of a restoration success story from Wikimedia Commons

Ecological Restoration

Groom et al. (2006) recognize six sub-categories:

1. Rehabilitation – improves a site from its degraded state

2. Enhancement or augmentation – improves a few ecosystem functions in
a site from its degraded state
3. Reclamation – often associated with mines or waste dumps, in which the
initial goal is detoxification & terrain stabilization
4. Replacement – specifies a novel community type for the site to achieve a
particular conservation goal; often to improve ecosystem processes with
less regard for ecosystem structure
5. Remediation (similar to reclamation) – removes chemical contaminants
from polluted areas – by biotic, chemical or physical means – especially to
protect human & ecosystem health
6. Re-creation (similar to replacement) – constructs a new biological
community on a site in which anthropogenic disturbance essentially
removed the entire native community, often in an attempt to match a
particular historic condition
Approaches to Restoration: Trajectories of
restoration projects
Ecosystem Replacement using
Function/processes many species
Replacement using a
(rehabilitation)
few species
(rehabilitation)
ORIGINAL
ECOSYSTEM
Complete restoration to original
Biomass, nutrient content, etc.

Partial restoration Restoration

Rehabilitation
Enhancement
No action; ecosystem recovers on its
own via succession

DEGRADED ECOSYSTEM

No action; continued deterioration

Ecosystem
Structure
Number of species & ecosystem complexity
Modified from Groom et al. (2006)
Why Restore?

What does ecological restoration mean in an urban context?

A. Disturbance and damage to an ecosystem can be a natural

process (eg: lightning-triggered fires)
B. In this case, recovery to a stable climax community raises the
biological diversity briefly and undergoes a process of succession
C. Some systems may be so damaged that they are unable to recover by
themselves:
i. Mine sites/dumps – high erosion rate, potential soil toxicity, low
nutrient status
ii. Areas where degrading agent is still present cannot undergo
restoration (eg: overgrazed areas)
iii. Where original species assemblage has been extensively
eliminated with no source of colonists
Approaches to Restoration

A. No action
i. Too expensive
ii. Previous attempts have failed
iii. System may be able to recover on its own (e.g.: agricultural fields
returning to the wild)
B. Rehabilitation
i. Replace degraded ecosystem with another, using simple species
assemblage (e.g.: turn degraded forest into productive pasture)
ii. Establishes a functioning community on site & restores ecosystem
services
C. Partial restoration
i. Restore some ecosystem functions & some original species
ii. Start with hardy local species, leaving rare species for later efforts
D. Complete restoration
i. Restore complete original species composition, structure & function through a
comprehensive reintroduction process

Whisenant, 1999; Modified from Groom et al. (2006)

Urban ecological restoration doesn‘t have to be
done in one massive step. It can be done
incrementally in a number of ways, e.g.
• Roads- can be converted to a streetscape along parks and cafes
• Residential areas- a barren piece of land in the middle of the sub-
division can be use as a mini park.
• Parks- Small wetlands inside parks can be developed into fishing or
ornamental ponds.
• Buildings- for new green buildings (they should conform with LEED
standards.
• Urban Farms- large native plants nurseries can be found in urban
farms.
• Urban Stream Restoration- Innovative techniques that mimic nature
help restore open waterways, prevent pollution, and create habitats
for animals.

Source: Danilo Palazzo, Frederick R. Steiner (2011). Urban Ecological Design: A Process for Regenerative Places.
Stephen M. Wheeler, Timothy Beatley, (2014). Sustainable Urban Development Reader. Routledge
Incentives for Restoration

A. Material Benefits:
i. Economy depends on balance between developed & natural areas
(ecosystem service)
ii. (e.g.) costs money to clean polluted water, but natural sources provide it
free
iii. If development impinges on ecosystem function too heavily, the economy
& quality of human life deteriorates

B. Existential Reasons:
i. Improves personal relationships with nature (especially when conducted at
a community level)
ii. Empowers people and stimulates stewardship

C. Heuristic Reasons:
i. Allows the study of ecosystem services through reassembly
ii. Trial & error through hypothesis construction & testing (restoration ecology)
Restoration: Pros

