UNIT 4 FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOIL

Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives

4.2 Seepage through Porous Media

4.3 Laplace's Equation of Continuity
4.4 Potential Function and Stream Function
4.5 Significance of Potential and Stream Functions
4.6 Stream Function and Seepage Quantity
4.7 Calculation of Seepage Quantity
4.8 Principles of Drawing Flow Nets and Ex,mples
4.8.1 Flow Net for Constant Head Permeability Test
4.8.2 Flow Net for Concrete Dam on Panneable Soil
4.8.3 Flow Net for the Case of Seepage Below an llnpermeable Wall
4.8.4 Flow Net for the Case of Seepagethrough an Earthdam on Inipermeahle Foundation
4.9 Pressure Under Hydraulic Structure
4.10 Stresses in Saturated Soil witll Seepage
4.19.1 Upward Seepage
4.10.2 Downward Seepage
4.10.3 Seepage Forcc
4.11 Summary
4.12 Key Words
4.13 Answers lo SAQs

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, a detailed derivation of Laplace's equalion for two-dimensional steady state
flow is presented. The conccpl of potcnlial and Strein functions, equipotential lines and
stream lines is introduced and using this conccpt the prirlciples of drawing the flow net for
a seepage domain are developed. Exanlples of drawing flow net with calculations for pore
pressure, hydraulic gradient and qu'mtity of seepage are discussed. Finally in this unit the
methods of stress calculalions in a saturated soil under various conditions of seepage are
also explained.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
0 understand the concepl of equipotential lines and streamlines,
draw flow nets for various cases of seepage and calculate the quantity of
seepage, pore pressures and hydraulic gradients in the domain of seepage, and
calculate stresses ia a saturated soil medium under various conditions of
seepage.

4.2 SEEPAGE THROUGH POROUS MEDIA

In the preceding unit, simple cases of flow of water through soils were considered, in
which Darcy's law was used to estimate the quantity of waler:seeping through the soil. The
flow considered was purely one dimensiollal i11 which the velocity of flow was taken
constant at every point over a cross-section normal to the direction of flow. However in
many practical situations (e.g., flow of water through earth dams, beneath masonry dams
and around sheet piles) the flow of water is not unidirectional and also the velocity of
water is not constant over a particular cmss-section. I11 such cases, the quantity of seepage
and other parameters such as hydraulic gradient and pore water pressure are estimated by
Soil Wat :ystem
drawing graphs, which are known as flow nets. The concept and construction of 1low nets
are based on Laplace's equations of continuily.

4.3 LAPLACE'S EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

Some basic assumptions are made in deriving Laplace's equation. These assumptions are
i) Soil is fully saturated with Darcy's law being valid.
ii) Soil is homogeneous and isotropic. Here isotropy refers to the cons!.ant
permeability of soil in any possible direction.
iii) Both soil grains and the pore water are incompressible which implies that no
volume changes will occur in the soil-watef system during seepage.
iv) Steady state conditions prevail. The significance ~f this assumption is that, in
a soil element in the domain of seepage, Ule quantity of waler seeping in will
be equal to the quantity seeping out. For example, if seepage is occurring
through an earth dam, under steady state, it will implicitly mean that water
levels on b o b upstream side and downstream side of the dam are constant
with respect to time.
In Figure 4.1, an element of soil with dinlensions dx and dz is shown in the domain of
seepage. The dimension of the element perpcr~dicularto the plane of the figure is unity
since a two-dimensional flow is being considered.

- dx L

Figure 4.1 : Steady Stntc Elow,of Water ul UIC Soil Elonlent

If 6, is the component of velocity of water at the face AB of the element in x direction

(Figure 4.11, then the qucmlityof water entering into the element through that face in unit
time will be .9,dz. 1. To calculate the quantity of waler leaving the element through face
CD of the element in unit time, the velocity of water at the face CD when il leaves Ule
element, will have to be considered. This is given as

and corresponding quantity of water leaving the face will be

Similarly, for the face BC of the element (Figure 4.11, the quantity of water entering the
element in unit time will be given as $ . d x . 1 , when -9, is the component of velocity of
the water in z direction. The quantity of water leaving the face AD in unit time will be

Thus, in unit time, the total quantity of water entering the element will be given as
 Flow of Water
TIwoughSoil
;uid Ihal Icaving Ulc clement will be given as

r conditions of steady state flow. the quantity of water entering the element must
~ n d c the
hc cqual to the quantity of water leaving the element. Thus :

a6 8-9,
(O., &+--.dx dz t f+ dx t -.dx d z ) - ( 1 9 x . d ~t B z D . d x ) = 0
ax az

Tllc abovc equation is referred to as continuity equation for two-dimensional flow. It can
hc cotnbincd wih Darcy 's law so as to transfortn it into a more convenient form. If h is the
LOL:IIhead (elevation head + water pressure head) at the location of the element, the
vclocilies 6, and 6 ,can be expressed on the basis of Darcy's law as
ah ah
-s, = - k . - and f?: = -k -
ax az
at1 and -
where k is the perrncahility of the soil tnedium and - ah
a x a z are hydraulic gradients in
x and z directions rcspcctivcl y.
Substituting Equation 4.2 in Equation 4.1, the following result is obtained :

Tlie above equations ciul be further transformed in two ways. Firstly, the term k which is a
constant properly for ail isotropic and homogeneous medium c'm be cancelled from
Equation 4.3 so as to gct the followirlg equation :

Equation 4.4 is krlowrl as Laplace's cqualion's the solution of which yields the variation of
total head, h, Ihroughout thc domain or seepage as a [unction of x and z.

