The Physics of Music Introduction Since the beginning of mankind, music has evolved; a constant and important factor

in the lives of many. In a similar fashion, our theories in physics and science have developed from a rather primitive view of the world into a collaboration of great minds and advancing technology. These two subjects have developed side by side into our modern perceptions of each and so it only seems fitting that the creation of music can be explained using our modern theories of physics. Whilst a large part of music has always been down to the creativity of the human mind, it is often forgotten that without supporting physical concepts, there would be no sound or music created in the first place. This essay will therefore touch on the relation between the sounds heard by an audience to the underlying physics used in the creation of those sounds. From the basic creation of sound waves through vibration to the theories behind frequency, pitch and overtones, an understanding of the importance of physics in music will be gained. Vibrations (1)(4) Sound is the very essence of all music, whereby music is sound with a discrete structure, and the source of all sounds is vibration. An object that vibrates pushes against the medium that surrounds it, which in the case of sound waves is air. The vibrations create small zones of compressed air, each of which consequently pushing any air around it. Due to the longitudinal motion of the air particles, in regions between compression pulses the air particles are spread apart and a zone of rarefaction occurs. This is a zone in which the air pressure is lower than where it began. Zones of compression and rarefaction are created alternately at a rate equal to the vibrations from the sound source, travelling outwards from the point of creation. This heralds the creation of a sound wave.

Figure 1

Figure 1 shows how vibrations create the compression and rarefaction of the air surrounding the source, consequently creating sound waves.

In the case of instruments, mechanisms, for example in the form of strings, air in various sizes and shapes of tube, fitted membranes and air contained in vessels are used to produce vibrations and consequently push air into oscillation to create sound waves. Pitch (2)(3)(6) The way in which the human brain interprets and processes the frequency of an emitted sound is known as the pitch, whereby the frequency of the sound wave is the number of oscillations per second. When the vibrations of these sound waves are transmitted to the human brain through the ear, the sound identified has a certain pitch; commonly referred to as how high or low the tone is. A sound with a higher frequency therefore has a higher pitch. Music is consequently created through a carefully selected series of modulations in pitch, with each note on a musical scale belonging to a specific frequency.

Interval Octave Third Fourth Fifth

Frequency Ratio 2:1 5:4 4:3 3:2

Figure 2

Examples 512 Hz and 256 Hz 320 Hz and 256 Hz 342 Hz and 256 Hz 384 Hz and 256 Hz

Figure 2 is a table showing the frequency ratios of various musical intervals and the frequencies of those notes. From this table, a fairly good understanding of consonance and dissonance in musical form can be gained. Consonance and dissonance generally refers to the relative stability or tension of an interval perceived by the listener. In the wider form, consonance and dissonance are utilised within musical pieces to create structure and atmosphere. Throughout various eras of music, human opinion of various intervals as either consonant or dissonant has changed, with particular centuries in musical history favouring certain intervals to others. However, concepts of distinction between consonance and dissonance in music have remained fairly throughout the ages and can be defined using physics. Intervals in music are ratios of the frequency of oscillation of a particular sound wave to another. The most consonant of all intervals is the octave, which has a 2:1 ratio and other relatively consonant intervals possess frequency ratios that use small integer ratios such as 3:2 and 4:3. These are the octave, fifth and fourth. They have generally been accepted as consonant intervals since the beginning of musical history and are the basis for the creation of musical scales. Considered to be one of the most dissonant intervals is the major seventh, which has a frequency ratio 8:15, not a small integer ratio as previously demonstrated. The progression from consonance to dissonance therefore represents a succession of simple frequency ratios in the creation of a consonant sound to more complex frequency ratios in the creation of a dissonant sound.

