UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE COLOMBIA

BOGOTÁ

SOIL MECHANICS

FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA – BIDIMENTIONAL CONDITION

JULIO ESTEBAN COLMENARES MONTAÑEZ , PhD

TITULAR PROFFESOR

BOGOTÁ D.C
2017 - I
 REVIEW

• Hydraulic gradient “i” is the total energy loss “h” per unit length “l” l :
i=Δh/l

• Flow through soil also can be considered as laminar flow due to its
small speed, in that order v=k*i in which is a expression of Darcy’s
law.

• Hydraulic conductivity or permeability coefficient k describes the ease

of a fluid to move in a porous media and is obtained in laboratory
test. [L/T]
 CONTENT

1. MATHEMATICAL FOLLOWING OF GENERAL FLOW EQUATION

2. LAPLACE’S EQUATION

3. FLOW NET

4. FLOW IN ANISOTROPIC AND NON-HOMOGENEOUS SOILS

5. FLOW IN EARTH-DAM

6. SOLUTION BY FINITE DIFFERENCES

 1. GENERAL FLOW EQUATION
The flow general equation is gotten by mixing the mass balance equation, the Darcy’s equation and
the volumetric relations of soil. The mass balance equation means:
𝜕𝑉
=𝑂−𝐼
𝜕𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑇𝑎𝑠𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑎 𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎 𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑎
𝑂 = 𝑇𝑎𝑠𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑎 𝑑𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑎
𝜕𝑉
= 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑐𝑖ó𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜
𝜕𝑡

The flow in and out of the control volume in any

direction, this is respectively:

𝐼 = 𝑞𝑖 (2) 𝑂 = 𝑞𝑖 + 𝑑𝑞𝑖 (3)

1. GENERAL FLOW EQUATION
Darcy’s Law establishes that the flow which pass across the soil
depending on hydraulic gradient and hydraulic conductivity
∆ℎ 𝜕ℎ
𝑞𝑖 = 𝐾 𝐴 =𝐾 (4)
A (4)
𝐿 𝜕𝑋𝑖
Evaluating this definition in the equations (2) and (3), is obtained:

𝜕ℎ
𝐼 = 𝑞𝑖 = 𝐾𝐴𝑖
𝜕𝑋𝑖

𝜕ℎ 𝜕 𝜕ℎ
𝑂 = 𝑞𝑖 + 𝑑𝑞𝑖 = 𝐾𝐴𝑜 + 𝐾𝐴𝑜 𝑑𝑋𝑖
𝜕𝑋𝑖 𝜕𝑋𝑖 𝜕𝑋𝑖

𝜕ℎ 𝜕2 ℎ dx
𝐾 + 𝑑𝑧 𝐴𝑜
𝜕𝑧x 𝜕𝑧X22
 1. GENERAL FLOW EQUATION
Analyzing the problem in an element as the shown, and in the direction Z:

𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴𝑜 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

𝜕ℎ
𝐼𝑧 = 𝐾𝑧(𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦) (5)
𝜕𝑧

𝜕ℎ 𝜕2 ℎ
𝑂𝑧 = 𝐾𝑧(𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦) + 𝑑𝑧 (6)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2

Evaluating the equations (5) and (6) in the equation (1)

𝜕ℎ 𝜕2 ℎ 𝜕ℎ 𝜕𝑉
𝐾𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 − 𝐾𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 =
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
 1. GENERAL FLOW EQUATION
From phase relationship, the volume of fluid in soil is given by:

𝑉𝑣
𝑛= 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑛𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑛𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑉𝑇

The saturation degree related the void. volume and the void
volume which is occupied by the fluid.

𝑉𝑤
𝑆= 𝑉𝑤 = 𝑆𝑉𝑣 = 𝑆(𝑛𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 ) (7)
𝑉𝑣
Evaluating the equation (7) in the equation (6)

𝜕2ℎ 𝜕
𝐾𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = (𝑆 𝑛𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 )
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡
 1. GENERAL FLOW EQUATION
The general equation to flow in three dimensions is:

𝜕2ℎ 𝜕2ℎ 𝜕2ℎ 𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑛

𝐾𝑥 2 + 𝐾𝑦 2 + 𝐾𝑧 2 =𝑛 +𝑆 (9)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Exist four possible cases of flow

CASE 1: S y n are constants: Permanent Flow (Laplace’ Education)

CASE 2: S varies y n constant: In and out of water with a constant volume

CASES 3: n varies y S constant: deformation process

CAS2 4: n y S varies: General case.