4.4 POTENTIAL FUNCTION AND STREAM FUNCTION

In Equaiion 4.3, the term, k , can be combined with total head, h , so as to define the
following function

The function $ is called potential function and in terms of potential function the Laplace's
equation can be expresscd as

Thus, the velocity componenls axand 6, can be expressed in terms of potential function $
in the following way
Similar to potential function, there exis6 another function called stream function (v),
which
.. .--.dso satisfies continuity equations. In terms of this function. ole velocity
components fix and dz can be expressed as

If Equation 4.9 is subslilutcd in Equation 4.1 (continuily equation). it can be easily seen
bat it is satisfied by the function y .
In order to get an equation similar to Equation 4.6 in terms of y,the following
mathemalical operations are performed.
Differentiating

asx as,
a , from -
wilh respcct to z and x and dcducling y ax
h e following result is obtained :

In the above equation if Equation 4.9 is substituled, Laplace's equation in the required
form is obtained

Thus from Equation 4.1 1 , it is seen that function y also cdmbe expressed in tcrmt of
Laplaec's equation and this function is known as stream function.

4.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF POTENTIAL AND STREAM

FUNCTIONS
BoUl+ and y are functions of x.and z and for example if the function $ is plotted in xz
plmc, points having same 9 values can be joined so as to get conlours of potential. On U V
contour line which will tx curved, all the p o i n ~will
~ have the same potential and such lines
art: callcd equipotential lincs. Since these are equipotential lines, there will not be any flow
ol'watcr along these lines or mathematically speaking, flowing water will not have any
vclocity component at any point on Lhese lines, in tangential direclion. Thus, the velocity
of water will be normal to Ule tangent at all the points on any equipotential line.
Similarly, if the function yr is plotted inxz plane, points having same y~values can be
joined so as to get contours of stream functio~i.On any contour line which will be curved,
all the points will have the same value of stream function and suc11 lines are called lines of
constant yr. This lines will be intersecting with lines of constant $ and the angle of
intcrscclion (i.e., the angle between the tangents of these two curves) can be obtained ;ls
follows.
Since the potential function $ , depends upon the variables x and a , the differential, d @.
can be written as

From Equation 4.7 and Equation 4.8 , velocity components 19, and 19, are given as
 Wow of Water
Through Soil

Substituting for &?L and in Equation 4.12, we get

ax a2

For an equipotential line, there is no change in the potential $ . Therefore, d $ = 0 and

Equation 4.13 becomes

[:il
Since the function $ is plotted in x z plane, - represents the slope of fie tangent

drawn at any point on the equipotential line.

Similarly for the stream function y~ , which depends upon the variables x ; u ~ dz , the
differential cf y~ may be written as

From Equation 4.9 , the velocity components 19, and 6, are given as

,yx = -
a2
and I Y ~ = h
;IX

Making above substitutions for& and

obtained.
ax ,
*az in Equation 4.15 , the following result is

d y = IY, d d - 6., d z ...(4 .16)

For a contour line on which y is constant, d y will be zero and Equation 4.16 becomes
1 3 ~d x - fix cfz = 0
or

dz
In the above equation , -represents slope of the tangent drawn at any point on the
dx
constant y line.
Equation 4.14 and Equation 4.17 can be combined to get the following relationship:

From the basic knowledge of coordinate geometry, it is known that the two curves
intersect each other at 90' or orthogonally if the products of their gradients is - 1.
Therefore from Equation 4.18, it can be concluded that lines of constant 4 and y are
orthogonal to'each other. And since flowing water has no component along the tangent to
.
y Thus in the
the equipotential line, it must flow along the tangent to the line of co~~stant
domain of seepage, water flows in such a way that its resultant veloyty is along the
direction tangential to the lines of constant y and in this context, these lines are known as
flow lines,
S~rilWu ter Sy.stcnl
4.6 STREAM FUNCTION AND SEEPAGE QUANTITY
There exists an important relationship between the stream function and the quantity of
seepage. This is explained with reference to Figure 4.2. The seepage domain consists of a
network of equipotential lines and flow lines and in Figure 4.2, a region bounded by two
equipotential lines and two flow lines is shown. From this figure, it will be seen that points
A and B are situated on an equipotentid line with I$ = and the flow of water will be
normal to this line. Points A and B are also situated on two flow lines with #I = yq and y/2
respectively.

.''i'''PI

Figurc 4.2 : Quantity of Flow in Terms of Stream Function

Now in order to calculate the quantity of seepage, A Q, that flows through the channel
bounded by flow lines ~1 and yf2 the flow velocities in x and z directions may be
considered and the corresponding areas through which water flow in x and z directions
occurs will be A C x 1 and 3 C x 1 (where 1 is the length of the seepage domain, normal to
the plane of the Figure) respectively. The total flow A Q will thus be given as the
summationof flow quantities A QAc(past the line AC, with area of flow, AC x 1 ) and
AQBC (past the line BC, with area of flow, BC x 1 ) as shown in Figure 4.2, that is

A QBc can be calculated by considering an elemental length dz on BC and velocity 19xat

the element as shown in Figuce 4.2. Similarly, A QAC can be calculated by'considering
elemental length dx on AC and velocity 1 9at~ the element thus :

and

Therefore, the quantity of flow AQ through the channel bounded'by flow lines ~1 and v2
will be given as

From Equation4.9,

Subs tiluting these expressions in Equation 4.22, the foll&ing expression is obtained.
 Flow of Wnter
Through Soil

Therefore,

=Ul2-V1 = A W ...(4.23)
Thus from Equation 4.23 , it is seen that the quantity of seepage through a flow channel is
equal to difference in values of the stream functions across the channel.

4.7 CALCULATION OF SEEPAGE QUANTITY

The relationship of stream function and the quantity of seepage can now be extended to
estimate the quantity of seepage in the entire domain and this is explained with reference
to Figure 4.3.

