MODULE – 3

8marks
1) a) Explain the file Hierarchy system with diagram.
Ans:
 The file hierarchy system, also known as the file system hierarchy or
directory structure, is a way of organizing files and directories on a
computer's storage system.
 It provides a logical structure that helps users and operating systems
locate and manage files efficiently.
 The file hierarchy system is typically represented as a tree-like structure,
where each node in the tree represents a directory (also known as a
folder) and each leaf node represents a file.
 Directories can contain both files and subdirectories, creating a
hierarchical organization.
 At the top of the hierarchy is the root directory, denoted by a forward
slash (/) in Unix-based systems or a drive letter (such as C:\) in Windows
systems.
 All other directories and files are organized beneath the root directory.
 This hierarchical arrangement allows for easy navigation and
organization of files and directories on a computer system.
 Users and operating systems can traverse the file hierarchy by specifying
the appropriate directory paths to locate and access files.
b) Difference between directory files & ordinary files .
ans:
The main difference between directory files and ordinary files lies in their
purpose and functionality within a file system:
1. Directory Files (Folders):
- Purpose: Directory files, commonly known as folders, are used to organize
and group related files and directories together.
- Functionality: Directory files contain references or pointers to other files
and subdirectories within the file system. They serve as containers for
organizing and structuring the file hierarchy.
- Properties: Directory files typically have special attributes that distinguish
them from ordinary files. They can be identified by their icons or visual
representations in file explorers or operating systems.
2. Ordinary Files:
- Purpose: Ordinary files are used to store data or information. They can
contain text, images, videos, programs, documents, or any other type of data.
- Functionality: Ordinary files store the actual content or data created by
users or generated by applications. They can be opened, read, modified, and
saved by various software programs.
- Properties: Ordinary files may have different file formats and extensions,
depending on the type of data they store. For example, a text file may have
a .txt extension, an image file may have a .jpg or .png extension, and so on.

2) a) What is the path name differentiate between absolute &

relative path name.
Ans:
 Path names are used to specify the location of a file or directory within a
file system.
 The main difference between absolute and relative path names lies in
how they define the location of a file or directory:
1. Absolute Path Name:
- Definition: An absolute path name provides the complete and exact location
of a file or directory starting from the root directory of the file system.
- Format: In Unix-based systems, an absolute path name starts with a forward
slash (/), while in Windows systems, it starts with a drive letter (such as C:\).
- Example:
- Unix-based system: `/home/user/Documents/[Link]`
- Windows system: `C:\Users\User\Documents\[Link]`
- Characteristics: Absolute path names are independent of the current
working directory and provide an unambiguous reference to the location of a
file or directory.

2. Relative Path Name:

- Definition: A relative path name specifies the location of a file or directory
relative to the current working directory.
- Format: A relative path name does not start with a root directory indicator
(such as `/` or a drive letter). Instead, it uses the directory hierarchy relative to
the current working directory.
- Example:
- Suppose the current working directory is `/home/user/`, and the file we
want to reference is `Documents/[Link]`.
- Unix-based system: `Documents/[Link]`
- Windows system: `Documents\[Link]`
- Characteristics: Relative path names depend on the current working
directory and provide a concise way to specify the location of a file or directory
relative to the context.
b) Differentiate between hard links and soft links.
Ans:
Hard links and soft links (symbolic links) are two different types of links used in
file systems to create references to files. Here's how they differ:
1. Hard links:
- Definition: A hard link is a direct link to a specific file in a file system. It
creates a new reference (link) to the same underlying data or inode of a file.
- File System Dependency: Hardlinks are dependent on the file system. They
must reside in the same file system as the original file.
- Directory Entry: Hardlinks appear as separate directory entries with the
same inode number as the original file. From the perspective of the file system,
there is no distinction between the original file and its hardlinks.
- Changes and Modifications: Any changes made to the original file are
reflected in all hardlinks, and vice versa. They all refer to the same file content.
- Removal: Removing a hardlink does not affect the original file or other
hardlinks. The file content is only deleted when all hardlinks are removed.
- Restrictions: Hardlinks cannot be created for directories or across different
file systems.

2. Softlinks (Symbolic Links):

- Definition: A softlink, also known as a symbolic link or symlink, is a special
type of file that contains a reference or path to another file or directory.
- File System Independence: Softlinks can span across different file systems
and even refer to files or directories on different physical devices.
- File Entry: Softlinks are separate files that contain the path or reference to
the target file or directory.
- Changes and Modifications: If the original file or directory is moved or
renamed, the softlink may become broken and no longer point to the intended
target. Softlinks are transparent to changes made to the target file.
 - Removal: Deleting a softlink does not affect the target file or other softlinks.
The target file remains intact.
- Permissions: Softlinks have their own permissions, and the user must have
appropriate permissions to access the target file or directory.
- Support for Directories: Softlinks can be created for directories, allowing for
symbolic references to entire directories.

3) Define the concept of access control lists.

Ans:
 Access Control Lists (ACLs) are a mechanism used in computer systems
and networks to define and manage permissions and access rights to
resources, such as files, directories, or network resources.
 An ACL is a list of access control entries (ACEs) associated with an object,
specifying who is allowed or denied access and what operations they can
perform on that object.
 The concept of ACLs allows for more fine-grained control over access
permissions compared to traditional Unix-style permissions (read, write,
execute) that are based on user, group, and others.
 ACLs enable the definition of permissions for multiple users and groups,
and they can be applied to a broader range of objects beyond just files.

