LECTURE 9 – ANALYSIS IN THE COMPLEX (FREQUENCY) DOMAIN

Working in the complex domain is a way of predicting what will happen in the time domain
solution by looking at the positions of the roots of the characteristic equation. From now on
we will refer to the more common phraseology of studying the 𝑠 plane, that is, 𝑠 root
movement. We will:

• Take a few typical systems (electrical, mechanical etc.)

• Transform by Laplace
• State boundary conditions where necessary
• Monitor and analyse movement of the 𝑠 roots in the 𝑠 plane
• Relate the position of the roots in the 𝑠 plane to solutions back in the time domain
• Introduce the concepts of CONTROL and SENSITIVITY

Recall the diagram in LECTURE 2 (2.1). We are looking at the top right hand box to predict
the bottom right hand box.

EXAMPLE 1 – A simple RC circuit, first order electrical system

The system equation is

𝐾𝜈𝑖 = 𝐶𝑅𝜈̇ 0 + 𝜈0

because 𝑖 = 𝐶𝜈̇ 0

Transform to get

𝐾𝑉𝑖 = 𝐶𝑅𝑠𝑉0 − 𝐶𝑅𝜈0 (0) + 𝑉0

Choose the boundary condition 𝜈0 (0) = 0.

𝑉 𝐾
∴ 𝑉0 = 𝐶𝑅𝑠+1 is the transfer function
𝑖

Look at the denominator 𝐶𝑅𝑠 + 1 and equate to zero to give the characteristic equation
and derive roots of 𝑠 .

1
∴ 𝑠 = − 𝐶𝑅 .

In the 𝑠 plane we get

For this example we will continue to a time domain answer and relate it back to the 𝑠
plane. Let the input to the system be 𝑉𝑖 = 1 , a unit impulse.

𝑡
𝐾 𝐾
∴ 𝑣0 (𝑡) = ℒ −1 [𝐶𝑅𝑠+1] = 𝐶𝑅 ∙ 𝑒 −𝐶𝑅
We discover that the root of 𝑠 is equal to the negative reciprocal value of the TIME
CONSTANT of the exponential decay. The student MUST understand this connection fully
before going on to greater academic achievement. In terms of transient behaviour of the
system, it is only the exponential that is important.

EXAMPLE 2 – A second order, mechanical system

Equating forces on the mass

𝑀𝑥̈ + 𝐶𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹

In Laplace

𝑀𝑠 2 𝑋 − 𝑀𝑠𝑥(0) − 𝑀𝑥̇ (0) + 𝐶𝑠𝑋 − 𝐶𝑥(0) + 𝑘𝑋 = 𝐹

Let 𝑥(0) = 𝑥̇ (0) = 0 (the system is at rest)

𝑋 1
∴ 𝐹 = 𝑀𝑠2 +𝐶𝑠+𝑘 , the transfer function

𝐶 𝐶2 𝑘
From the characteristic equation the roots of 𝑠 = − 2𝑀 ± √4𝑀2 − 𝑀

There are a range of possibilities for the nature of the roots (see Lecture 7 (7.4).

Plotting the possibilities on the 𝑠 plane gives:

Whatever the input to this system, there are three distinct regions of interest: 𝐴, 𝐵 & 𝐶.

REGION A –
the 𝑠 roots are real and different and the form of the output is 𝐴𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 , a
𝐶2
difference of two decaying exponentials; > 𝑀𝑘 .
4

REGION B –
the 𝑠 roots are real and equal and the form of the outout is (𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑡)𝑒 −𝛾𝑡 a
𝐶2
single optimum exponential decay; = 𝑀𝑘 .
4

REGION C –
the 𝑠 roots are complex pair and the form of the output is 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽𝑡 + ∅) , a
𝐶2
decaying sinusoid < 𝑀𝑘 .
4

Using this information we can sketch the type of output to be expected by inserting small
graphs over the domain of the 𝑠 plane.

We see 𝑠 = 𝜎 ± 𝑗𝜔 , where 𝜎 is a real component and 𝑗𝜔 is imaginary. Study this

diagram carefully and master the concepts it illustrates. Note any root on the zero
horizontal axis gives rise to exponentials. Any roots off this axis will generate oscillations. All
roots to the left of the zero vertical axis decay, all to the right get bigger indefinitely. Think
of the significance of the right hand part of the 𝑠 plane.

THE 𝑠 PLANE STABILITY CRITERION

The implications of the previous analysis mean that all solutions on or to the right of the zero
vertical axis must be UNSTABLE, because the output keeps on increasing in magnitude as a
function of time.

THE CONCEPT OF CONTROL

This is an introduction as to what happens when we attempt to apply feedback to alter the
characteristics of our system.

𝐶(𝑠)
A transfer function is of the form 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠) where 𝐶(𝑠) is the output and 𝑅(𝑠) is the
input.

If the transfer function does not behave as desired, we have an option to create control
paths to modify 𝐺(𝑠) into a more appropriate response. The most commonly used
modification is to feedback a function of the output 𝐶 (drop the 𝑠) to the input and
compare. Our new block diagram becomes:

which has been seen as rule 3 in

LECTURE 6 (6.3).

It can be seen that 𝐸 = 𝑅 − 𝐻𝐶, 𝐶 = 𝐺𝐸

𝐶 𝐺
∴ 𝑅 = 1+𝐺𝐻 is a new transfer function (simply rule 3).
 𝐺
We now refer to as the CLOSED LOOP transfer function (𝐺𝐻 as the OPEN LOOP
1+𝐺𝐻
transfer function; more about this in Lecture 10). Loops such as that proposed here are
necessary in practical situations because of uncertainties in the component values in a
system due to ageing, wear, changing environment, temperature etc. The signal 𝐸 is
effectively the resultant error signal that is needed to modify 𝐶 in the light of 𝐶 not being
the value you want it to be. Now let us check the effect on the output of the transfer
function changing (for whatever reason).