\h Equipotential line
Figure 4.3: Relationship of Quantity of Flow and Dinlensions olFigure in Flow Channel

A gridwork of constant $ lines (equipotential lines) and constant v lines (flow lines) can
be generated for any domain of seepage and in Figure 4.3 an area ABCD, bounded by two
flow lines (W and yr+ A yf) and two equipotential lines ( h and h - Ah) is shown. Here the
potentials are expressed in tenns of h which represents the total head at a point (or on the
equipotential line) and this cat1 be easily justified on tlle basis of Equation 4,5 from which
the total head can simply be obtained by dividing the potential by k, which is the
permeability of the medium. Thus, total head can also be conveniently used in place of $ ,
for calculations.
The mean length of area ABCD (Figure 4.3) in the direction of flow is 2 aid its mem
width is 6, then the quantity of seepage, A Q ;through Ule channel formed by ilow lines v
and yr +A y will be given on tlle basis of Darcy's.law as

In the above equation, the hydraulic gradient i will be equal to the ratio of ]lend loss A
imd the distance 1, over which this head loss has occurred. Product of hydraulic grndicnl
and permeability, k, will be equal to the velocity of flow 1lor111a1to tl~eline BC (which is)
part of the equipotential line with potential h -Ah) atld llle ilt-eaA wbich is cqual to b x 1 ,
since unit length of lhe secpage domain is being considcrcd nor~nallo llic I'igurc.
Some modil'iadions c;ul bc introduced in Eyuatioil4.24 :IS give11bclow.
 Since A Q is also equal to A \Y (Equation 4.23)

Since A h represents drop in total head, k A h will represent drop in potential as seen from
-Equation 4.5.
Therefore, drop in potential = A $ = k A h J4.26)

Equation 4.25, then becomes

.
Now if A yf is made equal to A @ that is to say, if change in the stream hnction is made
equal to change in the potential function, then b / l = 1 and the bounded figure ABCD Ulen
becomes a square. Conversely it may be stated that change in the potential will be equal to
change in the stream function of the bounded figure ABCD is a square.
On the basis of Equation 4.27, total quantity of seepage, (2, in the entire domain of
seepage can be estimated. To do this, a flow channel cutting across some bounded ueas
(such as ABCD) is shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 : Qui~ntityor Flow for the Case of Square Figurn in h e N o w Chnnnel

Herc change in the total head (or change in potential, A () is maintained constant and the
mean dimensions ( b / l =11, l2 etc.) of the bounded figures are such that squares are
formed. This will make A \y = A ( for the flow channel and since A ( is maintained
constant,
In the domain of seepage, water will flow from the level of rnaximmn potential to the level Flow of Water
Through Soil
of minimum potential and if H is the difference in total head causing flow, then
relationship between H and A h will be given as

where Nd = number of potential drops that occur when water flows from level of
maximum potential to that of minimum potential.
From Figure 4.4, the quantity of flow, AQ, through the channel is given as

Now H
hl - h 2 = h2- h3= h3- h4= A h = -
Nd
Therefore, the discharge A Q becomes

There are other flow channels in the domain of seepage and if all the bounded figures such
as ABCD in these flow channels are made square, it will make A y for each channel same
and consequently the quantity of flow in all the flow channels will be same. Therefore, if
Nfrepresents total number of flow channels in the domain of seepage, the total quantity of
flow, Q, will be given h

Thus, Equation 4.32 gives the quantity of seepage that can be estimated from the grid work
of equipotential lines and flow lines drawn in such a manner that areas bounded by
equipotential lines are squares. This grid work is called a flow net and it is drawn with
certain rules and considerations df boundary conditions as explained later in this Unit.
Allhough convenient, it is not always necessary to draw square figures for flow nets. It is
also possible to draw,a rectangular network for a flow channel as sho'wn in Figure 4.5 and
referring Equation 4.25,

Figure 4 5 r Quantity of Fiow for tht C u e of RectnngularFigures in the Flow Channel

In Figure 4.5, the quantity of seepage, AQ , past any equipotential live is same and if A g is
maintained constant, from Equation 4.33, it will be seen that the ratio b / 1 for all bounded
figures also remains same. Thus,
S11ilWutcr Systcnl

Since Ah = H / N d , Equation 4.33 can be finally written as

If the ratio b / l is maintained same for all the flow channels (numbers, N f ), then the total
discharge, &, will simply be given as

SAQ 1
i) What is meant by a steady state flow ?
ii) In the computation of total head at a point in the domain of seepage, why is
velocity head not considered ?
iii) What are equipotential and stream lines ? At what angle do they meet ?
iv) What is a flow channel ?

4.8 PRINCIPLES OF DRAWING F%OW NETS AND

EXAMPLES
Flow net is constructed for estimating the quantity of seepage, pore water pressure and
hydraulic gradients in the domain of seepage and its construction depends on the
geometric and boundary conditions of the domain. The general principles of drawing flow
nets are :
i) The equipotential lines intersect the flow lines orthogonally.
ii) The bounded figures are approximate squares. However, this is not a
necessary requirement.
iii) Generally four to six flow paths for drawing the flow net are sufficient.
iv) Drawing of a flow net takes several trials and fine detail adjustments are
made when the entire flow net appears approximately correct.
4.8.1 Flow Net for Constant Head Permeability Test
In Figure 4.6, a simple case of seepage and corresponding flow net is shown: This
corresponds to a constant head permeability test. In this test a soil sample of length L and
width b (the dimension perpendicular to the plane of the figure) is subjected to steady
state seepage condition in which difference in water levels on two sides of the sample is
maintained constant and equal to h' as shown in Figure 4.6.
Clearly this is a case of one-dimensional flow in which water seeps through soil in
horizontal direction. This can be proved by establishing that lines such as MO and NO are
equipotential lines and for this purpose, the datum AB is chosen as shown in the figure.
For point M on the line MO,the pressure, of water will be equivalent to the head of
water

as shown in the figure and the &turn head will be MO.Therefore the total head at M will be
 Flow of Water
Through Soil

line
--CC
flow = Aq

Figure 4.6 : mow Net for Constant Hend Permeability Text

in metres of water. If point O on the line MO is considered, its datum head will be zero
and pressure head at this point will be equivalent to the head (h,&l t-MO) of water as
shown in the figure and therefore the total head at point O will be