 2. LAPLACE’S EQUATION
Dimensional flow conditions are shown in this chapter, so the general flow equation is reduced to:

𝜕2ℎ 𝜕2ℎ 𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑛
𝐾𝑥 + 𝐾𝑧 =𝑛 +𝑆 (10)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Supposing that the problem does not have loads which varies the void volume and also, that
the soil is always saturated, the last expression is modified:

𝜕2ℎ 𝜕2ℎ
𝐾𝑥 2 + 𝐾𝑧 2 = 0 (11)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
 2. LAPLACE’S EQUATION
Supposing that the soil is an isotropic material, it mean, its hydraulic conductivity in direction X is the
same that in direction Z:

𝜕2ℎ 𝜕2ℎ
2
+ 2
= 0 (12)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

That expression is known as Laplace’s Equation and is very important for engineering due to with it the
problems related with flow are modeling, but also is modeling:

I. Heat transfer in a solid medium

II. Fields and electrostatic potentials
III. Determination of the gravitational field for Geophysical measurements
IV. Applications in Astronomy
 2.1 EQUIPOTENTIAL’S EQUATION Φ
The solution of this equation allow to draw contour line of Φ constant in the plane XZ. Those lines are
denominated Equipotential Lines (line in which the potential load is the same in all its points).
Consider a funtion Such that:
Piezometers Sheet pile

Derive 2) with respect to x and 3) with z:

Substituting 4) and 5) in 1):

Equipotencial
line

Satisfis equiation to Laplace.

 2.2 CURRENT EQUATION Ψ
The solution of this equation allow to draw in the plane XZ, the lines de constant Ψ, in which are
denominated Current Lines and they indicate the flow direction.
Consider a funtion Such that:
Sheet pile

Derive 9) with respect to x and 10) with z:

Flow
line

Add 11) and 12) in 1):

3. NET FLOW
The solution of problem about permanent dimensional flow in
isotropic soils is a net which is known as net flow.

It is formed by a family of equipotential lines and other family of

current lines. Both of them are cut at right angles. The Net must
have the following features:

I. The equipotential lines must be drawn such that the

difference of total hydraulic head between two consecutive
lines is constant (∆Φ=cte)

II. The flow lines must be drawn such that the caudal in
consecutive flow channels is constant. ∆Ψ=cte.

Taken from
http://www.ingenierocivilinfo.com/201
0/09/construccion-de-la-red-de-
flujo.html
 3. NET FLOW
The real solution of flow depend on the boundary conditions. For the Net Flow shown in the left
figure, the boundary conditions which can be applied are:

The upstream and downstream surfaces of permeable layer (line a-b y line d-e) are equipotential
lines.

The border of impermeable layer (line f-g), and the surface of the piling (line a-c-d) are flow lines.
 3. NET FLOW
The equipotential lines (Leq) divide the area when there is flow in potential losses (Nd) and the
current lines (Lf) divide that area in flow channels or current channels (Nf).

Taken from Budhu, M. (2007)

 3. 1. INTERPRETATION OF NET FLOW
The total energy losses between each equipotential
line is: (Δh)
L=B H
h 
Nd
NO CUMPLE The caudal (per unit of lenght) (Δq) across each flow
CON LAPLACE channel (Nf) and supposing that b = l:

h b H H
q  A  k  i  (b 1)k k k
l l Nd Nd

Multiplicand the caudal of each flow channel (Δq) and the amount of existing channels (Nf ), the total
caudal is obtained (q)
Nf
q  k  H 
Nd
 3.1. INTERPRETATION OF NET FLOW
The interstitial pressure (u) in any point j is calculated of this way:

hT  j  H1  N d  j  h
1) Potential head (hz) en j:
hz  j  z j
2) Pressure head (hp)en j:

h   h   h 
j

p j T j z j

3) Interstitial pressure (u)en j:

u j   w  hp j (Nd)j : Number of equipotential losses until point j

 3.1. INTERPRETATION OF NET FLOW
The pressure of water due to water flow can affect the stability of structures as dam and piling.

