Chapter 1: Cont

Van Su Luong
Contents

• Resistors and Resistor Color Coding

• Ohm’s Law
• Kirchoff’s Laws
• Series and Parallel Circuits
• Resistive network analysis
• Node-voltage and Mesh-current methods
• Superposition Theorem
• Thevenin’s Circuits

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Types of Resistors

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Resistor Color Coding
• Four-Band Color Code

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Resistor Color Coding
• Examples:

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Resistor Color Coding
• Five-Band Color Code
➢ Precision resistors often use a five-band code
to obtain more accurate R values.
➢ The first three stripes indicate the first 3 digits
in the R value.
➢ The fourth stripe is the multiplier.
➢ The tolerance is given by the fifth stripe.
✓ Brown = 1%
✓ Red = 2%
✓ Green = 0.5%
✓ Blue = 0.25%
✓ Violet = 0.1%.

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Resistor Color Coding
• Examples:

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Resistor Color Coding
• Surface-mount resistors (Chip resistors)

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Rheostats and Potentiometers

• Variable resistors:

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Ohm’s Law
• There are three forms of Ohm’s Law:
➢ I = V/R
➢ V = IR
➢ R = V/I
where:
➢ I = Current
➢ V = Voltage
➢ R = Resistance

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Ohm’s Law
• Examples:
?

20 V
20 V 4W I = =5A
4W

1A

? 12 W V = 1A × 12 W = 12 V

3A

6V
6V ? R = =2W
3A

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Ohm’s Law

• The Linear Proportion between V and I

➢ I decreases as R increases.
➢ I increases as R decreases.

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Ohm’s Law

• Linear Resistance:
➢ A linear resistance has a 1W 2W

constant value of ohms. Its R

does not change with the
4

applied voltage, so V and I 3

are directly proportional. 4W

Amperes
2

➢ Carbon-film and metal- 1

film resistors are examples of

linear resistors. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Volts

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Ohm’s Law
• Non-Linear Resistance:
➢ In a nonlinear resistance, increasing the applied V
produces more current, but I does not increase in the
same proportion as the increase in V.
Amperes

Volts

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Electric Power
• There are three basic power formulas:

V2
P = VI P = I 2R P=
R
P P
I= R= 2 V2
V R=
I P
P P
V= I= V = PR
I R

Where:
P = Power V = Voltage I = Current R=Resistance

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Electric Power

• Applying Power Formulas:

5A P = VI = 20 × 5 = 100 W

20 V 4W
P = I2R = 25 × 4 = 100 W

V2 400
P= = = 100 W
R 4

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Electric Power

• Choosing a Resistor for a Circuit:

➢ Determine the required resistance value as R = V / I.
➢ Calculate the power dissipated by the resistor using any of the power
formulas.
➢ Select a wattage rating for the resistor that will provide an adequate
cushion between the actual power dissipation and the resistor’s power
rating.
➢ A resistor’s maximum working voltage rating is the maximum voltage a
resistor can withstand without internal arcing.
➢ The higher the wattage rating of the resistor, the higher the maximum
working voltage rating.

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Series Circuits
• Formulas:

i = i1 = i2 = ... = in v
i=
v = v1 + v2 + ... + vn Req

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Series Circuits

• Characteristics of a Series Circuit:

• The current is the same everywhere in a series circuit.
• The total resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistance values.
• The total voltage is equal to the sum of the IR voltage drops across the individual
resistances.
• The total power is equal to the sum of the power dissipated by each resistance.
• Current is the movement of electric charge between two points, produced by the
applied voltage.
• The free electrons moving away from one point are continuously replaced by free
electrons flowing from an adjacent point in the series circuit.
• All electrons have the same speed as those leaving the voltage source.
• Therefore, I is the same in all parts of a series circuit.