( ( h w ) ~-t MO =
metres of water which is same as that of point 0. Therefore points M and 0 lie on the
same equipotential line. On the similar considerations, it can be shown that all the points
on the line MO possess same total head and thus it becomes an equipotential line having
vertical orientation. The flow lines must intersect this line in the horizontal direction and
thus the flow in this particular case, takes place in the horizontal direction.
Similarly, it can be easily established that vertical line NP in Figure 4.6 is an equipotential
line. T l ~ difference
e in total heads between the two extreme potential lines MO and NP is
h' , and under this head difference, flow of water takes place through the soil. To calculate
the hydraulic gradient of flowing water of various points in the domain of seepage,
Laplace equation in one-dinlension in terms of total head (h) may be used as given below

The solution of this differential equation yields

To evaluate the constants, boundary conditions are

S d l Water Systrm h = hl at x = 0( i.e. for equipotential line MO)
and
h = h2 at x = L ( i.e. for equipotential line NP)
Using the above boundary conditions to evaluate the constants C I and C2 and substituting
for them in Equation 4.37, the following result is obtained

From the above equation, it is seen that the total head varies linearly with x. Differentiating
h with respect to x , the hydraulic gradient, i , is obtained

From the above equation, it is seen that in case of one-dimensional flow, the hydraulic
gradient is constant throughout the domain of seepage. Since the velocity of flowing water,
3,is related to hydraulic gradient by the equation 19 = - ki , it follows that the velocity also
remains constant thioughout.
In Figure 4.6, line M IN l showing linear variation of pore waterpressue head is drawn
(since hydraulic gradient is constant) and to draw the flow net, the total drop in head
(i.c. It ') is divided into some convenient number of drops having equal magnitude
b e . A h = h ' / N d , N d = no. of drops). The points such as I ' , E* and G ' which are equally
spaced (interval, A h ) are projected on the line MNso as to generate vertical equipotential
lines IJ, EF and GH as shown in the figure. These equipotential lines are separated by a
consrant total head drop of A h.
The flow lines such as CD are drawn perpendicular to the equipotentid lines and here, a
choice IS required to he made between square and rectangular figures. In this particular
case, the dimension S of the figure as shown in Figure 4.6 will be dependent u p n the no.
of flow channels and if it is chosen equal to 1 (dimension of the figure along the flow), then
thc number of flow channels may not work out to an integer value. Therefore, i t would be
convcnienl to select first the number of flow channels and generate reclangulat figures of
dimcnsions 1 x s as shown in Figure 4.6. Thus, the flow lines that are formed are
pcrpcndicular to the'kyuipotential Lines and in this case they are strictly parallel.
The qum\ly ol loLll flow, 0 . can now be estimated from the flow net shown. The
numbcr (ifflow paths is 5 ( Nj = 5 ) and number of potential drops is 10 (Nd = 10) and the
ratio $/,I is n, Therefore, the quantity of flow will be given as (from Equation 4.35).

& = k.h'.- n x n = 0.5 k h ' n a ...(4.41)

10 '

whcrc a is h e third dimension of the sample.

4.8.2 Flow Net for concrete Dam on Permeable Soil
I
In Figure 4.7, Ulc prdilc of a concrete dam on permeable soil which is underlain by an
iinpcrincablc material such as mck is shown. The levels of water on upstream guld
downslrcam sides are H I and Hzrespectively and as shown in the figure, H i s the head
dif'crencc causing Ilow of water from upstream to downstream side of the d m .
 I'
while drawing the flow nets for this case, boundary conditions are first identified; U~atis Flow of Water
to say, those points are identified where total heads on potentials are known. For this Through Soil
purpose, the line (interface between the permeable soil layer and impermeable rock) is
taken as datum. It will then be seen that line CD is an equipotential line since all the points
on this line have datum head of H' + water head of H' . Similarly, line EF becomes an
equipotentialline since total head for any point on this line is (H' + Hz). There are two
flowlines that can be identified in this case and these are lines DE and AB respectively.
Line DE connects two points D and E having different potentials and therefore water flows
along this line. It may be noted here that flow line DE is not perpendicular to equipotential
lines CD and EF. This anomaly may be attributed to the geometry of the particular case.
On the line AB, the points A and B may be considered to be located at infinity with respect
to dam and the total head at these points will be (HI + H' ) and (Hz+ H') respectively.
nerefore water will flow from A to B along the shortest path, that is, along the line AB,
which becomes a flow line. It may again be noted here that flow line AB is parallel to the
equipotentiallines CD and EF and this is exactly opposite to Ule concepts of seepage. This
anomaly may also be attributed to the geometry of the case as explained earlier.
Another characteristic of this case that is to be noted here is that the totaI head drop, H ,
cannot be divided into equal number of drops as was done in the previous case. However,
constant head drop can be automatically maintained for the equipotential lines, if square
figures are drawn, and in this case flow net is drawn by forming approximately square
figures consistent with the geometric and boundary conditions of the case. As explained
earlier in this section, fewer flow paths or channels are chosen for drawing the flow net
and for this case four flow paths are chosen as shown in Figure 4.7. The flow lines (such as
line 1,2)are drawn starting from equipotential line CD orthogonally and meet the
equipotential line EF on dowi~streamside orthogonally. While drawing other equipotential
lines, care is taken to see that they cut the flow lines orthogonally and the figures of the
flow net formed are approximately squares, keeping in mind, the geometry of the seepage
domain. The flow net thus drawn has 4 flow paths (Nf=4) and 8 potential drops (Nd= 8) .
The number of potential drops is obtained by counting the number of bounded areas in any
flow channel.
The quantity of flow, Q , per unit length of the dam is given as

where k represents permeability of the soil.

