QUESTION 2 5 Instructional Model types. Instructional models are guidelines or sets of strategies on which the approaches to teaching.

The effective models are based on learning theories. Learning theories describe the ways that people learn new ideas and concepts. They also explain the relationship which we have already know and the new information we are trying to learn. They are many types of teaching and learning methodologies. Such as Blooms taxonomy (1976),Bruners Model, Gagnes model, Inquiry models ,Multi - Intelligences Theory and others. a) Inquiry Models Of Teaching. Inquiry is the way people learn when they were left alone. Inquiry is a natural way that human beings to learn about their environment. At school, when students are alone they learn about objects and how they interact by exploring themselves in developing his or her own ideas with learning process by inquiry. The nature of inquiry involves words such as inductive thinking, creative thinking, discovery learning, the scientific method and others. In the school science educations have proposed various list of inquiry process. Such list includes; observing, measuring, predicting, inferring, using numbers, using space-time relationships, defining operationally, formulating hypotheses, interpreting data, controlling variables, experimenting and communicating. Science teachers express the importance of inquiry yet pay little attention to it in the classroom. One reason may have to do with teacher education. It is possible that many teachers have not been exposed to inquiry teaching models in their preparation, and therefore lack the skills and strategies to implement inquiry. Some teachers report that inquiry teaching models are difficult to manage, and some report that they don't have the equipment and materials to implement inquiry teaching. Another concern expressed by teachers is that inquiry doesn't work for some students. These teachers claimed that inquiry was only effective with bright students, and it caused too many problems with lower ability students.

AUTHOR NAMES J. Richard Suchman's. { An Analysis of Questioning Categories ,"The Elementary School Training Program in Scientific Inquiry".}

CLASSROOM EXAMPLE: SCIENCE: ANIMALS LEARNING OUTCOMES: Pupils knows the name of animal and imitate animals sound.

ACTIVITIES. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Teacher introduces a animal song to pupils Pupils sing a animal song together with teacher Teacher distributes the song lyrics to pupils Pupils identify the animals Teacher introduces sounds of animals Example: Frog - croak Crow - moo moo Teacher shows the picture flash cards to pupils Pupils observe the picture and make the sound of animals Pupils make the sounds of animals with their partner Teacher distributes worksheets for pupils.

6. 7. 8. 9.

Teacher Evaluation :

b) Blooms Taxonomy (1956) Theory. Blooms Taxonomy is a classification of learning objectives within education. It refers to classification of the different objectives. This theory is a hierarchy educators use break down educational objectives into various complexities. It uses verbs to form measurable objectives that indicate a students mastery of the subject. They are knowledge ,comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Knowledge is the ability to remember information and principles. Knowledge learning objectives include verbs such as define, label, name and list. An example of a knowledge objective is define stem cell. Comprehension is the ability to interpret or understand the meaning of the subject. Comprehension learning objectives include verbs such as explain, estimate, describe and illustrate. An example of a comprehension objective is describe types of stem cells. Application is the ability to use the information to solve a problem. Application learning objectives include verbs such as demonstrate, solve and construct. An example of an application objective is demonstrate how stem cells specialize. Analysis is the ability separate the information into parts to understand the structure. Analysis learning objectives include verbs such as classify, compare, contrast and distinguish. An example of an analysis objective is compare and contrast embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. Synthesis is the ability to combine information in a way to produce a new idea. Synthesis learning objectives include verbs such as create, propose, design and invent. An example of a synthesis objective is "create a model of a stem cell. Evaluation is the ability to assess the value of the information learned. Evaluation learning objectives include verbs such as critique, judge and justify. An example of an evaluation objective is justify stem cell research or a stem cell research ban. CLASSROOM EXAMPLE: Lesson : What is a mammal? Learning outcome: Pupils will be able to identify animals that are mammals and that are not mammals by the characteristic of live birth, warm blood and hair or fur body cover. Activity: 1. Introduce the concept mammal I use the picture of the dog and ask some questions. Example : 1. Was it born?

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Did its mother lay eggs? What else do you know about it? Pupils answer the questions. Teacher shows criteria chart and explains mammals criteria. Distributes a set of picture cards for each group. Each group will read the back of the picture card and decide whether it is a mammals. Ask group leader to present their work in front of the class. Teacher distributes worksheets to pupils.