Determined the pressures at certain point on the

structure, the thrust can be calculated as:

𝐿
𝑃= 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
P= 𝑢 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

Due to that a function which describe the pressure
distribution is not known, is possible use the trapezoidal
rule or Simpson’s rules.

1
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒
3
 3.1. INTERPRETATION OF NET FLOW
The hydraulic gradient between equipotential lines:
h
ij 
lj
Maximum Hydraulic Gradient: Due to that l is no constant between each equipotential line, the hydraulic
gradient is not constant in the net flow. The maximum hydraulic gradient happen when l is minimum.

h
imax 
lmin
Critic Hydraulic Gradient: Hydraulic Gradient required to static liquation happen.

 'z   b  z  i  w  z  0
Effective Stress in
upstream  b Gs  1
i  ic  
 w 1 e
 3.2. PRINCIPAL CONCEPTS ABOUT NET FLOW
The following basic concepts are very important to solve problems of bidimentional flow.

• The flow lines or stream lines represent the trajectory of the particle.

• The flow which go across between two flow lines is constant.

• There is not transfer of flow between two flow channels, this means, the flow only can
happen if it is parallel to flow lines

• The flow speed is perpendicular to equipotential lines.

• The difference of energy between two equipotential lines is the energy losses, this value is
constant for all equipotential lines.
3.2 NET FLOW PROBLEMS

FLOW PROBLEMS
FLOW UNDER
IMPERMEABLE
STRUCTURES:
Piling, walls, concrete
dam, etc.

From net flow, must be

determined: a) The
caudal of filtration (q), b)
Interstitial pressure (u) FLOW ACROSS
effective stress and c) STRUCTURES:
Hydraulic gradient (imax). Earth - dam
 4.1 FLOW IN ANISOTROPIC SOILS
The bidimentional flow equation in anisotropic area :

 2h  2h
kx 2  kz 2  0
x z
It can be simplified to finding a equivalent hydraulic
conductivity for one of the demotions.:
 2h  2h  2h  2h
 2 0  2 0
 k z x 2 z X T
2
z
 k 
 x

Nf
XT 
kz
x 𝐾𝑒𝑞𝑣 = 𝐾𝑧 𝐾𝑥 q  keq  H 
kx Nd
In that order, if the dimension X is transformed, is possible to do the net flow of any anisotropic ground with
applying the transformed flow equation and using the equivalent permeability.
 4.2 FLOW IN NON-HOMOGENEOUS SOILS

In normal flow, the energy losses depend mainly of soil less permeable

In parallel flow, the energy losses is controlled by soil more permeable.

QsueloA  QsueloB QsueloA  QsueloB

4.3 FLOW IN NON-HOMOGENEOUS SOILS
By continuity:

By geometry:

Replacing:

In non-homogeneous soils:

The flow direction changes in the edges of two soils

with different permeability
 5. FLOW TROUGH AN EARTH DAM
Those are structures made of coarse and fine materials for the storage and control of the water.
Belongs to the category of the unconfined flow and has a top frontier called water table or top
flowing line.

The different methods for determine the flow net in these structures are based on finding the
water table that would describe the flow behavior in the best way through the earth dam.
5. FLOW TROUGH AN EARTH DAM
Liquefaction:
Internal erosion generated due to the
loose of the soil resistance. If this erosion
is not detected, it could spread downwards
creating big cavities and the possible
collapse of the structure.
Figura 1 If the i value at the exit of the dam is
approximately the critic gradient ic, it will
produce a failure mechanism.