The l~ydraulicgradient at any point such as X as shown in Figure 4.7 can be obtained by
measuring the dimension 1 of the bounded figure and dividing the potential drop (Ah) by
I. Similarly, the pore water pressure head at X can be determined by deducting its datum
head, h,, from its total head or potential which can be obtained from the potential of the
equipotential line on which point X is situated.
4.8.3 Flow Net for the Case of Seepage Below an Impermeable Wall
In Figure 4.8 a section through a long impermeable wdl driven into the bed of a river is
shown. The soil profile in the river bed consists of sand overlying impermeable rock. On
the right side of wall, water level is lowered by steady state pumping. Thus, water flows
from left side of the w'all to its right side and the boundary conditions for this particular
case are as follows :
i) AB is an equipotential line.
ii) EF is an equipotential line.
iii) BCDE (sides of the embedded portion of the wall) is a flow line.
iv) GH is a flow line.
While drawing flow net for this case, frrst flow lhles are drawn in the manner explained in
the previous case and equipotential lines are drawn such that the figures that ate formed
are approximately squares, consistent with the geometric conditions. This is obviously a
trial and error procedure. The number of flow paths su~dthe number of potential drops as
seen from the Figure are 4 and 8 respectively. Considering line GH as datum, the total
head at any point on the equipotential line AB is 9 m and on equipo6htial line EF, it is 6.5
m, as can be seen fram the figure. Therefore, the quantity of seepage per metre length of
the wall will be given as
 G Impermeable rock H

(
Total head 9.0m Total head 6.5m

Figure 4.8 : Flow Net for tile Case of Seepage below in Impermeable Wall

Pore water pressure at any point in the flow net can also be estimated as explained earlier.
For example for point P located 1 m above the datum line GK , the total head as seen from
the flow net can be computed as follows.
There are 8 potential or total head drops. Therefore, per drop, the magnitude of total bead
drop is (9.5 - 6.5 I 8) = 0.3125 m. Since point P is situated on the 4th equipotential Ilne'as
measured from equipotential line AB, the total head at P will be given as
9 - 4 x0.3125 = 9 - 1.25 = 7.75 m
The total head at P is sum of water pressure head and datum head. therefor^, deducting I
from the total head of P its datum head; water pressure head can be obtained

61
7.75 = - (water pressure head ) + ZA (datum head)

,y = unit weight of water = 9.81 kN / m3

1 i.e., the pore water pressure at A = 66.2175 kNI m2

4.8.4' Flow Net for tlle Case of Seepage through an Earthdam on Flow o f Watcr
hpermeabie Foundation Through Soil

The last example that is considered here is flow net for a homogeneous earth dam on
impermeable(rock ) foundation as shown in Figure 4.9 (a). The region of seepage is
A B C D and there are different boundaries to this region which need proper identification.

Imperrnoable r o c k Impermeable rock

(a) Bou~~dtuy
Conditio~~s (b) Flow Net
Figure 4.9 : Seeyngc tllrougll Hor~~ogcucous
Earthdam

i) ~ i n AE
e : The rock is impcrineable and Ulerefore there is no velocity component of
seepage normal to AE. This makcs AE, a flow line.
ii) Line All : Choosing line AE as datuin for expressiiig the total head at my point in the
domain of seepage, Ule total head (h,) at any point such as X on AB is given as:

and, tllus, AB becoincs an equipotential line with total head any point equal to hI ,
which is the levcl of the water stored on the upstream side of Ule dam. SimniluIy, it can
be established that DE is an equipotential line with lotal head at any point on it equal
to hz. The Qop in total hcad is therefore equal to ( hl - h2).
iii) Line CD : Along this line, as secn froill P in the figure, the water pre&ure is zero and
the total hcad at m y point, such as Y , is due to datum head only and it will be a
linear fuiiction of height Z of the point wit11respcct to the datum. Obviously, line CD
is not a tlow line since tlie total head or potentid is not constant along this line. It is
also not a flow linc and tliis can he proved as give11below.
Since thc total head, h, is a linear funclion of z along line CD ,
h = CZ ...(4.42)
where C is a constant of proportioiiality. From Equation 4.8 , the velocity, 6, is given
as

For line CD, h = CZ , and Ulerel'ore

Now the streilln function w is such that

aw (from Equation 4.9)
f'z =

Substituting the value of 29,= C1in tlie above equation, the following relationship is
ohtrdncd.
-.

Soil Water Systeni Therefore,

Thus, it js seen that along the line CD the stream function varies linearly with v. From
this consideration it is easily seen that CD is not a flow line since the stream function
is not constant along this line and in this context, this line is called surface of seepage.
iv) Line BC: This line is fixed by two conditions of seepage :
a) there is no component of flow normal to BC and it must therefore be
considered as a flow line. It starts from point at the upstream side such that it
is normal to the equipotential line AB. Total head along this line is
conhuously lost as this line moves towards' the downstream face so as to a

meet it at point C tangentially,

b) the pore water pressure along BC is zero and at a point such as 2 , the total
head is given as h, = Z2. This flow line is known as a phreatic surface.
The boundaries AE, AB, DE and CD are fixed by the geometry of the embankment. As
regards boundary BC of the domain of seepage, analytical and numerical methods are
available to determine its location. However, using the principles of constructing flow nets
its location can also be fixed with reasonable accuracy. This is a trial and error procedure
in which starting is made from the upstream equipotential line AB and restricting to the
figures which are approximately squares. The final flow net thus obtained is shown in
Figure 4,9 (b) along with the orientation of the phreatic surface or top flow line BC.
SAQ 2
i) What is a flow net ?
ii) What is the significance of all the figures being square in a flow net ?
iii) What parameters of seepage are obtained from a flow net ?
iv) How do you calculate the above parameters of seepage ?

4.9 PRESSURE UNDER HYDRAULIC STRUCTURE

Using flow nets, the uplift pressure at the base of a hydraulic structure such as weir or
concrete or masonry dam can be calculated. As an example, shown in Figure 4.10 (a) is a
weir whose base is 2 m below the ground surface. The flow net is also shown in the figure.
The'distribution of water pressure at the base of the weir can be obtained by observing the
equipotential lines as follows.
1

A
Impermeable ( rock 1
layer

(3Blow Net (b) Uplift Pressure Mstribotiw

Ffgure 4.10 t Seepage bdow a Hydraab'e Structnre

As seen from the flow net there are seven equipotential drops (Nd)and the difference in the
water levels of upstream and downstream sides is h'= 7 metres. Therefore, the loss of total
1% #

.+
head corresponding to each potential drop is h' / 7 = 717 = 1 m. The pressure of water Flow of Water
Through Soil
which is uplift pressure at points a, b and f is calculated as given below :
Point a
Total head = Total head on equipotential line CD -number of potential drops x
magnitude of potential drop
= 17-lx1=16rn
Water pressure head = Total head - datum head

:. Water pressure = 8 x yw kN/rn2 (y,= unit weight of water)

Point b
Total head =17-2x1=15m
Water pressure head= 15 - 8 = 7 m
:. Water pressure ' = 7 x y, kN/m2
Similarly for Point f,
Water pressure = 3 y, k ~ / r n '
These uplift pressures are shown plotted in Figure 4.10 (b) and the uplift force per unit
length along the length of the weir is equal to the area of the pressure diagram. Uplift
pressure calculations are useful in the safe design of hydraulic structures.

