EG-262 – Stress Analysis 1

2. Stress-Strain Relationships

2.1 Introduction
Our subsequent analysis will be limited to the elastic behavior of materials. A material is behaving
elastically if it returns to its original dimensions on removal of the applied external load.

If we want to be able to compare the strengths (and thus the suitability for a given application)
of various materials, we need to carry out some kind of standard test to establish their relative
properties.

A common test is the standard tensile test during which a test specimen is subjected to axial
tension - a gradually increasing tensile load until failure occurs.

The test machine measures the changes in length of the bar with increased loading and plots a
graph of load against extension, or load against strain. A typical stress strain curve for a ductile
material is shown below:

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This graph represents a one-dimensional state of stress (could be 𝜎𝑥𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦𝑦 or 𝜎𝑧𝑧 ). The gradient
of the linear part of the curve represents the Young’s Modulus.

So for small values of 𝜀𝑥 , the relation between the axial stress 𝜎𝑥 and the strain 𝜀𝑥 is accurately
represented by the linear equation:

𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥 (2.1)

Where 𝐸 is a constant known as the Young’s Modulus and represents the stiffness of a material.
Equation (2.1) is the simplest representation of Hooke’s Law or linear elasticity.

If a material is stiff, it will only undergo small deflections when subjected to a large stress. A
material with low stiffness will undergo a large deflection when subjected to a large stress.

We will assume Young’s Modulus to be the same in tension and compression.

Note: a material which has a uniform structure throughout is called a homogeneous material (the
converse if non-homogeneous or inhomogeneous). If a material exhibits uniform properties
throughout in all directions, it is said to be isotropic (the converse is non-isotropic or anisotropic).
An orthotropic material has different properties in different planes, such as wood.

2.3 Poisson’s Ratio

When subjected to a direct stress, there will also be an associated contraction of the cross-
section. This contraction is assumed to be proportional to the axial strain.

Consider a bar subjected to a load along the 𝑥-axis. From Hooke’s Law, we have:
𝜎𝑥𝑥
𝐸=
𝜀𝑥𝑥

The normal stresses on the faces perpendicular to both the 𝑦- and 𝑧-axis are zero:

𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 = 0

However, the corresponding strains, 𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀𝑧𝑧 are NOT zero.

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Under the action of the load, the bar will increase in length by an increment 𝛿𝐿 giving rise to a
longitudinal strain in the bar given by:

𝛿𝐿
𝜀𝑥𝑥 =
𝐿
At the same time, the bar will contract laterally. In 3-dimensions, its breadth and depth will both
reduce. The associated lateral strains will be equal and will be in the opposite sense to the
longitudinal strain. Assuming that the material is kept within its elastic range, the ratio of
longitudinal and lateral strains will remain constant and is termed Poisson’s Ratio:

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝜀𝑧𝑧

𝑣= =− =− = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (2.2)
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑥

Typically, for metals, Poisson’s Ratio lies somewhere between 0.28 and 0.32. A value of 0.3 is
very often used in analysis.

2.4 Direct Stress-Direct Strain Relationships

Therefore, for a one-dimensional state-of–stress:

𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧

𝜀𝑥𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜀𝑦𝑦 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜀𝑧𝑧 = (2.3)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
And:

𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝜀𝑧𝑧 (2.4)

For a 3-dimensional state of stress it can be shown that:

𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝜀𝑥𝑥 = −𝑣 −𝑣
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝜀𝑦𝑦 = −𝑣 −𝑣
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜀𝑧𝑧 = −𝑣 −𝑣 (2.5)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
And:

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 𝐸
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = [(1 − 𝑣)𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝜀𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝜀𝑧𝑧 ]
(1 + 𝑣)(1 − 2𝑣)

𝐸
𝜎𝑦𝑦 = [(1 − 𝑣)𝜀𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝜀𝑧𝑧 ]
(1 + 𝑣)(1 − 2𝑣)

𝐸
𝜎𝑧𝑧 = [(1 − 𝑣)𝜀𝑧𝑧 + 𝑣𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝜀𝑦𝑦 ] (2.6)
(1 + 𝑣)(1 − 2𝑣)

These relations are the generalized Hooke’s Law for multiaxial loading of a homogenous isotropic
material.

2.5 Shear Stress - Shear Strain Relationships

We have derived relations between normal stresses and normal strains in a homogenous
isotropic material. We assumed that no shearing stresses were involved. In the more generalized
case there will be shearing stresses present, 𝜏𝑥𝑦(𝑦𝑥) , 𝜏𝑦𝑧(𝑧𝑦) , 𝜏𝑧𝑥(𝑥𝑧) . These shear stresses have no
direct effect on the normal strains. They tend to deform a cubic element of material into an
oblique parallelepiped.