A. Can be carried out at all scales

B. Large scale projects tend to be expensive
i. allow whole landscapes to become functional ecosystems
ii. link conservation areas
C. Small scale projects more common
i. Opportunities for local involvement
ii. Provides education & highlights importance of ecosystem services
D. Opportunities increasing in developed world:
i. De-intensification of agriculture
ii. Abandonment of agricultural land
iii. Availability of post-industrial sites (often near cities
E. Developing world:
i. Additional opportunities for cultural preservation of land-based
cultures
ii. Environmental knowledge: people are less likely to degrade land
when they understand its worth
Restoration: Cons

A. Generally very expensive, even in

comparison to establishment of
conservation areas
B. Limits to what it can do – restoration is
not an exact science, and it is unlikely to
provide a fully-functioning ecosystem in
most cases
C. Overly optimistic mitigation expectations
allow development to progress in
sensitive areas
D. Last is very important, as offsets are often provided for large
developments
E. Environmental consultants who carry out EIAs are developing
expertise in restoration, & may profit from mitigation measures
F. Claim that mitigation is viable without real evidence
Revegetation photo: Bruce896387 [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/44/193288265_b4e4bdadff.jpg?v=0]
Regenerative Cities
Creating regenerative cities primarily means one thing: Initiating comprehensive
political, financial and technological strategies for an environmentally enhancing,
restorative relationship between cities and the ecosystems from which they draw
resources for their sustenance.
Cities as ecological and economic systems

Source: Herbert Girardet/World Future Council (2009). Regenerative Cities. Written for the World Future Council and
HafenCity University Hamburg (HCU) Commission on Cities and Climate Change.
Regenerative Cities
The rise of Petropolis

Source: Herbert Girardet/World Future Council (2009). Regenerative Cities. Written for the World Future Council and
HafenCity University Hamburg (HCU) Commission on Cities and Climate Change.
Urban Ecological Restoration Case Studies
QIAOYUAN PARK- Tianjin China- An Ecosystem Services-Oriented Regenerative Design

In the Chinese city of Tianjin, the strategy of ‘‘’21 adaptive palettes‘‘ was used to create a
series of biologically diverse ecosystems that could repair contaminated soils and treat urban
stormwater by relying on nature‘s processes. Today, Qiaoyuan park has reclaimed a
brownfield by integrating regenerative ecological functions, using native plants in a landscape
that is allowed to adapt and evolve, and educates visitors in a relaxing recreational space
designed for the dense community surrounding the park.

BEFORE AFTER

Dong, Nannan., Zhang, Lang., Ruff, Stefanie., (2010). Topos: City Regeneration.
Urban Ecological Restoration Case Studies
QIAOYUAN PARK- Tianjin China- An Ecosystem Services-Oriented Regenerative Design

The Community need for

an aesthetically pleasing
open space for
neighbourhood recreation
was also crucial to design
implementation:
1. The creation of
habitats
2. Plant Community
Design
3. Cultural Services

Dong, Nannan., Zhang, Lang., Ruff, Stefanie., (2010). Topos: City Regeneration.
Urban Ecological Restoration Case Studies
QIAOYUAN PARK- Tianjin China- An Ecosystem Services-Oriented Regenerative Design

The design concept focuses on the motto ‘‘Let

nature work‘‘. The relative moisture levels and
pH of each pond produce micro habitats
ranging from wetlands to wet priaries and
grasslands. The approach was inspired by the
regional landscape with patchy habitats
sensitive to subtle changes of water and pH
values.
Dong, Nannan., Zhang, Lang., Ruff, Stefanie., (2010). Topos: City Regeneration.
Urban Ecological Restoration Case Studies
QIAOYUAN PARK- Tianjin China- An Ecosystem Services-Oriented Regenerative Design

Wet ponds and dry cavities are alternated

and create a living system in Qiaoyuan
Park. The park becomes a recreational
space with a network of footpaths and
linkages. Platforms and bridges immerse
the visitor in an aestheically pleasing
landscape.
Dong, Nannan., Zhang, Lang., Ruff, Stefanie., (2010). Topos: City Regeneration.
Urban Ecological Restoration Case Studies
HOUSTON’S BAYOU- Infrastructure as Amenity, Floodway-turned-Park
Buffalo Bayou Promenade in Houston Texas, is an example of a large-scape landscale and
waterway infrastructure project. The once toxic wasteland became an attractive urban space
along the now clean river and also fullfills requirements of flood protection.