4.10 STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH SEEPAGE

In the preceding unit principle of effective stress in saturated soil under no seepage
conditions has been discussed. When seepage takes place through soil, the effective stress
at m y point will undergo a ch'mge. It will decrease or increase depending upon the
direction of seepage.
In this section of the unit, the effect of seepage on effective stresses in soil is discussed ahd
the discussion is limited to cohesionless or granular soils.
4.10.1 Upward Seepage
In Figure 4.11, a mass of granular soil ip a tank is subjected to upward seepage by
allowing the water to flow through the valve. The rate of water flow or seepage is
maintained constant'and this is indicated by a constant head difference of h' between
points A and B as seen from Figure 4.11. This represents a steady state condition and

EPpre 4.11: UpwardSeepage U~romghCmulnr Sdl Masa

(a) Pressure Hwds at Vatioua Points; Variation wlth Depth of
(b) Total Stress (c) Pore Preasurc
(d) Mective Stress hcludi~gthe Caee of Seepage
seepage in upward direction takes place between points B and A with a total head drop of
h'. 7his is a case of one dimensional seepage in which hydraulic gradient (i) remains
 ~ ) 1 1 ~ ( ; ~ , 1 ( it is ill 10 h. / H2, Keeping in mind Ulat UIC totill stress al iuly poalt in Ule
soil ~ll;lssis rely due to ti~cwcight of Ulc soil and water above it, the effective stress
~ i ~ l ~ ~ liiti ~points l i o ~A land B can be made as follows :
Point A
Tol;ll s ~ e s s , OA = HI Y o

Porc water pressure, p , ~= HI y,

Efl'eclive pressure, 0
; = OA -~ W =
A 0

Point B
Toliil stress, OB = HI YW + H2 Ysat
oSat
= saturated unit weight of soil
Pore water pressure, ( p w) ~= ( H I + H2 + h') YW
Effective skess, o 'B = UB - PWB
= Hz(Ysat - YW) -~'YW
= H 2 f -h'yw
y' = effective unit weight of soil = Ys,t - YW
cffeclivestress calculation at any point such as C, located at d e ~ t f l zbelow the
~inli];lrJy,
soil surfr~cecall be ri~adeas given below:
Point C
Total stresr, ac = HI YW + z Y s , ~

Pore water pressure, @w)c=[~l

Since the dmp in total head, Iz', occurs linearly from B to C (because of constmt
h'
hydraulic gradient), head of water due to seepage at C will he - z as shown in the
H2
I'igure.
Effective stress, aIC= 0, - Pwc
h'
- -
= z (Ysat - Yw 2 Yw
H2
= zy'- h'
- z Yw
H2
h ' , the above equation can be written as
Since i = hydraulic gradient = -
H2
o ' c = z y ' - i z yW ...(4.44)
The variations of total stress, pore water pressure and effective stress with depth are shown
in Figure 4.11 (b), (c) and (dl respectively. The variation of effective stress for the
condilion of no seepage is also shown in Figure 4.11 (d) and from this figure it is seen Lhai
Ule effective stress at a point located at depth z measured from the surface of soil deposit is
reduced by nn amount i z y, because of water seeping in upward direction. If the value of
hydraulic gradient reaches a value such that the effective stress at m y point such as C
becomes zero, then Equation 4.44can be written as

o'c = Z Y ' - i, z yw = 0 ...(4.45)

where i, corresponds to the condition of zero effective.stress at the point under
consideration and is referred to as the critical hydraulic gradient,
When the dmve referred condition prevails, the soil will loose all its stability a d (his is
referred to as boiling or quick condition. From Equation 4.45 :
 Flow of Water
TIIFOII~II
Soil

For mos@hesionless soils, the value of i,,. varies from 0.9 lo 1.1 with an average of 1.0.
4.10.2 Downward Seepage
In Figure 4.12 (a), the condition of downward seepage is shown. Seepage is taking place
through the soil in downward direction and thc inflow of water in the tank containing the
granular soil mass is adjusted such that the head loss h' that occurs due to seepage from A
to B is maintained constant. This situation therefore corresponds to one-dimensional
h'
steady state seepage with constant hydraulic gradient (i) equal to -. Considering x i y
H2
point at depth z below the soil surface, the total stress, pore water pressue and effective
stress can be expressed as
\a
Total stress, 0 'C = H 1 YW + Z Ysat
Pore pressure, PWC = (HI + z - iz) ,Y.,
Effective pressure, orc= ( H I y, + z ySat) - ( H I+ z - i z ) ,y
= zy' + izy,
The variations of total stress, pore water pressure and effective stress wit11depth are shown
in Figure4.12 (b), (c) and (d) respectively. In Figure 4.12 (d), h e variation of effective
stress for the condition of no seepage is also shown and the comparison shows that under
Ule conditions of downward sccpage there is an increasc in effective stress in the soil.