Timbre (1)(2)(5)

The timbre of a pitched note describes the distinctive quality of the tone and is a musical quality that allows the ear to distinguish between sounds that possess identical pitch and volume. For example, a note of a particular pitch and volume played on a piano sounds very different to the same note played on a trumpet. It is the timbre of the note that gives way to distinction between the two. The major contributor to the timbre of a sound is its harmonic content, or in other words the quantity and comparative intensities of the upper harmonics that exist within the sound. Any sound produced will have a fundamental frequency. The majority of oscillators will vibrate at a number of set frequencies known as normal modes, whereby the lowest frequency normal mode is the fundamental and anything above that is known as an overtone. Harmonics are overtones which are integer multiples of the main fundamental frequency, the fundamental frequency being commonly referred to as the first harmonic. A sound wave therefore incorporates the fundamental frequency and various other harmonics of differing amplitudes.

Figure 3

Figure 3 shows how a variety of harmonics produced by a source gives a resultant sound wave. The variety of harmonics present in a sound wave will give each sound produced a different timbre, hence the distinction between the same notes played on different instruments.

Musical Instruments (1)(2) Arguably the most important factor in the creation of music is the source of the notes: the musical instruments. There has been such a wide range of instruments used throughout many eras of music and in the present day, a wide range of instruments used all over the world. Despite this, most instruments can be split into varying categories allowing basic explanation of the underlying physics. For example, wind and brass instruments follow similarities through the use of vibrating air flowing through a column of a particular length to create a sound, with variation between the two coming from how the vibrating air is created. The vibrations inside the tube form standing waves and the various notes on these instruments come from changing the lengths of the pipes, thus changing the lengths of the standing waves. This is done through the use valves and slides on brass instruments and the opening and closing of holes situated on the pipe on wind instruments. In a tube, only standing waves that fit exactly into the tube will resonate, meaning that any other frequencies produced will dissipate.

Figure 4

Figure 4 demonstrates how standing waves produce different pitched notes in tubes of varying lengths. The figure also shows how the closed end of a tube is

always a node in the air pressure, which is an area of no vibration and the open end is always an antinode. A pipe used in a musical instrument can have either two open ends or one closed end and one open end and as a result, any instruments with closed instruments can produce only half the harmonics. Therefore to determine the wavelength of a sound from an instrument with two open ends, =2L/n where L is the length of the pipe and n<1. Alternatively, for a pipe with one closed end, =4L/(2n+1) where n<0. Alternatively, sounds produced on string instruments whereby a string is fixed at both ends produce a transverse standing wave. The frequencies produced by the excitation of a string on a stringed instrument depend solely on the mass, the tension and the length of the strings. All string instruments produce sounds based on the same principles, and therefore the ways in which each instrument is constructed and the materials used alters the overtones that will resonate when played, consequently changing the sound of each individual instrument.

Figure 5

Figure 5 shows how standing waves are produced on string instruments. The fundamental frequency has a wavelength equal to double the length of the string. The nodes are situated at either end of the string and therefore the strings can only vibrate at other wavelengths with nodes placed at either end. Conclusion Although the above material has barely scratched the surface of the vast expanse of physical theories behind the creation of music, it is clear to grasp an idea of the importance of science behind the subject. From the basic creation of sound, to the finer details involved in the explanation of pitch, timbre, various musical

instruments, standing waves and harmonics, it is clear to see that music spans a completely broad spectrum of physics and addresses a huge range of fields. Whilst the explanation behind a basic sound wave gives us noise, there are so many other intricacies involved in the various lengths and shapes of the instruments used and the collaboration of various frequencies of sound that all contribute towards relevant factors in each song or masterpiece. In layman s terms, without physics there would be no music, and away from the complications encountered when attempting to explain each musical detail with a physical theory, it is safe to say that this would indeed be a great shame. References 1. Good Vibrations: The Physics of Music-Barry Parker, The Johns Hopkins University Press (November 17, 2009) 2. The Physics of Music-Alexander Wood, Greenwood Press Reprint; 7 edition (January 15, 1981) 3. The Physics of Music-S R Boon & H K Tanner, http://iopscience.iop.org/00319120/16/5/314/pdf/0031-9120_16_5_314.pdf, 8/8/2011 4. https://thescienceclassroom.wikispaces.com/The+Physics+of+Music, 8/8/2011 5. http://www.soundpiper.com/mln/timbre.htm, 8/8/2011 6. Young & Freedman, University physics with modern physics, Pearson Addison-Wesley 2008