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Series Circuits
• Determining the Total Resistance:
R1 = 10 W R2 = 15 W

R3 = 20 W

R5 = 25 W R4 = 30 W

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5

RT = 10 W + 15 W + 20 W + 30 W + 25 W = 100 W

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Series Circuits
• Opens and Shorts in Series Circuits:

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Parallel Circuits

• Formulas:

i = i1 + i2 + ... + in
v = i  Req
v = v1 = v2 = ... = vn

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Parallel Circuits

• Characteristics of a Parallel Circuit:

➢ Voltage is the same across each branch in a parallel circuit.
➢ The total current is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents.
➢ The equivalent resistance (REQ) is less than the smallest branch resistance. The term
equivalent resistance refers to a single resistance that would draw the same amount
of current as all of the parallel connected branches.
➢ Total power is equal to the sum of the power dissipated by each branch resistance.
➢ A parallel circuit is formed when two or more components are connected across the
same two points.
➢ A common application of parallel circuits is the typical house wiring of many
receptacles to the 120/220V-50/60 Hz AC power line.

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Parallel Circuits

• Determining the Equivalent Resistance:

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Parallel Circuits

• Conductance:
➢Conductance (G) is equal to 1 / R.
➢Each value of G is the reciprocal of R. Each branch current is
directly proportional to its conductance.
➢Note that the unit for G is the Siemens (S).
➢Total (equivalent) conductance of a parallel circuit is given
by:

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Parallel Circuits

• Conductance:

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Parallel Circuits
• Opens and Shorts in Series Circuits:

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Series-Parallel Circuits
• Examples:

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Series-Parallel Circuits
• Examples:

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Series-Parallel Circuits
• Examples:

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Series-Parallel Circuits
• Examples:

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Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers
• Voltage Dividers:

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Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers
• Series Voltage Dividers:

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Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers

• Current Divider:

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Node, Branch, Loop, Mesh
• Examples:

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Node, Branch, Loop, Mesh
• Example:
➢ A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor. In
other words, a branch represents any two-terminal element.
➢ A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
➢ A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws (KCL)

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law

(KCL):
➢ The sum of currents entering any
point in a circuit is equal to the
sum of currents leaving that
point.
➢ Otherwise, charge would
accumulate at the point,
reducing or obstructing the
conducting path.
➢ Kirchhoff’s Current Law may also
be stated as IIN = IOUT

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Kirchhoff’s Laws (KVL)

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

(KVL):
➢ A loop is a closed path.
➢ This approach uses the
algebraic equations for the
voltage around the loops of a
circuit to determine the
branch currents.
➢ Use the IR drops and KVL to
write the loop equations.
➢ A loop equation specifies the
voltages around the loop.

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

The 6-A IT into point C divides into the 2-A I3 and 4-A I4-5

I4-5 is the current through R4 and R5

IT − I3 − I4-5 = 0
6A − 2A − 4A = 0

At either point C or point D, the sum of the 2-A and the 4-

A branch currents must equal the 6A line current.

Therefore, Iin = Iout

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• Loop Equations
• A loop is a closed path.
• This approach uses the algebraic equations for the
voltage around the loops of a circuit to determine
the branch currents.
• Use the IR drops and KVL to write the loop equations.
• A loop equation specifies the voltages around the loop.

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• Loop Equations
• ΣV = VT means the sum of the IR voltage drops must
equal the applied voltage. This is another way of
stating Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

In previous Figure, for the inside loop with the source VT,
going counterclockwise from point B,

90V + 120V + 30V = 240V

If 240V were on the left side of the equation, this term

would have a negative sign.

The loop equations show that KVL is a practical statement

that the sum of the voltage drops must equal the
applied voltage.

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• The algebraic sum of the

voltage rises and IR
voltage drops in any
closed path must total
zero.

For the loop CEFDC without

source the equation is
−V4 − V5 + V3 = 0
−40V − 80V + 120V = 0
0=0

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Method of Branch Currents

Figure: Application of
Kirchhoff’s laws to a
circuit with two
sources in different
branches.

VR1 = I1R1 VR2 = I2R2 VR3 = I3R3 VR3 = (I1+I2)R3

Loop equations:

V1 – I1R1 – (I1+I2) R3 = 0 V2 – I2R2 – (I1+I2) R3 = 0

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Method of Branch Currents

Loop 1:
84 − VR1 − VR3 = 0
Loop 2:
2I − VR2 − VR3 = 0

Using the known values of R1, R2 and R3 to specify the IR voltage drops,
VR1 = I1R1 = I1  12 = 12 I1
VR2 = I2R2 = I2  3 = 3 I2
VR3 = (I1 + I2) R3 = 6(I1 + I2)
Substituting these values in the voltage equation for loop 1
84 − 12I1 − 6(I1 + I2) = 0
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Method of Branch Currents
Also, in loop 2,
21 − 3I2 − 6 (I1 + I2) = 0
Multiplying (I1 + I2) by 6 and combining terms and transposing,
the two equations are

