Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

MECHDB-CE
MODULE 01
 Holy Angel University
School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Route 02
Structural Engineering

Strain

Introduction This route is an in-depth discussion of the principles

concerning strain.

This route focuses on

Content  Introduction to Strain
 Properties of Materials
 Axial Deformation
 Thermal Stress

Objectives After this route, the student should be able to

 Discuss the concept of Strain.
 Define Strain
 Determine axial deformation
 Solve statically indeterminate problems and
thermal stresses
These are supplemental content necessary for this route
Related  The Efficient Engineer. (2020, February 11). An
Introduction to Stress and Strain. YouTube.

Readings
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQf6Q8t1FQE
 3.1 axial strain. (n.d.). Index. https://www.ah-
engr.com/som/3_stress/text_3-1.htm

References Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria &
Sons

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Learning Activities
Shown here is the path to be taken Note: Each part of the route can
in order to reach the next route. only be accessed once the previous
Finishing all the routes while one is accomplished.
acquiring satisfactory ratings for
each checkpoint ensures that you
will pass this course.

Link 1
Route #2

CP-1
Link 2

CP-2
Link 3
Route #3
Formative Assessments Submission Dates Type/Format
-Link 1 07/19/2020 Online/PDF
-Link 2 08/25/2020 Online/PDF
-Link 3 10/16/2020 Online/PDF
Summative Assessments Prerequisite/s Type
-Checkpoint 1 Route 1 MCQ
-Checkpoint 2 Links 1-3 Individualized Exam

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Chapter I: Introduction to Strain

Whenever a force is applied to a body or change in temperature happens, it will tend to change the
body’s shape and size. Individual points of the material move relatively to each other. These change in
any dimension associated with this load- or temperature-induced displacements is referred to as
deformation, and they may be either highly visible or practically unnoticeable. In a general sense, the
deformation of a body will not be uniform throughout its volume, and so the change in geometry of
any line segment within the body may vary substantially along its length. Hence, to study deformational
changes in a more uniform manner, we will consider line segments that are very short and located in
the neighborhood of a point.

In order to describe the deformation of a body by changes in length of line segments and the changes
in the angles between them, we will develop the concept of strain.

Strain is a quantity used to provide a measure of intensity of deformation (deformation per unit length)
just as stress is used to provide a measure of intensity of an internal force. In Module 2, two types of
stresses were described: normal stress and shear stress. The same classification is used for strains.
Normal strain is used to provide a measure of elongation or contraction of an arbitrary line segment in
a material during deformation. Shear strain is used to provide measure of angular distortion (change in
angle between two lines that are orthogonal in the undeformed state). The deformation or strain may
be the result of a change in temperature, of a stress or of some other physical phenomenon such as
grain growth or shrinkage.

The strength of material is not the only criterion that must be considered when designing machine
parts or structures. The stiffness of a material is often equally important, as are mechanical properties
such as hardness, toughness, and ductility. When a body is subjected to some external force, there is
some change of dimension of the body. The ratio of change of dimension of the body to the original
dimension is known as strain.
Strain maybe:
1. Normal Strain
a) Tensile Strain
b) Compressive Strain
2. Volumetric Strain
3. Shear Strain

Most engineering design involves applications for which only small deformations are allowed.
Therefore, we will assume that the deformations that take place within a body are almost infinitesimal.
In particular, the normal strains occurring within the material are very small compared to 1, so that 𝜖𝜖 ≪
1. This assumption has wide practical application in engineering, and it is often referred to as a small
strain analysis. It can be used, for example, to approximate sinϴ = ϴ, cosϴ = 1 and tanϴ = ϴ, provided
ϴ is very small.

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Normal or Axial Strain

We begin by considering the elongation of the prismatic bar of length L. The elongation may be
caused by an applied axial force, or an expansion due to an increase in temperature, or even a force
and a temperature increase simultaneously. The normal strain is defined as the elongation per unit
length. Therefore, the normal strain in the bar in the axial direction, also known as the axial strain.

If we define the normal strain as the change in

length of a line per unit length, then we will not
have to specify the actual length of any particular
line segment. Consider, for example, line AB, which
is contained within the undeformed body shown in
Fig.(a). This line lies along the n-axis and has an
original length of Δs. After deformation, points A
and B are displaced to A’ and B’, and the line
becomes a curve having a length of Δs’, Fig.(b). The
change in length of the line is therefore, Δs – Δs’. If
we define the average normal strain using the
symbol ϵ avg (epsilon), then

∆𝑠𝑠 ′ − ∆𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿
∈ = ∈𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = =
∆𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝐿

Hence, when ϵ (or ϵ avg ) is positive the initial line will elongate, whereas if is negative the line contracts.
Note that normal strain is a dimensionless quantity, since it is a ratio of two lengths.

