• 6375723631
• MZO - 03 (2023-2024)
1(i) In tetrahymena thermophilia, an Intron
(RNA) was found that carried out its own
excision and splicing. This RNA is known
as…………………………………..
(ii) What is Hamburger's shift ?
(iii) Which immunity provides defence
against cancer in body? Also name the
pathogen of SARS disease.
(iv) How saltatory conduction of nerve
impulse is carried out ?
1.
(i) In Tetrahymena thermophila, the self-splicing RNA
is known as ribozyme.
(ii) Hamburger’s shift refers to the
exchange of bicarbonate ions and chloride
ions across red blood cell membranes during
CO₂ transport.
(iii) Cell-mediated immunity defends
against cancer. SARS is caused by the
pathogen SARS-CoV (Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus).
(iv) Saltatory conduction occurs in
myelinated axons, where nerve impulses
“jump” between nodes of Ranvier, speeding
up signal transmission.
Section – B
2. Write short notes on the following :
(a) Mechanism of Inspiration and Expiration
(b) Basic structure of Neurons and their types
(c) Innate immunity
(d) Rearrangement in J-gene segments
3. Transfusion reaction mediated by ABO blood
group and MN blood group system
are type II hypersensitivity reactions. How are
these two reactions different? Why one is called
immediate transfusion reaction and other is
delayed hemolytic transfusion?
2. Short Notes
(a) Mechanism of Inspiration and Expiration
• Inspiration:
• Active process involving contraction of the
diaphragm and external intercostal muscles.
• The thoracic cavity expands, reducing
intrapulmonary pressure below atmospheric
pressure, causing air to ow into the lungs.
• Expiration:
• Passive process where the diaphragm
and intercostal muscles relax.
• The thoracic cavity volume decreases,
increasing intrapulmonary pressure, and air is
expelled.
• In forced expiration, abdominal and
internal intercostal muscles contract.
(b) Basic Structure of Neurons and Their
Types
• Structure:
• Cell body (Soma): Contains the nucleus
and organelles.
• Dendrites: Receive signals and transmit
them to the cell body.
• Axon: Conducts impulses away from the
cell body.
• Synaptic terminals: Release
neurotransmitters.
• Types:
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1. Sensory neurons: Transmit signals from
sensory organs to the CNS.
2. Motor neurons: Carry signals from the
CNS to effectors.
3. Interneurons: Connect sensory and
motor neurons within the CNS.
(c) Innate Immunity
• De nition: The rst line of defense against
pathogens, present from birth, and non-speci c.
• Components:
• Physical barriers: Skin, mucous
membranes.
• Chemical barriers: Enzymes in saliva,
stomach acid.
• Cellular defenses: Phagocytes
(macrophages, neutrophils), natural killer
cells.
• Provides rapid response but lacks memory.
(d) Rearrangement in J-gene Segments
• Occurs during the development of B and T
cells to create diverse antigen receptors.
• J (Joining) gene segments in
immunoglobulin (Ig) and T-cell receptor (TCR)
genes recombine with V (Variable) and D
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(Diversity) segments to produce functional
genes for antigen recognition.
3. Transfusion Reaction Mediated by ABO
and MN Blood Groups
• ABO Blood Group Reaction:
• Immediate hemolytic transfusion reaction
due to pre-existing antibodies (IgM) against A
or B antigens.
• On transfusion of incompatible blood,
antibodies bind to antigens on donor RBCs,
causing complement activation, rapid
hemolysis, fever, and potential shock.
• MN Blood Group Reaction:
• Delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction
involves IgG antibodies.
• These antibodies form after repeated
exposure (e.g., previous transfusions).
• Hemolysis occurs gradually as immune
cells phagocytose antibody-coated RBCs,
without immediate complement activation.
• Difference in Reaction Timing:
• ABO reactions occur within minutes to
hours due to pre-formed IgM antibodies and
complement activation.
• MN reactions take days as IgG antibodies
are slower to act and involve macrophage-
mediated phagocytosis.
• Terminology:
• ABO reaction: Immediate, life-threatening.
• MN reaction: Delayed, milder but still
clinically signi cant.
Section – C
[Link] in detail about at least two DNA sequencing methods.
DNA Sequencing Methods
DNA sequencing involves determining the
precise order of nucleotides (adenine, thymine,
cytosine, and guanine) in a DNA molecule. This
information is critical in understanding genetic
information, diagnosing diseases, and advancing
biotechnology. Two widely used DNA sequencing
methods are Sanger Sequencing and Next-
Generation Sequencing (NGS).
1. Sanger Sequencing (Chain-Termination
Method)
Developed by Frederick Sanger in 1977, this
method was the rst widely used DNA
sequencing technique.
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Principle:
The method uses DNA polymerase to synthesize
DNA strands. It incorporates chain-terminating
dideoxynucleotides (ddNTPs) that lack a 3’-OH
group, halting further DNA elongation when
incorporated.
Process:
1. Preparation:
• A single-stranded DNA template is mixed
with a primer, DNA polymerase,
deoxynucleotides (dNTPs), and uorescently
or radioactively labeled ddNTPs.
2. Elongation and Termination:
• DNA polymerase extends the primer by
adding dNTPs.
• Occasionally, a ddNTP is incorporated,
halting the elongation of that particular strand.
3. Separation:
• The resulting DNA fragments of varying
lengths are separated using capillary
electrophoresis.
4. Detection:
• The labeled ddNTPs are detected, and
the sequence of DNA is reconstructed.
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Advantages:
• High accuracy for short sequences (~500–
1000 base pairs).
• Suitable for small-scale sequencing projects.
Limitations:
• Time-consuming and expensive for large
genomes.
• Requires high-quality DNA samples.
2. Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)
NGS represents a revolutionary advancement in
sequencing, enabling the simultaneous
sequencing of millions of DNA fragments.
Principle:
NGS uses massively parallel sequencing to
analyze multiple DNA fragments at once,
generating large amounts of data quickly.
Process:
1. Library Preparation:
• DNA is fragmented into small pieces.
Adapters are attached to the ends of
fragments for ampli cation and sequencing.
2. Ampli cation:
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• DNA fragments are ampli ed using
techniques like bridge ampli cation (e.g.,
Illumina) or emulsion PCR (e.g., Roche 454).
3. Sequencing:
• Fragments are sequenced in parallel.
• In Illumina, uorescently labeled
nucleotides are incorporated one by one, and
the emitted uorescence is recorded.
• In Ion Torrent, nucleotide incorporation
causes pH changes, which are detected.
4. Data Analysis:
• Advanced software aligns the fragments
to a reference genome or assembles them de
novo to determine the sequence.
Advantages:
• High throughput: Millions of sequences in a
single run.
• Cost-effective for large genomes or whole-
transcriptome analysis.
• Enables applications like metagenomics,
epigenetics, and transcriptomics.
Limitations:
• Requires sophisticated equipment and
expertise.
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• Generates massive amounts of data,
requiring extensive computational resources.
Comparison
Feature Sanger Sequencing Next-Generation
Sequencing (NGS)
Throughput Low High
Accuracy Very high for short sequences High
Cost Expensive for large projects Cost-effective for
large data
Time Time-consuming Rapid
Applications of Sequencing
1. Medicine: Identifying genetic mutations,
personalized medicine.
2. Research: Studying genome evolution,
identifying novel genes.
3. Agriculture: Crop improvement and pest
resistance.
Both Sanger and NGS have transformed
molecular biology, with NGS becoming the
preferred method for large-scale sequencing
projects due to its speed and scalability.