Teacher evaluation: The activity was useful because : 1. 2. 3. 4. Through the activity pupils do some thinking. Share ideas in group. Pupils will able to generate information independently. 100% of them have achieved the lesson.

c) Burners constructivist theory Bruner's constructivist theory is based upon the study of cognition. A major theme in this theory is that "learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge". Cognitive structures are used to provide meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to go beyond the information given. Bruner (1966) is one of the researchers, who came up with an instructional model of this type. Bruner has been acknowledged as a major supplement of Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Bruner attempted to extend the scope of the existing theory of cognitive development by creating the "Three Modes of Representation" and pointing out the close relationship between cognitive development and theory of instruction.

According to Bruner, the instructor should try and encourage students to construct hypotheses, makes decisions, and discover principles by themselves The instructor's task is to "translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding" and organize it in a spiral manner "so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned." the most effective sequences in which to present material . Bruners constructivist theory can be applied to instruction by applying the following principles: Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student

(spiral organization). Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given). Because Bruners model is a task-focused model, it does not account for all critical variables affecting learner achievement, but rather emphasizes the processes, which facilitate learning. The model is prescriptive and generalized in nature. Detailed examination of this model shows an underlying concern with learner characteristics. One of the important parts of this model is the selection of motivating activities. A lot of weight is placed on the influence of a learners cultural background and the role of students natural learning styles. Both categories of information can help to facilitate more efficient instruction. Author names Jerome Seymour Bruner (born October 1, 1915) is an American psychologist

D) Robert M. Gagnes models. This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning. They are verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Other then different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments. Although ,Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction. Gagne outlines the following nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes. Such gaining attention (reception) ,informing learners of the objective (expectancy) , stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) ,presenting the stimulus (selective perception) ,providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) , eliciting performance (responding) ,providing feedback (reinforcement) , assessing performance (retrieval) , enhancing retention and transfer (generalization ). While Gagne's theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all domains. Author names
Gagne, R. M., (1985) The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction.

E) Multi intelligences theory (Howard Gardner) Educator Howard Gardner developed a theory on the different ways that individuals learn and process information. That is Multi- Intelligences Theory. His thesis was that individuals do not have just one type of intelligence, such as might be measured by an IQ test, but several. He described a number of intelligences, each of which was identified with a different part of the brain. His research involved working with braindamaged people to identify how parts of the brain operated in the learning process .That is each pupils approaches learning differently, teachers are better able to adapt their lesson plans and classroom activities to accommodate these variety styles. According to Gardner theory, pupils may show stronger learning skills is any of seven different styles categories. Such as linguistic style, mathematical style, spatial style, kinaesthetic style, musical style, Relation style and introspective style. Verbal/linguistic is think in words; like to read and write; like stories and like to play word games. Logical/Mathematical is see patterns easily; like abstract ideas; like strategy games and logical puzzles and work out sums easily in your head . Visual/Spatial is think in images and pictures; easily remember where things have been put; like drawing, designing, building, daydreaming; read maps and diagrams easily. Musical/Rhythmic-auditory is often sing, hum, whistle to self; remember melodies; have a good sense of rhythm; play an instrument and need music on when studying. Other than , Musical/Rhythmic-auditory are often sing, hum, whistle to self; remember melodies; have a good sense of rhythm; play an instrument and need music on when studying. Bodily/Kinaesthetic are remember through bodily sensations; find it difficult to sit still for long; are good at sports or dance or acting or mime; have excellent coordination; communicate well through gestures ; learn best through physical activity, simulation and role play. Interpersonal was understand people well; learn best by interacting and cooperating with others; are good at leading and organising; pick up on other peoples feelings and enjoy playing social games. Intrapersonal/Reflective is like to work alone; are self-motivated; are intuitive; are self-confident; are aware of personal strengths and weaknesses. Naturalistic was make distinctions and recognise patterns in the natural world; are curious about plants and animals and are concerned for the environment. Existential was reflect on the meaning of life; ask questions about death and think about how we got here.

Author names.
Gardner, H (1983) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

Classroom example Lesson : Mathematics (3D shapes) Learning Outcome: Pupils will be able to identify shapes that architects use to build houses. Pupils will explore these shape by building a model of their dream house. Activities: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Teacher show some shapes and explain the names. Ask pupils to identify what shapes use to build up a house. Separate pupils in 3 groups and distributes 2 pieces of papers. Teacher demonstrate how to make a dream house using 3D shapes. Ask pupils to draw their model dream house in group. Ask them present their group work.

Teacher Evaluation: 1. All the pupils manage to identify and recognise common shapes. 2. 80% of the pupils of the pupils able to explore and build model while other 20% worked co-operatively in respective groups.