Normal strain is a dimensionless quantity; however, normal strains are frequently expressed in units of
in./in., mm/mm, m/m, and so on. Since normal strains are small, dimensionless numbers, it is also
convenient to express strains in terms of percent. For most engineered materials made of metals and
alloys, normal strains seldom exceed values to 0.2%, which is equivalent to 0.002 mm/mm.

Shear Strain

Deformations not only cause line segments to elongate or

contract, but they also cause them to change direction.
Deformations involving a change in shape (distortion) can be
used to illustrate a shear strain. If we select two line segments
that are originally perpendicular to one another, then the
change in angle that occurs between these two line segments
is referred to as shear strain. Shear strain is associated with two
reference lines that are orthogonal in the undeformed state
can be obtained by dividing the shear deformation by the

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perpendicular distance between these two edges. If deformation is infinitesimal, meaning that sin γ =
tan γ, and cos γ = 1. This angle is denoted by γ (gamma) and is always measured in radians (rad),
which are dimensionless. Shear strain can be defined as:

𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥
𝛾𝛾 =
𝐿𝐿

Since shear strain is defined as the tangent of the angle of distortion, which is equal to the angle in
radians for small angles, an equivalent expression for shear strain in calculations is

𝜋𝜋
𝛾𝛾 = − 𝜃𝜃′𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
2

Notice that if ϴ′ is smaller than π/2 (less than 90°) the shear strain is positive, whereas if ϴ′ is larger
than π/2 (greater than 90°) the shear strain is negative.

Thermal Strain

When unrestrained, most engineering materials expand when heated and contract when cooled. The
thermal strain caused by a one-degree change in temperature is designated by Greek letter 𝛼𝛼 (alpha)
and is known as the coefficient of thermal expansion. The strain due to temperature change of Δ𝑇𝑇 is

𝜖𝜖 = 𝛼𝛼Δ𝑇𝑇

The coefficient of thermal expansion is approximately constant for considerable range of temperatures
(in general, coefficient increases with an increase in temperature). For homogenous material that has
the same mechanical properties in every direction, the coefficient applies to all dimensions.

Total Strain

Strains caused by temperature changes and strains caused by applied loads are essentially
independent. The total normal strain in a body acted on by both applied load and temperature
changes is calculated as

𝜖𝜖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝜖𝜖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + 𝜖𝜖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

Since homogenous, isotropic materials, when unrestrained, expand uniformly in all directions when
heated (and contract uniformly when cooled), neither the shape of the body nor the shear stresses and
shear strains are affected by temperature changes.

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Chapter II: Properties of Materials

To properly design a structural or mechanical component, the engineer must understand and work
within the characteristics and limitations of the material used in the component. Materials such as steel,
aluminum, plastics, and wood each respond uniquely to applied loads and stresses.

Tension and Compression Test

To determine the strength and characteristics of materials such as these requires laboratory testing.
One of the simplest and most effective laboratory tests for obtaining engineering design information
about an engineering material is called tension test. Test performed in reinforced concrete and other
construction materials is compression test. Although several important mechanical properties of a
material can be determined from this test, it is used primarily to determine the relationship between the
average normal stress and average normal strain in many engineering materials such as metals,
ceramics, polymers, and composites.

Stress-Strain Diagram

It is not feasible to prepare a test specimen to match the size, and of each structural member. Rather,
the test results must be reported so they apply to a member of any size. To achieve this, the load and
corresponding deformation data are used to calculate various values of the stress and corresponding
strain in the specimen. A plot of the results produces a curve called the stress–strain diagram. There are
two ways in which it is normally described.

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Conventional Stress–Strain Diagram. We can determine the nominal or engineering stress by dividing
the applied load P by the specimen’s original cross-sectional area A0. This calculation assumes that the
stress is constant over the cross section and throughout the gauge length. We have

𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎 =
𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜

Likewise, the nominal or engineering strain is found directly from the strain gauge reading, or by
dividing the change in the specimen’s gauge length, by the specimen’s original gauge length Here the
strain is assumed to be constant throughout the region between the gauge points. Thus,

𝛿𝛿
∈=
𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜

If the corresponding values of and are plotted so that the vertical axis is the stress and the horizontal
axis is the strain, the resulting curve is called a conventional stress–strain diagram. Realize, however,
that two stress–strain diagrams for a particular material will be quite similar, but will never be exactly
the same. This is because the results actually depend on variables such as the material’s composition,
microscopic imperfections, the way it is manufactured, the rate of loading, and the temperature during
the time of the test.