Here are some key aspects of ACLs:

1. Access Control Entries (ACEs): Each entry in an ACL is called an ACE. An ACE
contains information about a specific user, group, or system, along with the
permissions or access rights granted or denied to that entity.
2. Permissions: ACLs allow the specification of various permissions or access
rights, such as read, write, execute, delete, modify, or any custom-defined
permissions. Each ACE can have different combinations of permissions.
3. Users, Groups, and Other Entities: ACLs can assign permissions to individual
users, specific groups, or other entities like system processes or services. This
enables more precise control over who can access an object and what actions
they can perform.
4. Inheritance and Propagation: ACLs often support inheritance and
propagation of permissions. Inheritance means that permissions assigned to a
parent object (e.g., a directory) are automatically inherited by its child objects
(e.g., files within that directory). Propagation ensures that changes to
permissions on a parent object are propagated down to its child objects.
5. Access Levels: ACLs can define different levels of access, such as read-only,
read-write, or full control. This allows for more nuanced access rights
management.
6. Administration: ACLs typically require administrative privileges or special
permissions to be modified or managed. This helps ensure that access control
settings are properly controlled and maintained.
 Overall, ACLs provide a more flexible and granular approach to access
control, allowing for detailed management of permissions and access
rights on a per-user or per-group basis.
 They are commonly used in multi-user systems, network file systems,
and other environments where fine-grained access control is required.

4) How to assign the permissions of files using chmod command.

Ans:
 The `chmod` command is used to assign or modify permissions for files
and directories in Unix-based systems.
 It allows you to specify permissions for three categories: owner, group,
and others.
 The permissions can be set using numeric or symbolic notation.
Here's how you can use the `chmod` command:
1. Numeric Notation:
- Each permission is represented by a numeric value:
- Read (r): 4
- Write (w): 2
- Execute (x): 1
- To set permissions, add the numeric values of the desired permissions and
assign the resulting value to the respective category.
 - The syntax for numeric notation is:
```
chmod XYZ file
```
- X represents the permission for the owner.
- Y represents the permission for the group.
- Z represents the permission for others.
- Example:
```
chmod 764 [Link]
```
- The owner has read, write, and execute (4+2+1 = 7).
- The group has read and write (4+2 = 6).
- Others have read permission (4).

2. Symbolic Notation:
- Each permission is represented by a symbol:
- Read (r)
- Write (w)
- Execute (x)
- The syntax for symbolic notation is:
```
chmod [who][operator][permissions] file
```
- Who can be one of the following:
- u: Owner
 - g: Group
- o: Others
- a: All (u+g+o)
- Operator can be one of the following:
- +: Add permissions
- -: Remove permissions
- =: Set permissions explicitly
- Permissions are represented by the symbols (r, w, x).
- Example:
```
chmod u=rw,g=rx,o=r [Link]
```
- The owner has read and write permissions.
- The group has read and execute permissions.
- Others have read permission.

 Remember to execute the `chmod` command with appropriate

permissions, typically by using the `sudo` command if needed.
 The specific options and syntax may vary slightly across different Unix-
based systems, so it's always good to refer to the system's
documentation or `man` pages for precise details.

5) Explain about the various types of file systems that are used for
various operating systems.
Ans:
Different operating systems use various file systems to manage and organize
data on storage devices. Here's an overview of some commonly used file
systems for different operating systems:
1. Windows:
- NTFS (New Technology File System): NTFS is the primary file system used by
modern versions of Windows, including Windows 10. It provides advanced
features such as file and folder permissions, encryption, compression, and
support for large file sizes and volumes.
- FAT/FAT32 (File Allocation Table): FAT and FAT32 are older file systems that
are still used for compatibility reasons. They have limited features compared to
NTFS but are supported by various operating systems and devices.
2. macOS:
- APFS (Apple File System): APFS is the default file system introduced in
macOS High Sierra. It is optimized for solid-state drives (SSDs) and provides
features like encryption, snapshotting, and efficient storage management.
- HFS+ (Hierarchical File System Plus): HFS+ was the primary file system used
by macOS before the introduction of APFS. It supports features like journaling,
file and folder permissions, and case-insensitive and case-sensitive file names.
3. Linux:
- ext4 (Fourth Extended File System): ext4 is the most widely used file system
in Linux. It is an improvement over its predecessor, ext3, and provides features
such as journaling, large file and volume support, and backward compatibility
with ext2.
- Btrfs (B-Tree File System): Btrfs is a modern copy-on-write file system
designed for Linux. It offers features like scalability, snapshots, checksums, and
RAID-like functionality.
- XFS (XFS File System): XFS is a high-performance file system known for its
scalability and reliability. It supports large file sizes, extensive parallelism, and
features like journaling and online defragmentation.
4. Unix and Unix-like Systems:
- UFS (Unix File System): UFS is the traditional file system used by many Unix-
based operating systems. It provides features like file and directory
permissions, journaling, and support for symbolic links.
 - ZFS (Zettabyte File System): ZFS is a robust and scalable file system used in
Unix-like systems. It offers advanced features such as data integrity, data
compression, snapshotting, and storage pool management.
 These are just a few examples of file systems used in different operating
systems. Each file system has its own advantages and may be optimized
for specific requirements like performance, reliability, scalability, or
compatibility. The choice of file system depends on the specific needs of
the operating system, storage device, and intended use cases.