Boiling:
The soil behaves like a viscous fluid due to
the loose in the resistance. In the fig 2, it is
presented a model of ascendant flow. For
h=18.5 cm, the infiltration force is equal to
the force due to the dived weight making the
soil start to boil. (It is common in
excavations, walls, etc)
 5. FLOW TROUGH AN EARTH DAM

Historically the solutions of the problem of the

Flow trough an earth dam are:

1. Dupuit’s solution (1825)

2. Schaffernak y Van Iterson’s solution (1916)

3. Kozeny’s solution(1931)

4. Casagrande’s solution (1940)

 5.1 CLASS WORKSHOP
For the next excavation:

a) Draw the flow net.

b) Calculate the head loses between

equipotential lines.

c) Determine the water flow towards the

bottom of the excavation.

d) Determine the maximum gradient.

yd= 15.1 KN/m3
e) Determine the water pressure over the e= 0.59 Gs= 2.7
barriers.
K=1E-4 cm/s
 5.1 FLOW NET EXERCISES
Taken of Soils Mechanics and Foundations, M. Budhu (2007)
 5.1 FLOW NET EXERCISES
Because the relation L=B is not accomplished,
it is necessary to use the water flow expression
in the general form.
There are 5 flow lines and 10 potential head
10 loses.
9
Approximately, the relation between B/L in the
8 surroundings channels to bottom of the
7
excavation (red circles) is 0.73.
1
6
2 𝐵 𝑁𝑓
NO SE CUMPLE L=B 𝑞=𝐾 ∆ℎ
5 4 3 𝐿 𝑁𝑞
𝑚 41
𝑞 = 1 ∗ 10−6 0.73 (1𝑚) 6𝑚
𝑠 10
 5.1 FLOW NET EXERCISES
The water flow that pass trough the bottom of
the complete excavation is:

𝑚 4
𝑞 =2∗1 ∗ 10−6 0.73 (1𝑚) 6𝑚
10 𝑠 10
9 𝑚 3
8 𝑞 = 3.5 ∗ 10−6
𝑠
7
1 The potential head loses between
6 equipotential lines:
2
NO SE CUMPLE L=B ∆𝐻 6𝑚
5 4 3 ∆ℎ = = = 0.6𝑚
𝑁𝑞 10
 5.1 FLOW NET EXERCISES
The maximum gradient is presented when the
L value acquires its minimum magnitude inside
the net:

10 This zone is located in the surroundings of the

ending barrier (equipotential lines 4 and 5)
9
based on the drawing scale:
8
7 0.6𝑚
𝑙𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.34𝑚 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 1.76
1 0.34𝑚
6 The critic gradient for this sand is:
2
𝐺𝑠 − 1
5 3 𝑖𝑐𝑟 = = 1.07
4 1+𝑒
 5.1 FLOW NET EXERCISES
Is important to know that the flow in this zone
do not predominate the vertical component.

To determinate correctly the Safety Factor is

10 necessary discomposed in a vertical vector and
horizontal vector.
9
8 In the case of floor of excavation is different
7
(lines E 10 y 9), in this the upstream
1 dominates, for this reason, its safety factor is:
6
2 0.6𝑚
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 0.63
0.95𝑚
5 4 3
𝑖𝑐
𝐹𝑠 = = 1.7 𝑜𝑘
𝑖
 REVIEW
1. There are four cases of flow in a porous media, this chapter only studied the
permanent flow condition, modelated with the Laplace’s equation.

2. The solution of problem abput permanent bidimentional flow in a soil isotropic is

known as net flow. This is formed by a family of equipotential lines and other
family of current lines. Those families intersect at right angles.

3. From net flow, must be determined: a) Caudal (q), b) interstitial pressure (u) and
effective stresses and c) hydraulic gradient (imax).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Craig, R.F. (2004) Soil Mechanics. Seventh Edition. Taylor & Francis

Holtz, R.D. (2011) An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. Second Edition. Pearson

Budhu, M. (2007) Soil Mechanics and Foundation. Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons, INC.

Berry, P.L. (1993) Soil Mechanics. McGraw- Hill.

Lambe, T. W., Whitman, R. V. (1979). Soil Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons.

University of Cantabria, Spain. Virtual course of Soil Mechanics.

Kodaka, T. , Oka, F., and Morimoto, R. (1992). Seepage Failure Analyses Of Sandy Ground
Using A Liquefaction Analysis Method Based On Finite Deformation Theory. Department of
Civil Engineering, Kyoto University