We will now discuss the characteristics of the conventional stress–strain curve as it pertains to steel, a
commonly used material for fabricating both structural members and mechanical elements. The
characteristic stress–strain diagram for a steel specimen is shown below. From this curve we can
identify four different ways in which the material behaves, depending on the amount of strain induced
in the material.

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(1) ELASTIC BEHAVIOR. Elastic behavior of the material occurs when the strains in the specimen are
within the light orange region shown. Here the curve is actually a straight line throughout most of this
region, so that the stress is proportional to the strain. The material in this region is said to be linear
elastic. The upper stress limit to this linear relationship is called the proportional limit. If the stress
slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the curve tends to bend and flatten out as shown. This continues
until the stress reaches the elastic limit. Upon reaching this point, if the load is removed the specimen will
still return back to its original shape.

(a) Proportional limit is the stress at which the stress-strain plot is no longer linear. Strains in the linear
portion of the stress-strain diagram typically represent only a small fraction of the total strain at
fracture. As long as the stress in the material remains below this limit, no permanent damage will be
caused during loading and unloading. In an engineering context, this means that a component can be
loaded and unloaded many, many times and it will still behave “just like new”. this property is called
elasticity, and it means that a material returns to its original dimensions during unloading.

(b) Elastic Modulus. Most components are designed to function elastically. Consequently, the
relationship between stress and strain in the initial linear region of the stress-strain diagram is of
particular interest for engineering materials. The slope of this linear relationship of the diagram is called
the elastic modulus. The elastic modulus (E) is a measure of material’s stiffness.

(c) Work Hardening. The strain below the proportional limit is

termed elastic strain. This strain will be fully recovered after the
stress is removed from the material. The strain between
proportional limit and elastic limit is termed inelastic strain.
When the stress is removed a portion of the inelastic strain will
be recovered. As stress is removed from the material, it
unloads on a path parallel to the elastic modulus line; that is
parallel to the path of the linear curve. A portion of the elastic
limit will recover elastically. However, the portion of the strain
remains in the material permanently. This strain is referred to
as residual strain or permanent set or plastic deformation.

As stress is reapplied, the materials reload in a linear elastic

manner upon reaching the elastic limit, the material will resume
following the original stress-strain diagram. The proportional
limit after reloading becomes the stress at the elastic limit, which is greater that the proportional limit of
the original loading. This phenomenon is called work hardening because it has the effect of increasing
the proportional limit for the material.

(d) Elastic Limit. The largest stress that a material can withstand without any measurable permanent
strain remaining after the complete release of stress. The procedure required to determine the elastic
limit involves cycles of loading and unloading, each time incrementally increasing the applied stress.

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(2) YIELDING. A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a breakdown of the material
and cause it to deform permanently. This behavior is called yielding, and it is indicated by the
rectangular dark orange region of the curve. The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress or
yield point, it is defined as the stress that will induce a specified permanent set in the material usually
0.05% to 0.2%; and the deformation that occurs is called plastic deformation. (The upper yield point
occurs first, followed by a sudden decrease in load-carrying capacity to a lower yield point, and these
are for low-carbon steels). Notice that once the yield point is reached, then as shown, the specimen will
continue to elongate (strain) without any increase in load. When the material is in this state, it is often
referred to as being perfectly plastic.

For materials that do not have a well-defined yield point,

yield stress is determined by the offset method. This method
consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent of the
stress-strain curve; this line starts at a prescribed offset strain,
usually 0.2% (𝜖𝜖 = 0.002). The intersection of this line with the
stress-strain curve, shown in next page, is called the yield
point at 0.2% offset.

(3) STRAIN HARDENING. When yielding has ended, an increase in load can be supported by the
specimen, resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becomes flatter until it reaches a maximum
stress referred to as the ultimate stress (𝝈𝝈 𝒖𝒖 ). The rise in the curve in this manner is called strain
hardening, and it is identified as the region in light green.

(4) NECKING. Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its cross-sectional area will decrease.
This decrease is fairly uniform over the specimen’s entire gauge length; however, just after, at the
ultimate stress, the cross-sectional area will begin to decrease in a localized region of the specimen. As
a result, a constriction or “neck” tends to form in this region as the specimen elongates further. This
region of the curve due to necking is indicated in dark green. Here the stress–strain diagram tends to
curve downward until the specimen breaks at the fracture stress (𝝈𝝈 𝒇𝒇 ). Note: The method of calculating
stress is called engineering stress which does not take into account any changes in specimen’s cross-
sectional area; while true stress considers the accurate specimen diameter when the load increases.