Buffalo Bayou Promenade in the Downtown of Houston was created

under challenging urban conditions like overhead freeways and
utilities, steep slopes, limited access and critical flood elevations.
Dong, Nannan., Zhang, Lang., Ruff, Stefanie., (2010). Topos: City Regeneration.
Urban Ecological Restoration Case Studies
HOUSTON’S BAYOU- Infrastructure as Amenity, Floodway-turned-Park

 The Master Plan comprised the transformation of

the formerly neglected Bayou system of Houston
into 23 acres (9.3 hectares) of new parkland with
bike trails and pedestrian connections to the
downtown area.

 The Bayou is now cleaner, engendering the growth

of water recreation such as kayaking, canoeing,
boat rentals and boat tours. The project provides
continuous pedestrian and bike trails which are
multi-use and accessible to all.
Dong, Nannan., Zhang, Lang., Ruff, Stefanie., (2010). Topos: City Regeneration.
Urban Ecological Restoration Case Studies
HOUSTON’S BAYOU- Infrastructure as Amenity, Floodway-turned-Park

The Promenade at night: The lighting includes first layer of wayfinding lanterns and second
layers of securiy lighting that creatively illuminates the dark interstices.

 The Buffalo Bayou

Promenade project
transforms a previously
neglected part of the city,
reconnecting
Houstonians to their
native Bayou. Such
projects can raise the
wareness about natural
habitats and
revitalization.

Dong, Nannan., Zhang, Lang., Ruff, Stefanie., (2010). Topos: City Regeneration.
Urban Ecological Restoration Case Studies
Learning from DUISBURG-NORD Landscape Park- Germany

Metamorphosis of the blast furnace plant Thyssen-Meiderich into a landscape

park

 Duisburg-Nord Landscape Park in Germany‘s Ruhr District is an icon of the

handling and reuse of post-industrial sites. The approach chosen and the
principles applied in ist design also influence the discipline of landscape
architecture in other kinds of tasks.

Dong, Nannan., Zhang, Lang., Ruff, Stefanie., (2010). Topos: City Regeneration.
Urban Ecological Restoration Case Studies
Learning from DUISBURG-NORD Landscape Park- Germany

 The aestheticized relics of the steel plant and incorporated them into the
park as reinterpreted components.
Dong, Nannan., Zhang, Lang., Ruff, Stefanie., (2010). Topos: City Regeneration.
Urban Ecological Restoration Case Studies
Learning from DUISBURG-NORD Landscape Park- Germany

The remnants of the steelworks are still

recognizable over the surrounding area.

Dong, Nannan., Zhang, Lang., Ruff, Stefanie., (2010). Topos: City Regeneration.
 References

Alberti Marina (2008). Advances in Urban Ecology: Integrating Humans and Ecological
Processes in Urban Ecosystems. Springer.

Land Use and Soil Resources. Ademola K. Braimoh, et al. Springer, 2008.

Urban Regions Ecology and Planning Beyond the City Richard T. T. Forman- Harvard
University. 2008. Cambridge Press.

Foundations of Restoration Ecology: The Science and Practice of Ecological Restoration

(Science Practice Ecological Restoration) by Richard J. Hobbs, Donald A. Falk, Margaret
Palmer, Joy Zedler. 2006.

Restoration Ecology: The New Frontier by Jelte van Andel, James Aronson. 2005

E. Swyngedouw In the Nature of Cities_ Urban Political Ecology and the Politics of Urban
Metabolism (Questioning Cities). First published 2006 by Routledge.
Urban Metabolism
Metabolism: Definition

• Metabolism, as defined by Oxford Dictionary is:

“…the chemical processes in living things that change food, etc. into energy and
materials for growth”

Furthermore any living organism must obey the laws of thermodynamics.

Oxford Dictionary defines thermodynamics as:
“…the science that deals with the relations between heat and other forms of energy”

Metabolism as an urban metaphor

“…cities are continuous converters of materials into artificial objects.”