Total stress ,U Pore walerpressuep Effective stress U'

o
h
- a P \ ~ " o ~

Figure 4.12 : I)owl~wurdSccpnge Througlk Granular Soil Moss

( 0 ) I'regsurc Hcndv nt V ~ ~ r i oPoints;
~ i s Vnriotiol~with Dcplh of
(b) Total I'ressurc (c) Pore Prcssc~rc
(d) EFf~y1tivcStress Including the Cwc of No Seeyngc

4.10.3 Seepage Force

The effect of upward and downward seepagc is to clecrcase and increase the effective
stress in the soil and in Ulis contcxt it is col~vcrlielllto introduce t l ~ edefinition of seepage
force per unit volumc of soil.
Stdl Water System In scctior~4.7 of this unit, the effective stress at a point in the soil mass under Lhe condition
of no seepage was expressed as iyl. For an area A, the conespondix~geffective force (PI)
will be given as
PI1 = ZY'A

The direction of the above rorce is shown in Figure 4.13 (a).

For Lhu case of upward seepage. the effective force ( P '2) (using muation 4.44) on Lhe uea
11 vcn as
A is k'
PI2 = ( z y l - izy,) A

Therefore, the decrease of effective force due to upward seepage is

P'l - Pt2 = i z L A
The volumc of the soil involved in the above calculation is z A. Hence, the scepagc force
pcr unit volumc of soil is .
PI1 - PI2 - i z h A
= i y,
volume of soil zA
Tllc sccpagc fi)rcc per unit volume, i y,, for the case of upward secpage acts in the upward
direction, which is Lhc direction of seepage. This is shown in Figurc 4.13 (b). Similarly, it
can be cstablishcd that for the case of downward seepage, seepage force per uriiL volunE is
i y,, and it acts in h e direction of seepage, i.e. in h e downward direction (Figurc 4.13 (c)).
Tllus, it can he concluded that seepage force per unit volurne is always equal to i y,, i l ~ d
acts in Lhc dircction of Lhe seepage. The hydraulic gradicrrl at my point can be obtained
from How nets and thus Lhc scepage force per unit volume can always he estimated.

(PI no see page

( b l upper seepcge
I z L ; A = seepaga
force

wiz&A=
seepapforce

Ngure 4.13: Forces on Ule Vdume Element ol Soil due ta

(a) No Seepage (b) Upward Seepage ( c) Downward Seepage
If the seepage of water under a hydraulic structure is such that it produces high hydraulic
gradienw at exit qr downstream end of the structure, it may result in loss of slrength af the
soil and erosion. Stability of the structure is affected md this possibility is accounted for in
the safe design of the hydraulic structures.
Example 4.1
There is an upward seepage in a granular soil mass (Refer Figure 4.11). Total head
loss of h' = 15 cms occurs when water seeps through H2= 60 cms in soil,
H I= 15 cms. Find the total stress, pore water pressure, effective stress. critical .
hydraulic gradient, seepage force per unit volume at point C, 20 cm below the soil
surface. Comment on the stability condition. Sahlrated.unit weight of soil is
19 k ~ l m " .
Solution
For this one-dimensional flow the hydraulic gradient, i, is given as
(sub-section 4.7.1)
 Flow of Water
Through Soil

The total stress, ac , at point C is given as (Figure 4.1 I )

The pore water pressure, p,c, at C is given as (Figure 4.11)

pwc = pressure due to static + pressure due to
head of water seepage

The effective stress, oc ,'at C is given as

o'c = oc - Pwc
= 6.2215 -4.537125 = 1.684375 h/ m2
The critical hydraulic gradient, i, at C is given as (Equation 4.46).

i = (y '= effective soil unit weight)

'yw ,

The actual hydraulic gradient, i = 0.25. Since i < i, the soil is in a stable state at point C.
The condition of stability cam be examined by considering tlie seepage force per unit
volume at C and comparing it with the effective force under static conditions.
Under static conditions, the effective force ( P ',) at C over an area A is given as
P; = effective stress x area A
= z Y 'x A (acts in downward direction)
= 0.25 x (19 - 9.81) x A

The force due to upward seepage acts in the direction of seepage and per unit volume it is
given as (Equation 4.47),
Seepage force per unit volume = i yw
= 0.25 x 9.8 = 2.4525 k ~ / r n ~
for an area, A , at point C at the depth of 0.25 m from the soil surface, the seepage force is
given as
Seepage force at C = 0.25 x A x 2.4525

Since P as calculated above is more t h h seepage force at C, the soil condition at C

is slable.
1

SAQ 3
i) What is the significance of uplift prcssurc under a hydraulic structure ?
 ii) What is quicksand condition ?
iii) What is a seepage force ? In what direction does it act ?
iv) What is the effect of high hydraulic gradients on the downstream side of a
hydraulic structure ?

4 . SUMMARY
In this unit, the Laplace's equation of continuity for two-dimensional steady state seepage
conditions through soil medium is discussed. Certain assumptions such as
i~lcornpressibilityand homogeneity of soil are made in the derivation of Laplace's
equation, which may not be strictly valid. The Laplace's equation is extended to develop
IIle concept of flow nets - which is a network of equipotential and tlow lines. Flow nets
are useful for estimating the quantity of seepage, pore water pressures and hydraulic
gradients in the domain of seepage. Further, in this unit, stress conlputations in soil
medium with upward and downward seepage are discussed. The computation of critical
hydraulic gradient and its significance wit11 respect to the stability of grallular soil are
discussed. Tl~ecot~ceptof seepage force is introduced in this Unit and its significance wilh
respect to the safe design of hydraulic structures is also indicated.

4.12 KEY WORDS

T
'
Seepage : The movement of water througlbsoil is called seepage. In soil
mechanics,, study of seepage refers to computation of quantity
and the gradient of flow. In simple instances the tlow may be
taken as one-dimensional,, velocity as same at all points and Ule
cross-section of flow as constant. But in many practical instances
seepage is a two-dimensional or three-dimensional phenomenon
in wh~chboth the velocity and cross-sectio~~ of flow vary wilhin
the domain of flow.
Laplace's : This is a second order differential equation describing the two-
Equation dimensional flow tluough a soil medium under steady state as a
fuilction of position and is expressed as :
-fi2h + - f=i O2 h
ax2 6 z 2
wherc,
h - total head causing flow, and
x, z - coordinates defining the flow domain.