Hooke’s Law

The stress–strain diagrams for most engineering materials exhibit a linear relationship between stress
and strain within the elastic region. Consequently, an increase in stress causes a proportionate increase
in strain. The proportionality of load to deflection was first recorded, this fact was discovered by Robert
Hooke in 1676, Ut tension sic vis (“as stretch so the force”), using springs and is known as Hooke’s law. It
may be expressed mathematically as

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σ = Eϵ

Here 𝑬𝑬 represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the elastic modulus, modulus of
elasticity or Young’s modulus, named after Thomas Young, who published an account of it in 1807. The
equation actually represents the equation of the initial straight-lined portion of the stress–strain
diagram up to the proportional limit. Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity represents the slope of this
line. It should be noted that the modulus of elasticity is a mechanical property that indicates the stiffness
of a material.

A notable value of E is that of steel, which is 200 GPa.

Hooke’s law also applies to shear stress and shear strain, where 𝑮𝑮 is called the shear modulus or the
modulus of rigidity.

τ = Gγ

Poisson’s Ratio

A material loaded in one direction will undergo strains perpendicular to the direction of the load as well
as parallel too it. In other words,
 If a solid body is subjected to an axial tension, it contracts in the lateral directions.
 If a solid body is compressed, it expands in lateral directions.

This phenomenon, where deformations are greatly exaggerated. Experiments have shown that the
relationship between lateral and longitudinal strains caused by an axial force remains constant,
provided that the material remains elastic and is homogenous and isotropic. This constant is a property
of material, just like other properties such as elastic modulus. The ratio of the lateral or transverse strain
to the longitudinal strain for a uniaxial state of stress is called Poisson’s ratio, after Simeon D. Poisson,
who identified the constant in 1811. Poisson’s ratio is denoted by the Greek symbol 𝜈𝜈 (nyu) and it is
defined as follows:

The ratio is valid only for uniaxial state of stress. The negative sign appears because the lateral and
longitudinal stains are always opposite signs for uniaxial stress (if one strain elongates, the other strain
is contraction).

𝜖𝜖𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝜈𝜈 = −
𝜖𝜖𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless quantity, and for most metals, Poisson’s ratio has a value between
0.250 to 0.333. For an “ideal material” having no lateral deformation when it is stretched or compressed
Poisson’s ratio will be 0. Because the volume of material must remain constant, the largest possible

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Poisson’s ratio is 0.500. Values approaching this upper limit are found only for materials such as rubber.

Three material constants, 𝐸𝐸, 𝜈𝜈 and 𝐺𝐺 are actually related by the equation

𝐸𝐸
𝐺𝐺 =
2(1 + 𝜈𝜈)

Strain Energy

As a material is deformed by an external loading, it tends to store energy internally throughout its
volume. Since this energy is related to the strains in the material, it is referred to as strain energy. To
obtain this strain energy consider a volume element of material from a tension test specimen.
For applications, it is sometimes convenient to specify the strain energy per unit volume of material.
This is called the strain-energy density, and it can be expressed as

∆𝑈𝑈 1
𝑈𝑈 = = 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎
∆𝑉𝑉 2

Modulus of Resilience. In particular, when the stress reaches the proportional limit, the strain-energy
density is the area under the elastic region of the stress-strain diagram. From the elastic region of the
stress–strain diagram, notice that is equivalent to the shaded triangular area under the diagram.
Physically a material’s resilience represents the ability of the material to absorb energy without any
permanent damage to the material.

Modulus of Toughness. Another important property of a material is the modulus of toughness. This
quantity represents the entire area under the stress–strain diagram, and therefore it indicates the
strain-energy density of the material just before it fractures. This property becomes important when
designing members that may be accidentally overloaded. Alloying metals can also change their
resilience and toughness.

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Strain Energy, Creep, and Fatigue

Any material that can be subjected to large strains before fracture is called a ductile material. Mild steel
is a typical example. Engineers often choose ductile materials for design because these materials are
capable of absorbing shock or energy, and if they become overloaded, they will usually exhibit large
deformation before failing. Ductility describes the material’s capacity for plastic deformation.

Two measures of ductility are obtained from tension test, the first is the engineering strain at fracture.
This method is called percent elongation. To determine this measure, the two halves of the broken
specimen are fitted together, the final gage length is measured, and then the average strain is
calculated from the final gage lengths, and is usually expressed as percentage. The percent elongation
is then

𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 − 𝐿𝐿0
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = (100%)
𝐿𝐿0

The second measure is the percent reduction in area at the fracture surface. It is also expressed as a
percentage and is defined within the region of necking as follows

𝐴𝐴0 − 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = (100%)
𝐴𝐴0

Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before

failure are referred to as brittle materials.
Compared with their behavior in tension, brittle
materials, such as gray cast iron, exhibit a much
higher resistance to axial compression. For this
case any cracks or imperfections in the
specimen tend to close up, and as the load
increases the material will generally bulge or
become barrel shaped as the strains increase.