− 18I1 − 6I2 = −84

−6I1 − 9I2 = −21

Divide the top equation by −6 and the bottom by −3 which

results in simplest and positive terms
3I1 + I2 = 14
2I1 + 3I2 = 7

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Method of Branch Currents
Solving for currents
Using the method of elimination, multiply the top equation by 3 to make
the I2 terms the same in both equations
9I1 + 3I2 = 42
1I1 + 3I2 = 7
Subtracting
7I1 = 35
I1 = 5A
To determine I2, substitute 5 for I1
2(5) + 3I2 = 7
3I2 = 7 − 10
3I2 = −3
I2 = −1A

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Method of Branch Currents
This solution of −1A for I2 shows that the current through R2
produced by V1 is more than the current produced by V2.
The net result is 1A through R2 from C to E
Calculating the Voltages
VR1 = I1R1 = 5 x 12 = 60V
VR2 = I2R2 = 1 x 3 = 3V
VR3 = I3R3 = 4 x 6 = 24V
Note: VR3 and VR2 have opposing polarities in loop 2.
This results in the −21V of V2

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Method of Branch Currents
Checking the Solution
At point C: 5A = 4A + 1A
At point D: 4A + 1A = 5A

Around the loop with V1

clockwise from B,
84V − 60V − 24V = 0

Around the loop with V2

counterclockwise from F,
21V + 3V − 24V = 0

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Node-Voltage Analysis

• A principal node is a point where three or more currents divide or

combine, other than ground.
• The method of node voltage analysis uses algebraic equations for
the node currents to determine each node voltage.
• Use KCL to determine node currents
• Use Ohm’s Law to calculate the voltages.
• The number of current equations required to solve a circuit is one
less than the number of principal nodes.

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Node-Voltage Analysis

• One node must be the reference point for specifying the voltage at
any other node.

• Finding the voltage at a node presents an advantage: A node

voltage must be common to two loops, so that voltage can be
used for calculating all voltages in the loops.

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Node-Voltage Analysis
Node Voltage Method
R1 R2
N

I1 I2
V1 R3 V2
I3

At node N: I1 + I2 = I3
or
VR VR VN
1 2 =
+
R1 R2 R3

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Node-Voltage Analysis

VR1/R1 + VR2 = VN/R3

VR1/12 + VR2/3 = VN/6

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Node-Voltage Analysis

VR1+ VN = 84 or VR1 = 84 − VN
For the loop with V2 of 21V,
VR2 + VN = 21 or VR2 = 21 − VN
Substituting values
I1 + I2 =I3
Using the value of each V in terms of VN
84 − VN/12 + 21 − VN/3 = VN/6

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Node-Voltage Analysis

This equation has only one

unknown, VN. Clearing fractions
by multiplying each term by 12,
the equation is
(84 − VN) + 4(21 − VN) = 2VN
84- VN + 84 − 4VN = 2VN
− 7VN = −168
VN = 24V

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Node-Voltage Analysis

Calculating All Voltages and Currents

Node Equations Loop Equations

• Applies KCL to currents • Applies KVL to the
in and out of a node voltages in a closed path.
point.
• Currents are specified • Voltages are specified as
as V/R so the equation IR so the equation of
of currents can be voltages can be solved to
solved to find a node find a loop current.
voltage.

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Superposition Theorem

• The superposition theorem extends the use of

Ohm’s Law to circuits with multiple sources.

• In order to apply the superposition theorem to a

network, certain conditions must be met:

1. All the components must be linear, meaning that the

current is proportional to the applied voltage.

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Superposition Theorem

2. All the components must be bilateral, meaning that the

current is the same amount for opposite polarities of the
source voltage.

3. Passive components may be used. These are

components such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors,
that do not amplify or rectify.

4. Active components may not be used. Active

components include transistors, semiconductor diodes,
and electron tubes. Such components are never bilateral
and seldom linear.

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Superposition Theorem

• In a linear, bilateral network that has more than one source, the
current or voltage in any part of the network can be found by adding
algebraically the effect of each source separately.

• This analysis is done by:

• shorting each voltage source in turn.
• opening each current source in turn.