Moving from a non sustainable linear metabolism towards a more sustainable,

circular metabolism, requires the looping and re-use of materials and products.
Less required input and less waste generation are the characteristics of such a
healthier city structure.

Source: Clas-Otto Lehmann- 2010 (after: H. Girardet, 1999).

Urban Metabolism: Definition

 Abel Wolman (1965) developed the urban metabolism (UM)

concept as a method of analyzing cities and communities
through the quantification of inputs – water, food and fuel,
outputs – sewage, solid refuse and air pollutants and tracking
their respective transformations and flows.

 “The sum total of the technical and socio-economic processes

that occur in cities, resulting in growth, production of energy,
and elimination of waste” (Kennedy et al., 2007).

 Cities are similar to organisms in that they consume resources

from their surroundings and excrete wastes. “Cities transform
raw materials, fuel, and water into the built environment,
human biomass and waste” (Decker et al., 2000).
Three basic types of metabolic flows that can be
distinguished:

1. Direct Extraction and Releases: These are the resources directly

extracted and the waste and emissions directly released within the
urban system;
2. Imports and Exports: These are the products imported or exported
to/from the urban system;
3. Indirect flows associated with imports and exports: These are
the resources indirectly extracted and emissions and wastes
indirectly released in the supply chain of goods and Services
imported to or exported from the urban system.
Unsustainable Linear Urban Metabolism

https://mrphillipsibgeog.wikispaces.com/file/.../The+Sustainable+City.ppt
Unsustainable Linear Urban Metabolism

http://www.slideshare.net/ecumene/1-intro-to-urban-geography-presentation
Sustainable Circular Urban Metabolism

https://mrphillipsibgeog.wikispaces.com/file/.../The+Sustainable+City.ppt
Sustainable Circular Urban Metabolism

http://www.slideshare.net/ecumene/1-intro-to-urban-geography-presentation
Comparative Urban Metabolism Measurement
Methods
Method Merits
Emergy Draws attention to ecosystem and natural
resource basis of flows; unsubstitutable role of
solar energy for life processes. May be best
used for non-urban analyses such as
agricultural production as the calculations are
straightforward.
Material flow Can be used to derive aggregated indicators for
analysis sustainability, especially those relating to
pressures on the environment. Quantifies inputs
and outputs of numerous commodities
Mass balance Draws attention to degradation of resource
through use. Can track resource flows of
industries, geographical regions, materials or
products and how these resource flows change
over time.
Life cycle Provides cradle-to-grave accounting of resource
assessment use and associated environmental impacts from
extraction to disposal.
Economic Input– Adds economic factors to the LCA, and
Output Life Cycle provides ability to link to dollar metrics.
Assessment (EIO-
LCA)
Source: Kennedy, C., Pincetl, S., Bunje P., (2010). The study of urban metabolism and its applications to urban planning
and design. Environmental Pollution
Drawbacks
Difficult to operationalize in seJ metric due to
inadequate data, difficulty in integrating and
expressing different urban processes in one similar
unit. Neglects geotechtonic or climatic processes,
nuclear energy, and qualitative factors (Smil, 2008;
Cleveland, Kaufmann, & Stern, 2000).
Requires data about materials extraction and use
and the ability to interpret and utilize for policy
changes. Does not by itself integrate multiple
materials transformational processes.
Lack of consistent classification of data has
frequently been a major barrier to the amalgamation
of datasets. Integration into other methodologies still
being developed (such as ecological footprinting).
Defining the boundaries must be made explicit. How
far upstream to take the analysis still problematic.
Continued debate on the appropriate application of
different LCA methods to urban systems.
Requires significant, nationally specific data. Utilizes
economic (capital) metrics as a proxy for many
materials and processes that are often difficult to
integrate with material flows or mass/energy
balance.
Application of Metabolism

 From its conception by Wolman, urban metabolism Inputs to

Urban GHG
was studied for practical reasons; Wolman was Accounting
particularly concerned with air pollution and other
wastes produced in US cities.
 So beyond the study of urban metabolism to
understand it, in a scientific sense, there are
practical applications.
 Here we review applications in sustainability Urban Mathematical
Sustainability
Modelling for
reporting, urban greenhouse gas accounting, Indicators Metabolism Policy Analysis
mathematical modelling for policy analysis, and
urban design.
 This list of four is perhaps not exhaustive; urban
metabolism studies are data rich and may have
other potential applications.
 These four serve as examples that demonstrate Urban Design
practical applications of urban metabolism for urban
planners and designers.