Creep. When a material has to support a load for a very long period of time, it may continue to deform
until a sudden fracture occurs or its usefulness is impaired. This time-dependent permanent
deformation is known as creep. Normally creep is considered when metals and ceramics are used for
structural members or mechanical parts that are subjected to high temperatures.

Fatigue. When a metal is subjected to repeated cycles of stress or strain, it causes its structure to break
down, ultimately leading to fracture. This behavior is called fatigue, and it is usually responsible for a
large percentage of failures in connecting rods and crankshafts of engines; steam or gas turbine
blades; connections or supports for bridges, railroad wheels, and axles; and other parts subjected to
cyclic loading. In all these cases, fracture will occur at a stress that is less than the material’s yield stress.

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Chapter III: Axial Deformation

The problem of determining forces and deformations at all points within a body subjected to external
forces is extremely difficult when the loading or geometry of the body is complicated. Therefore,
practical solutions to most design problems are obtained by what has become known as mechanics of
materials approach. With this approach, real structural elements are analyzed as idealized models
subjected to simplified loadings and restraints. The resulting solutions are approximate, since they
consider only the effects that will significantly affect the magnitudes of stresses, strains, and
deformations.

More powerful computational methods derived from theory of elasticity are available to analyze objects
that involve complicated loading and geometry. Of these methods, the finite element method is the
most widely used. Although the mechanics of materials approach presented in the lecture is somewhat
less rigorous than the theory of elasticity approach, experience indicates that the result obtained are
quite satisfactory for a wide variety of important engineering problems. One of the primary reasons for
this is Saint-Venant’s Principle.

St. Venant’s Principle

If the material remains elastic then the strains caused by this deformation are directly related to the
stress in the bar. As a result, the stress will be distributed more uniformly throughout the cross-
sectional area when the section is taken farther and farther from the point where any external load is
applied. For example, consider a profile of the variation of the stress distribution acting at sections a–a,
b–b, and c–c, each of which is shown. By comparison, the stress tends to reach a uniform value at
section c–c, which is sufficiently removed from the end since the localized deformation caused by P
vanishes. The minimum distance from the bar’s end where this occurs can be determined using a
mathematical analysis based on the theory of elasticity.

It has been found that this distance should at least be equal to the largest dimension of the loaded
cross section. Hence, section c–c should be located at a distance at least equal to the width (not the
thickness) of the bar. In the same way, the stress distribution at the support will also even out and
become uniform over the cross section located the same distance away from the support.

The fact that stress and deformation behave in this manner is referred
to as Saint-Venant’s principle, since it was first noticed by the French
scientist Barré de Saint-Venant in 1855. Essentially it states that, the
stress and strain produced at points in a body sufficiently removed from
the region of load application will be the same as the stress and strain
produced by any applied loadings that have the same statically
equivalent resultant (sometimes referred to as equipollent) and are
applied to the body within the same region.

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Derivation of the Formula

The illustration below shows the derivation of the formula for axial deformation.

Using the method of sections, a differential element of length 𝑑𝑑 and cross-sectional area 𝐴𝐴 is isolated
from the bar at the arbitrary position. For the entire length 𝐿𝐿 of the bar, we must integrate this
expression to find. This yields

In order to apply the deformation equation, we must have a sign convention for the internal axial force
and the displacement of one end of the bar with respect to the other end. To do so, we will consider
both the force and displacement to be positive if they cause tension and elongation, respectively;
whereas a negative force and displacement will cause compression and contraction, respectively.

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IMPORTANT POINTS
 The magnitude of the internal force P in the equation must be found from equilibrium analysis.
Note that a positive (tensile) P results in positive 𝛿𝛿 (elongation); conversely, a negative P
(compression) gives rise to negative 𝛿𝛿 (shortening).
 Care must be taken to use consistent units in the equation. It is common practice to let the units of
E determine the units to be used for P, L, and A.
 In the U.S. Customary system, E is expressed in psi (lb/in.2), so that the units of the other variables
should be P [lb], L [in.], and A [in.2]. In the SI system, where E is in MPa (N/mm2), the consistent
units are P [N], L [mm], and A [mm2].
 As long as the axial stress is in the elastic range, the elongation (or shortening) of a bar is very small
compared to its length. This property can be utilized to simplify the computation of displacements
in structures containing axially loaded bars, such as trusses

PROBLEM #1: A bar having a length of 125 mm and cross-sectional area of 450 mm2 is subjected to an
axial force of 35600 N. If the bar stretches 0.05 mm, determine the modulus of elasticity of the material.
The material has linear-elastic behavior.