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Superposition Theorem
Short V1=0

Short V2=0

Figure: Superposition theorem applied to a voltage divider with two sources V1

and V2. (a) Actual circuit with +13 V from point P to chassis ground. (b) V1 alone
producing +16 V at P. (c) V2 alone producing −3 V at P.

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 Superposition Theorem

R1 R2

15 V 100 Ω 20 Ω 13 V 15 V 100 Ω 20 Ω
V1 V2 V2 shorted
V1 10 Ω R3
10 Ω R3
R1 R2

REQ = 106.7 Ω, IT = 0.141 A and IR3 = 0.094 A

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Superposition Theorem (Applied)

R1 R2
R1 R2

15 V 100 Ω 20 Ω 13 V
100 Ω 20 Ω 13 V
V1 10 Ω R3 V2 V1 shorted V2
10 Ω R3

REQ = 29.09 Ω, IT = 0.447 A and IR3 = 0.406 A

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Superposition Theorem (Applied)
R1 R2

15 V 100 Ω 20 Ω 13 V
V1 V2
0.094 A 0.406 A

With V2 shorted
REQ = 106.7 Ω, IT = 0.141 A and IR3 = 0.094 A

With V1 shorted
REQ = 29.09 Ω, IT = 0.447 A and IR3 = 0.406 A

Adding the currents gives IR3 = 0.5 A

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Superposition Theorem (Check)
R1 R2

15 V 100 Ω 20 Ω 13 V
V1 10 Ω R3 V2
0.5 A

With 0.5 A flowing in R3, the voltage across R3 must

be 5 V (Ohm’s Law). The voltage across R1 must
therefore be 10 volts (KVL) and the voltage across R2
must be 8 volts (KVL). Solving for the currents in R1
and R2 will verify that the solution agrees with KCL.

IR1 = 0.1 A and IR2 = 0.4 A

IR3 = 0.1 A + 0.4 A = 0.5 A

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Thevenin’s Theorem

• Thevenin’s theorem simplifies the process of solving for the unknown

values of voltage and current in a network by reducing the network
to an equivalent series circuit connected to any pair of network
terminals.

• Any network with two open terminals can be replaced by a single

voltage source (VTH) and a series resistance (RTH) connected to
the open terminals. A component can be removed to produce
the open terminals.

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Thevenin’s Theorem

Figure: Application of Thevenin’s theorem. (a) Actual

circuit with terminals A and B across RL. (b) Disconnect RL to
find that VAB is 24V. (c) Short-circuit V to find that RAB is 2Ω.

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Thevenin’s Theorem

Figure (d) Thevenin equivalent circuit. (e) Reconnect

RL at terminals A and B to find that VL is 12V.

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Thevenin’s Theorem

• Determining Thevenin Resistance and Voltage

• RTH is determined by shorting the voltage source and calculating
the circuit’s total resistance as seen from open terminals A and B.
• VTH is determined by calculating the voltage between open
terminals A and B.

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Thevenin’s Theorem

Note that R3 does not change the value of VAB produced

by the source V, but R3 does increase the value of RTH.

Figure: Thevenizing the circuit of Fig. 10-3 but with a 4-Ω R3 in

series with the A terminal. (a) VAB is still 24V. (b) Now the RAB is
2 + 4 = 6 Ω. (c) Thevenin equivalent circuit.

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Thevenizing a Circuit with Two Voltage
Sources

• The circuit in Figure 10-5 can be solved by Kirchhoff’s laws, but

Thevenin’s theorem can be used to find the current I3
through the middle resistance R3.
• Mark the terminals A and B across R3.
• Disconnect R3.
• To calculate VTH, find VAB across the open terminals

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Thevenizing a Circuit with Two Voltage
Sources

Figure: Thevenizing a circuit with two voltage sources V1 and V2.

(a) Original circuit with terminals A and B across the middle resistor
R3. (b) Disconnect R3 to find that VAB is −33.6V. (c) Short-circuit V1
and V2 to find that RAB is 2.4 Ω. (d) Thevenin equivalent with RL
reconnected to terminals A and B.
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Chapter 2. Questions and Exercises

• BTVN:

Problems in Chapter 1:
Albert Malvino, David J. Bates (2016), Electronic principles,
McGraw-Hill Education, 978-0-07-337388-1.

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