As for normal stresses and strains, the initial portion of a shear stress-strain diagram would be a
straight line. For values of shear stress within the proportional limit, we can write for a one-
dimensional state-of–stress:

𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐺
This is Hooke’s Law for shear stress and strain of a homogeneous isotropic material.

Where 𝐺 is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus of the material given by:

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 𝐸
𝐺= (2.7)
2(1 + 𝑣)

For a generalised three-dimensional state-of–stress:

𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = , 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = , 𝛾𝑧𝑥 = (2.8)
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺
Thus:

2(1 + 𝑣)𝜏𝑥𝑦 2(1 + 𝑣)𝜏𝑦𝑧 2(1 + 𝑣)𝜏𝑧𝑥

𝛾𝑥𝑦 = , 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = , 𝛾𝑧𝑥 = (2.9)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

2.6 Two-Dimensional State of Stress

We need to make an assumption about the third direction – we have two alternatives:

• Plane Stress Assumption

• Plane Strain Assumption

Plane Stress Assumption:

We assume that there are no stresses in the third direction. This is used for ‘thin’ plates with in-
plane loads. The geometry of the body is such that one dimension is much smaller than the
others. The loads are applied uniformly over the thickness of the plate and act in the plane of the
plate. This simple stress condition represents a large number of real-life situations.

𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0

Therefore:

𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 1

𝜀𝑥𝑥 = −𝑣 −𝑣 → 𝜀𝑥𝑥 = −𝑣 = (𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 1

𝜀𝑦𝑦 = −𝑣 −𝑣 → 𝜀𝑦𝑦 = −𝑣 = (𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝑣𝜎𝑥𝑥 )
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

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 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑣
𝜀𝑧𝑧 = −𝑣 −𝑣 → 𝜀𝑧𝑧 = −𝑣 −𝑣 = (−𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝐸𝜀𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝜎𝑦𝑦 , 𝐸𝜀𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝑣𝜎𝑥𝑥

Solving these simultaneously:)

𝐸
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = (𝜀 + 𝑣𝜀𝑦𝑦 ) (2.10)
(1 − 𝑣 2 ) 𝑥𝑥

And similarly:

𝐸
𝜎𝑦𝑦 = (𝜀 + 𝑣𝜀𝑥𝑥 ) (2.11)
(1 − 𝑣 2 ) 𝑦𝑦

𝐸
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾 (2.12)
2(1 + 𝑣) 𝑥𝑦

Example 1:
A thin plate is subjected to compressive stresses of 400 MPa and 100 MPa along its x- and y-axes,
respectively, as well as a shear stress of 80 MPa. Calculate the in-plane strains associated with
the principal stresses, as well as the maximum in-plane shear strain. You may assume the
modulus of elasticity is 200GPa and the Poisson’s ratio is 0.3.

Plane Strain Assumption

We assume that there are no strains in the third direction. This is used for ‘thick’ plates with in-
plane loads. This state of stress describes a situation in which the dimension of the structure in
one direction (say the z-direction) is very large in comparison with the dimensions of the
structure in the other two dimensions. The applied forces in the x-y plane do not vary in the z-
direction (the loads are uniformly distributed with respect to the larger dimension, and act
perpendicular to it).
𝜀𝑧𝑧 = 𝛾𝑥𝑧 = 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = 0

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 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑥
𝜀𝑥𝑥 = − 𝑣𝜀𝑦𝑦 − 𝑣𝜀𝑧𝑧 → 𝜀𝑥𝑥 = − 𝑣𝜀𝑦𝑦
𝐸 𝐸

𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜀𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑣𝜀𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝜀𝑧𝑧 → 𝜀𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑣𝜀𝑥𝑥
𝐸 𝐸

𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝜀𝑧𝑧 = − 𝑣𝜀𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝜀𝑦𝑦 → 0= − 𝑣𝜀𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝜀𝑦𝑦
𝐸 𝐸
Giving:

𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸(𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝜀𝑦𝑦 ) (2.13𝑎)

𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸(𝜀𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝜀𝑥𝑥 ) (2.13𝑏)

𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝑣(𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦𝑦 ) (2.13𝑐)

𝐸
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾 (2.14)
2(1 + 𝑣) 𝑥𝑦

Example 2:
A strain gauge rosette is attached to a thin flat steel plate. When loaded in-plane, the following
strain values are measured:
𝜀𝐴 = 500 × 10−6
𝜀𝐵 = −400 × 10−6
𝜀𝐶 = −200 × 10−6

Gauge 𝐴 lies along the 𝑥 axis of the structure and Gauge 𝐵 and 𝐶 are at +45° and −45° to Gauge
A, respectively. Determine the values of:

(i) The in-plane strains and stresses

(ii) The in-plane principal strains

For steel, assume 𝐸 = 200𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝑣 = 0.3 and 𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 300𝑀𝑃𝑎.