SOLUTION:

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝛿𝛿 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
(35600 𝑁𝑁)(125 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
0.05 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
(450 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 )(𝐸𝐸)
E = 197777.78 N/mm2
E = 197777.78 MPa

PROBLEM #2: Determine the deformation of the steel rod shown under the given loads. NOTE: D is the
diameter of segment AC, and d is the diameter of segment CD.

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SOLUTION: This is similar to the problem in the previous route. First, we divide the figure into segments
and then get the internal forces. Again, the shear and moment internal forces in all sections is equal to
zero.

We divided this into three segments because of the orientations of the forces.

ABx BCx CDx

∑Fx = 0 (+) ∑Fx = 0 (+) ∑Fx = 0 (+)

-ABx + 75 – 45 + 30 = 0 -BCx – 45 + 30 = 0 -CDx + 30 = 0
ABx = 60 k (tension) BCx = -15 k (, compression) CDx = 30 k (tension)

Let us now get the deflections of each section, and then add them all together to get the deformation
of the entire steel rod.

𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝛿𝛿𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝛿𝛿𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝛿𝛿𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = � � +� � +� �
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

60000 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∗ 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −15000 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∗ 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = �𝜋𝜋 � + �𝜋𝜋 �
∗ (1.07 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)2 ∗ 29 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∗ (1.07 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)2 ∗ 29 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
4 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 4 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

30000 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∗ 16 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

+ �𝜋𝜋 �
∗ (0.618 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)2 ∗ 29 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
4 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 0.0276 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + (−0.0069 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) + 0.0552 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝜹𝜹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 (𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆)

The Principle of Superposition and Statically Indeterminate Problems

Before we go to our next topic (which is statically indeterminate problems), we have to have first a
knowledge of the principle of superposition.

The principle of superposition is often used to determine the stress or displacement at a point in a
member when the member is subjected to a complicated loading. By subdividing the loading into

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components, the principle of superposition states that the resultant stress or displacement at the point
can be determined by algebraically summing the stress or displacement caused by each load component
applied separately to the member. The following two conditions must be satisfied if the principle of
superposition is to be applied.

The following two conditions must be satisfied if the principle of superposition is to be applied.
1. The loading must be linearly related to the stress or displacement that is to be determined.
2. The loading must not significantly change the original geometry or configuration of the member. If
significant changes do occur, the direction and location of the applied forces and their moment arms
will change.

This principle can be used whenever we assume Hooke’s law applies and also, the bodies that are
considered will be such that the loading will produce deformations that are so small that the change in
position and direction of the loading will be insignificant and can be neglected.

If the equilibrium equations are sufficient to calculate all the forces (including support reactions) that act
on the body, these forces are said to statically determinate.

In statically determinate problems, the number of unknown forces is always equal to number of
independent equilibrium equations. If the number of unknown forces exceeds the number of
independent equilibrium equations, the problem is said to be statically indeterminate.

Statically indeterminate problem always has geometric restrictions imposed on its deformation. The
mathematical expressions of these restrictions, known as compatibility equations, provide us additional
equations to solve the problem.

The term compatibility refers to geometric compatibility between deformation and imposed loads.
Since the source of compatibility equations is the deformation, these equations contain as unknowns
either strains or elongation.

With our knowledge of the principle of superposition, it is now possible to solve statically indeterminate
problems by writing the compatibility equation using the principle of superposition. This method of
solution is often referred to as the flexibility or force method of analysis. To show how it is applied,
consider again the bar in Fig. a. If we choose the support at B as “redundant” and temporarily remove

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its effect on the bar, then the bar will become statically determinate as in Fig. b. By using the principle
of superposition, we must add back the unknown redundant load as shown in Fig. c.

PROBLEM #3: The concrete post in the post in the figure is reinforced axially with four symmetrically
placed steel bars, each of cross-sectional area 900 sq.mm. Compute the stress (in MPa) in each
material when the 1000 kN axial load is applied. The moduli of elasticity are 200 GPa for steel and 14
GPa for concrete. It has a square cross section with 300 mm side length.

SOLUTION: First, let us cut a section through the figure and analyze the internal forces.

1000 kN = 1000000 N

FCONCRETE

4FSTEEL

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We have two materials reacting on the load – the concrete column and the steel bars. Since we have
four steel bars and they are symmetrical, we can simply combine them and put the resultant in the
middle. Now, let us formulate an equation by statics.