Source: C. Kennedy et al. / Environmental Pollution xxx (2010) 1e9

Sustainability Indicators
• The metabolism-oriented methodologies can be useful tools for evaluating societal and
ecological activities and their interactions with the environment and uncover the nexus
between urban metabolic factors (energy, water, etc.).

• UM has the potential of providing a generic framework for defining the sustainable
socioeconomic development in cities (Chen et al., 2014; Venkatesh et al., 2014).

• The integration of urban nexus in the metabolism framework is an important step for more
practical sustainable urban planning and management. “
• Two lineages of methodologies have been adopted to probe into the urban
metabolism issues.

• Material flow analysis, life cycle analysis, exergy-based analysis, and

Element-based emergy analysis, focusing on the specific element flows and stocks of
urban ecosystems (e.g., land/footprint, water/virtual water, carbon,
energy/emergy/exergy, and other material flows) with a range of
aggregated indicators for efficiency and ‘weak sustainability’.
Method
Structure-based • Ecological network analysis, is also introduced to explore the urban
metabolism via the layout and functioning of urban ecosystems
underpinning their industrial and biophysical processes, which uncovers
the black box of urban ecosystem and pursues ‘strong sustainability’ by

Method tracking mutual relationships control pathways among various socio-

economic sectors and sur- rounding environment.

Source: Chen Bin., 2014. Eco-indicators for urban metabolism Preface. 47, Pages 5–6
Inputs to Urban GHG Accounting
 With many cities and communities aiming to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, a particularly
useful application of urban metabolism metrics is their role in quantifying urban GHG emissions.
 Components of urban metabolism that are required for the inventorying of
GHG emissions for cities and local communities:

Components of Urban Metabolism Preferred Units

Total electricity consumption GWh

Consumption of heating and industrial fuels by each fuel type (e.g., natural gas, fuel oils, coal, LPG e TJ for each fuel
includes fuels used in combined heat and power plants). type

Total consumption of ground transportation fuels (gasoline, diesel, other) based on sales data. Million litres for
each fuel type

Volume of jet fuel loaded onto planes at airports within the boundary of the city/urban region. Million litres

Volume of marine fuel loaded onto vessels at the city’s port (if applicable). Million litres

Tonnage and composition of landfill waste (% food, garden, paper, wood, textiles, industrial, t and %
other/inert) from all sectors; and percentage of landfill methane that is captured

Tonnage of solid waste incinerated (if applicable) t

Masses of steel, cement, and other materials or chemicals produced in the city causing t
non-energy related industrial process emissions.

C. Kennedy et al. / Environmental Pollution xxx (2010) 1e9

Mathematical Modelling for Policy Analysis

 Mathematical models have mainly been developed by the Material Flow Analysis
community, usually to study specific substances-metals or nutrients in the urban or
regional metabolism. Example model platforms include SIMBOX (Baccini and Bader,
1996) and STAN (Cencic and Rechberger, 2008; Brunner and Rechberger, 2004).

USES OF THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL

These models include They can also be used to

representation of sub- simulate future changes to The models are particularly
processes, stocks and useful for identifying
flows within the the urban metabolism as a solutions to environmental
metabolism, sometimes result of technological issues beyond “end of pipe”
linked to economic input- interventions or policies. approaches.
output models.

Source: C. Kennedy et al. / Environmental Pollution xxx (2010) 1e9

Application of Metabolism

 Netzstadt by Oswald and Baccini (2003)

begin to demonstrate how a combination of
morphological and physiological tools can be
used in the “long process of reconstructing the
city.” Their starting point is recognition that the
center-periphery model of cities is outdated,
but the new urbanity is not sustainable.