This is based on the principles of continuity of flow and the

assumptions that the soil medium is homogeneous, isotropic,
saturated and that the solid particles and water ate incompressible.
Steady State : The conditioil where flow through a domain is stabilised and the
inflow is equal to the oulflow is known as steady state.
Potential Function : Potential function is a function of coordinates,, whose derivatives
at a point give the velocities at that point. It is expressed as $ wd is
given by :
$ = kh
It satisfies Laplace's equation. The velocities are given by:

Stream Function : Similar to potential function there exists another function

or511ogonal to it which also satistles Laplace's equation. This is
known as stream function or flow function. The velocities are
130
 given in terms of this function as : Flow of Water
Through Soil

~ ~ ~ i ~ o t e n t i a:l When the potential function is constant the corresponding

Lines Laplace's equation represents a family of lines joining points of
same potential. These are known as equipotential lines. In a
homogeneous, isotropic medium these are nothing but lines of
constant total head.
Stream Line : When the stream function is constant the corresponding
Laplace's equation represents a fanuly of lines joining poinls of
s a n e tlow. These are known as stream lines or flow lines. In a
homogeneous,, isotropic inediu~nthese are orthogonal to the
equipotential lines.
Total Head : As explained in unit 2, Ule total energy in the flowing watei
expressed in terms of equivalent head is known as total head. It
consists of three colnponents : the datum head, the pressure head
iund Ulc velocity head as explained earlier.
Flow Channel : 'fix zone bou~ldcdby two flow lines is known as a flow channel.
Flow'~et : The seepage domain in a homogeneous,, isotropic medium cnn
be dividctl by IllcilIiS of a network of nlutually orthogonal
cquipolcntinl iuld flow lines. This is known as a tlow net. It is a
graphical rcpresenlatio~lof variation of head and direction of
llow at cvcry point in the domain. It is usually driiwn by trial and
en-or.
Seepage Qilantjty : Tliis is the totiil llow that occurs across a domain. This can be
coa~pulctlSro~nii flow net.
Uplift : '1.11~prcssurc of wilter acting upwards at the base of a hydraulic
Permeability structure when sccpagc occurs under it is hiown as uplift
pressure. This mily be calculated from a flow net.
Critical Hydrirolic : When tlow occurs upwards ill a soil mass h e effective stress is
Gradient rctiuccd. If Ulc effective stress in the soil rndss becomes zero ,md
U I soil
~ loses its stability, it is known as quick or boiling
condition. The gradient at which the effective stress becomes
zero is known as criliciil hydriiulic gradient. It is equal lo 'f - y,,
where 'f is effective unit weight as already explained in Unit 1.
Seepage Icorce : Sccpilgc force is tllc force exerted by seeping water on the soil
niass n11rl it acts in Ule direction of seepage. It acts over the
volume of Ulc soil and is expressed in terms of force per unil
volu~nc;is i y,,,.

4.13 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
i) By s1e:tdy state flow it is nlcanl Ulnt in ;my element of seepage domain the
amount of inilow of water is equal to amount that outflows, in a given period
of linc. The lict storage is zero.

ii) 'The velocity licatl - is not considered in the computation of total head at a
I P : : [
point in the seepage domain, it is no1 considered because velocity of seepage
is very smiill in magniludc.
iii) An cyuipotcnliill lint is one which co~mectsthe points having same potential.
A stream line is one which connects the points having same value of stream
. fwlclion. Thcsc lines Ineel at right angles,
Soil Water System iv) A flow channel is the region between the two Stream lines and water flows
througli this channel.
SAQ 2
i) A flow net is a network of equipotential lines and stream lines which meet
orthogonally and are drawn compatible with the geometry and boundary
conditions of seepage domain.
ii) If all the figures in a flow net are square, the quantity of seepage c m be easily
computed as kH.- Nf
Nd
iii) The parameters of seepage that are obtained from a flow net are: quantity of
seepage, pore water pressure and hydraulic gradient.
iv) a)Quantity of seepage (Q) is calculated after knowing the number of flow
.
channels (Nf) number of potential drops (Nd) from the flow net. Ttle
following equation is used.

where k = permeability, H = head difference causing flow, .

Nf= No, of flow nets, and Nd= No. of potential drops.
b) Pore pressure (y,) is calculated by deducting the datum head from the total
head and multiplying the result by unit weight of water.
c) Hydraulic gradientat a point is calculated by esfimating the potential at that
point. This potential is deducted from the potential of the equipotential line in
the figure (on which the point is situated) having higher potential and dividing
the result by the average distance measured parallel to the flow lines in Ule
figure, between Uie point and the above referred equipotential line.
SAQ 3
i) Uplift pressure under a hydraulic structure affects its stability, in both
horizontal and vertical directions.
ii) Quicksand condition develops in a granular soil mass when the upward
hydraulic gradient is such that a condition of zero effective stress is c~eated.
The soil loses all its strength.
iii) The seepage force at a point in the domain of seepage is related to the
hydraulic gradient (i) at that point and its magnitude per unit volume is i yw
where y, is Lhe unit weight of water. It acts in the direction of seepage. I

iv) High hydraulic gradients in the upward direction of a hydraulic structure can
cause instability and erosion in the soil.
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Mc-Graw Hill Book Company, New York, 1978. -
Craig, R. F., Soil Mechanics (5th Edition), Chapman & Hall, London, 1992.
Das, 6. M., Introduction fa Sail Mechanics, Galgotia Publications, New Delhi, 1989.
HMSO,Soil Mechanics for Road Engineers by Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, Chapter 9, 1974.
Murlhy, V. N.S., Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol I (Soil Mechanics),
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Peck, R. B., Hanson, B. and Thornburn, W. E., FoundationEngineering, 2nd Wition, John
Wiley & Sons., 1972.
Peurifoy, R. L., Construction Planning, Equipment and Methods, 2nd Edition, Mc-Graw
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Ranjan, G. and A. S. R. Rao, Basic andApplied Soil Mechanics, Wiley Eastern Limited,
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Sowers, G. B ruld G. F. Sowers, Introductory Soil Mechanics and Roundations, The
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