∑Fy = 0 (+)
-1000000 + F CONCRETE + 4F STEEL = 0
F CONCRETE + 4F STEEL = 1000000  eqn. 1

Next, we need a compatibility equation, that we will formulate in terms of deflection. First of all, the
concrete and the steel are monolithic, meaning, they are treated as one, in this case, one column.
Second, the concrete and steel components of our column have the same length and are exposed to
the same force. And because of this, we can conclude that the deflection in the concrete part of the
column is equal to the deflection of the steel parts. NOTE: Area of concrete = Area of column – Area of
steel bars.

𝛿𝛿𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝛿𝛿𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
� � =� �
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 4𝐹𝐹𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
=
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁
(300 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∗ 300 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 4 ∗ 900 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 ) �14000 � (4 ∗ 900 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 ) �200000 �
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2

𝑁𝑁
4𝐹𝐹𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∗ (86400 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 ) �14000 �
𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
𝑁𝑁
(3600 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 ) �200000 �
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2

𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 6.72𝐹𝐹𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆  eqn. 2

Substitute equation 2 to equation 1 to solve for the forces. And then, by the simple stress formula, solve
for the required values. NOTE:

6.72F STEEL + 4F STEEL = 1000000

F STEEL = 93283.58 N
F CONCRETE = 6.72F STEEL = 626865.67 N

σ N(CONCRETE) = (P/A) CONCRETE = 626865.67 N / 86400 mm2 = 7.26 MPa

σ N(STEEL) = (P/A) STEEL = 93283.58 N / 900 mm2 = 103.65 MPa

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PROBLEM #4: The concrete post in the post in the figure is reinforced axially with four symmetrically
placed steel bars, each of cross-sectional area 900 sq.mm. Let the allowable stresses in the post be 120
MPa for steel and 6 MPa for concrete. Compute the maximum safe axial load P (in kN) that may be
applied. The moduli of elasticity are 200 GPa for steel and 14 GPa for concrete. It has a square cross
section with 300 mm side length.

SOLUTION: This is very similar to the Problem #3, except the conditions are changed. Let us perform
what we did in Problem #3.

FCONCRETE

4FSTEEL

∑Fy = 0 (+)
P + F CONCRETE + 4F STEEL = 0
F CONCRETE + 4F STEEL = P  eqn. 1

This equation has more variables as compared to equation #1 of Problem #3. Now, let us see what we
can do when we formulate our compatibility equation. We are applying the same concept as Problem
#3. NOTE: σ = P/A will be very useful here.

𝛿𝛿𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇𝐸𝐸 = 𝛿𝛿𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

, but, σ = P/A
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
� � =� �
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

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𝜎𝜎 𝜎𝜎
� � =� �
𝐸𝐸 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐸𝐸 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

𝜎𝜎𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝜎𝜎𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
=
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁
14000 200000
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
 eqn. 2

As we can see, we have too many variables. What we are doing here then is a trial and error. We are
doing one trial when the stress in concrete governs, and another trial when the stress in the steel
governs.

WHEN σ CONCRETE GOVERNS: WHEN σ STEEL GOVERNS:

6 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝜎𝜎𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝜎𝜎𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐸𝐸 120 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁
14000 200000 14000 200000
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2

σ STEEL = 85.71 MPa < 120 MPa  σ CONCRETE = 8.4 MPa > 6 MPa 

Because of this solution, we are therefore using the values σ CONCRETE = 6 MPa and σ STEEL = 85.71 MPa. If
we are using the second set of values, then we are exceeding the allowable stress for concrete, and
thus, the column will fail. Let us now use our values in order to get the value of P.

𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = � � 𝜎𝜎𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿 = � �
𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐹𝐹𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
6 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 85.71 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 =
86400 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 900 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2

F CONCRETE = 518400 N F STEEL = 77139 N

In equation 1,

F CONCRETE + 4F STEEL = P
P = 518400 N + 4(77139 N)
P = 826956 N = 826.96 kN

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Chapter IV: Thermal Stress

A change in temperature can cause a body to change its dimensions. Generally, if the temperature
increases, the body will expand, whereas if the temperature decreases, it will contract. Ordinarily this
expansion or contraction is linearly related to the temperature increase or decrease that occurs. If this is
the case, and the material is homogeneous and isotropic, it has been found from experiment that the
displacement of a member having a length L can be calculated using the formula

Where
𝛼𝛼 = a property of the material, referred to as the linear coefficient of thermal expansion.
Δ𝑇𝑇 = the algebraic change in temperature of the member
𝐿𝐿 = the original length of the member
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 = the algebraic change in the length of the member

The units of α are 1/°C and 1/°F. For steel, α is usually 11.6 x 10-6/°C.