 They proceed to provide four principles for

redesigning cities: shapability; sustainability;
reconstruction; and responsibility. Five criteria
of urban quality: identification; diversity;
flexibility; degree of self-sufficiency; and
resource efficiency, are then sought in a
design approach that includes analysis of
urban metabolism. The four major urban
activities: to nourish and recover; to clean; to
Representative of a sustainable metabolism for the Toronto Port Lands, designed
reside and work; and to transport and by graduate students at the University of Toronto
communicate, as identified by Baccini and
Brunner (1991) are assessed in terms of four
major components of urban metabolism:
water, food (biomass), construction materials,
and energy.

Source: C. Kennedy et al. / Environmental Pollution xxx (2010) 1e9

The advantages of using an urban metabolism
framework as a unifying research theme are that it
(Pincetl and Bunje, 2009):

1. Explicitly identifies of the system’s boundaries;

2. Accounts for inputs and outputs to the system;

3. Allows for a hierarchical approach to research;

4. Includes decomposable elements for targeted, sectoral research;

5. Necessitates analysis of policy and technology outcomes with

respect to sustainability goals;

6. Is an adaptive approach to solutions and their consequences;

Integrates social science and biophysical science/technology.

Source: C. Kennedy et al. / Environmental Pollution xxx (2010) 1e9

Urban Metabolism Assignment
The study of urban metabolism provides understanding of urban systems by drawing upon an analogy with the metabolic
processes of organisms. The parallel is apparent: “Cities transform raw materials, fuel, and water into the built environment,
human biomass and waste’’ (Decker et al. 2000). First applied to a hypothetical American city of 1 million people (Wolman
1965), there have been close to 15–20 comprehensive studies of urban metabolism worldwide. These studies quantify the
inputs and outputs of energy, water, nutrients, materials and waste.

The aim of this assignment is to study the metabolism of a city by summarizing and assessing how it is influenced by
engineered infrastructure, and by critiquing the metabolism concept.

Tasks 1:
Select one city or urban region where a study of urban metabolism has been conducted. Generally describe the urban region:
its size, location. In particular discuss the attributes that are likely to impact the region’s metabolism: Climate, land-use, major
infrastructure.

Task 2:
Construct a diagram displaying different components of your chosen region’s metabolism. Different metabolism studies have
quantified different components. At very least your diagram show the following quantities (and units).
I. Input of energy (GJ/person/year)
II. Input of clean water (tonnes/person/year)
III. Output of Waste (tonnes/person/year)
IV. Output of residential solid waste (tonnes/person/year)
V. Output of airborne contaminants NOx, SO₂ (tonnes/person/year)

Task 3:
For the city you have studied, critique the metabolism concept for the city to determine if it has achieved its goal.
Case Studies of Urban Metabolism
Source: Kennedy, C., (2010). The study of urban metabolism and its applications to urban planning and design. Volume 159,
Issues 8–9, Pages 1965–1973. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749110004781
References
Handbook of Urban Ecology- edited by Ian Douglas, David Goode, Mike Houck, Rusong Wang

Advances in Urban Ecology: Integrating Humans and Ecological Processes in Urban Ecosystems by Marina Alberti

Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems by Peter Newman and Isabella Jennings

Urban Ecology: Patterns, Processes, and Applications by Jari Niemela, Jurgen H. Breuste, Glenn Guntenspergen and Nancy E.
McIntyre

Jan Minx (2011). DEVELOPING A PRAGMATIC APPROACH TO ASSESS URBAN METABOLISM IN EUROPE. Climatecon
Working Paper Series.
The study of urban metabolism and its applications to urban planning and design. C. Kennedy et al 2010.

Integrating the concept of urban metabolism into planning of sustainable cities: Analysis of the Eco² Cities Initiative 3 October
2014. https://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/dpu/publications/dpu-paper-168

Urban-Metabolism-Literature-Review. UCLA Institute of the Environment. Tisha Holmes, 2012.

Rapoport Elizabeth. 2011. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Urban Metabolism. UCL Environmental Institute Working Paper

Asian Development Bank. Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2014.

Megacities: Comparative analysis of urban macrosystems. An urban metabolism survey design for megacities
CHRIS KENNEDY et al. University of Toronto, Department of Civil Engineering and Enel Foundation 2014. ISSN 2282-7412
(Online version).