If thermal deformation is permitted to occur freely (by using expansion joints or roller supports, for
example), no internal forces will be induced in the body—there will be strain, but no stress. In cases
where the deformation of a body is restricted, either totally or partially, internal forces will develop that
oppose the thermal expansion or contraction. The stresses caused by these internal forces are known
as thermal stresses.

The forces that result from temperature changes cannot be determined by equilibrium analysis alone;
that is, these forces are statically indeterminate. Consequently, the analysis of thermal stresses follows
the same principles: equilibrium, compatibility, and Hooke’s law. The only difference here is that we
must now include thermal expansion in the analysis of deformation.

PROBLEM #5: A steel beam 10 m long is installed in the tenth floor of a building. The beam was
installed in such a way that its clearance from a wall is 2 mm at a temperature of 20°C. At what
temperature will the beam just touch the wall?

SOLUTION:
δ T = α(ΔT)L
0.002 m = (11.6x10-6/°C)(T f – 20°C)(10 m)
T f = 37.24°C

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PROBLEM #6: A 2-meter-long steel beam is installed between two walls as shown in the figure. If the
rod is stress-free at 25°C, compute the stress when the temperature has dropped to -10°C. Assume
that (1) the walls do not move and (2) the walls move together a distance Δ= 0.3 mm.

SOLUTION:
(1) Before anything else, we need a drawing of the figure. This is where our knowledge of the principle
of superposition comes into play. Notice that the direction of δ T is compressive, because of the
reduction in temperature. Since there is no clearance between the beam and the walls, there has to
counteract a force P which is opposite the direction of δ T .

P
δT δ
= +

0 = δT + δ
0 = α(ΔT)L + (PL/AE), but σ = P/A
0 = α(ΔT) + (σ/E)
0 = (11.6x10-6/°C)[(-10°C) – (25°C)] + (σ/200000 MPa)
σ = 81.20 MPa

(1) Let’s see how the illustration and solution of the problem will change.

P
δT δ 0.5 mm
= +

0 = δ T + δ + 0.3
0 = α(ΔT)L + (PL/AE) + 0.3, but σ = P/A
0 = α(ΔT)L + (σL/E) + 0.3
0 = (11.6x10-6/°C)(2000 mm)[(-10°C) – (25°C)]] + [(σ)(2000 mm)/(200000 MPa)] + 0.3
σ = 51.20 MPa

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References: This part includes online references. This is to avoid plagiarism in the content of the
modules.
Chapter 1:
 The Efficient Engineer. (2020, February 11). An Introduction to Stress and Strain. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQf6Q8t1FQE
 Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria & Sons
 R.C. Hibbeler, 2011. Mechanics of materials (8th Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
Pearson Prentice Hall
 Pytel, A., & Kiusalaas, J. (2012). Mechanics of materials (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning.
 Beer, F. P., Johnston Jr., E. R., DeWolf, J. T., & Mazurek, D. F. (2015). Mechanics of Materials (7th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter 2:
 The Efficient Engineer. (2020, February 11). An Introduction to Stress and Strain. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQf6Q8t1FQE
 Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria & Sons
 R.C. Hibbeler, 2011. Mechanics of Materials (8th Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
Pearson Prentice Hall
 Pytel, A., & Kiusalaas, J. (2012). Mechanics of materials (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning.
 Beer, F. P., Johnston Jr., E. R., DeWolf, J. T., & Mazurek, D. F. (2015). Mechanics of Materials (7th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter 3:
 The Efficient Engineer. (2020, February 11). An Introduction to Stress and Strain. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQf6Q8t1FQE
 Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria & Sons
 R.C. Hibbeler, 2011. Mechanics of materials (8th Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
Pearson Prentice Hall
 Beer, F. P., Johnston Jr., E. R., DeWolf, J. T., & Mazurek, D. F. (2015). Mechanics of Materials (7th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.
 Pytel, A., & Kiusalaas, J. (2012). Mechanics of materials (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning.

Chapter 4:
 The Efficient Engineer. (2020, February 11). An Introduction to Stress and Strain. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQf6Q8t1FQE
 Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria & Sons
 R.C. Hibbeler, 2011. Mechanics of materials (8th Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
Pearson Prentice Hall
 Beer, F. P., Johnston Jr., E. R., DeWolf, J. T., & Mazurek, D. F. (2015). Mechanics of Materials (7th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.
 Pytel, A., & Kiusalaas, J. (2012). Mechanics of materials (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning.

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