In the OPEN LOOP case:

Let 𝐺 → 𝐺 + ∆𝐺

∴ 𝐶0 + ∆𝐶0 = 𝑅𝐺 + 𝑅∆𝐺 Hence ∆𝐶0 = 𝑅∆𝐺

In the CLOSED LOOP case:

(𝐺+∆𝐺)𝑅
𝐶𝑐 + ∆𝐶𝑐 =
1+(𝐺+∆𝐺)𝐻

𝑅∆𝐺
∴ ∆𝐶𝑐 = 1+𝐺𝐻+∆𝐺∙𝐻 We assume 𝐺𝐻 ≫ 1 ≫ ∆𝐺𝐻 a small movement in 𝐺 .

Look at the ratio

∆𝐶𝑐 𝑅∙∆𝐺 1 1
= 1+𝐺𝐻 ∙ 𝑅∆𝐺 = 1+𝐺𝐻 .
∆𝐶𝑜

We see the shift due to changes in components is significantly reduced when closing the
loop.

Example

For a reservoir system create a complete model and analysis (extended example!). This is an
automatic water level control.

ℎ
The net flow into the reservoir is 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞0 , 𝑞𝑖 = 𝐾𝜐 𝑥 and 𝑞0 = 𝑅 by definition. However
𝑥 is linked to the reservoir height via the lever such that 𝑥 → 0 as ℎ → ℎ𝑑
𝑎
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑏 (ℎ𝑑 − ℎ). Also we know that 𝑞 = 𝐴ℎ̇ (net volume increase).
 𝑎 ℎ
Thus, we can write 𝐴ℎ̇ = 𝐾𝜐 (ℎ𝑑 − ℎ) − , where ℎ = ℎ(𝑡).
𝑏 𝑅

We will now specify ℎ𝑑 as an input and ℎ as output because we can drive the system to a
particular ℎ𝑑 by arranging that 𝑥 → 0 as ℎ → ℎ𝑑 .

Rearranging:

1 𝑎 𝑎
𝐴ℎ̇ + ℎ (𝑅 + 𝐾𝜐 𝑏) = 𝐾𝜐 𝑏 ℎ𝑑 ,
we get a first order DE expressing ℎ = 𝑓(ℎ𝑑 ).

Take Laplace to get

1 𝑎 𝑎
𝐴𝑠𝐻(𝑠) − 𝐴ℎ(0) + 𝐻(𝑠) (𝑅 + 𝐾𝜐 𝑏) = 𝐾𝜐 𝑏 𝐻𝑑 (𝑠)

ℎ0
We now specify the boundary conditions such that at 𝑡 = 0, ℎ(0) = 0. Also 𝐻𝑑 (𝑠) = ,
𝑠
demanding ℎ0 at 𝑡 = ∞.

Simplifying, we get

𝐾1 1 𝑎 𝑎
𝐻(𝑠)(𝐴𝑠 + 𝐾) = where 𝐾 = 𝑅 +𝐾𝜐 𝑏 , 𝐾1 = 𝐾𝜐 𝑏 ℎ0
𝑆

𝐾1⁄
𝐾
1
∴ 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝐴𝑠+𝐾) ≡ 𝑠(𝑠+𝐾𝐴⁄ a standard form (normalised)
𝐴)

−𝐾𝑡
𝐾1 𝐴
∴ ℎ(𝑡) = ∙ 𝐾 (1 − 𝑒 𝐴 )
𝐴

𝐾𝜐 𝑎 1
ℎ0
∴ ℎ(𝑡) = 𝑏 (1 − 𝑒 −( 𝐴𝑏 +𝐴𝑅)𝑡 )
(1+ )
𝐾𝜐 𝑎𝑅

Analysing this result tells us:

a) As long as 𝑅 is finite positive ℎ never gets to ℎ0

𝐾𝜐 𝑎
b) If 𝑅 → ∞ ℎ = ℎ0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐴𝑏 𝑡 ) and we do reach ℎ0 at 𝑡 → ∞

c) If 𝑅 → 0, there is no resistance to output flow and ℎ = 0 as 𝑡 → ∞ .

In general,
Note that the model of the system is valid only in the region 0 < ℎ < ℎ0 . When ℎ > ℎ0 ,
ℎ0
we should have completely different modelling. Note that h is always: ℎ ≤ 𝑏 .
(1+ )
𝐾𝜐 𝑎𝑅

Block diagrams for reservoir systems

We will re-work the example above and show the full block diagram.

Using
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞0
𝑞 = 𝐴ℎ̇
𝑎
𝑞𝑖 = 𝐾𝑣 (ℎ0 − ℎ)
𝑏
ℎ
𝑞𝑜 =
𝑅
We can clearly see now that ℎ0 can be treated as an input like a demanded height to
achieve; ℎ remains the output. Redraw the diagram to put ℎ0 at left and ℎ at right.

We get:

and using Rule 3 on the inner loop

to get

and using Rule 1 to combine

boxes then Rule 3 again gives

Hence

𝐻(𝑆) 𝐾 𝑅𝐾𝜐 𝑎⁄𝑏 1 𝑎

2
= 𝜏𝑠+1 where 𝐾2 = 1+𝑅𝐾 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 and 𝜏 = (1 + 𝑅𝐾𝑣 𝑏)−1
𝐻𝑑 (𝑠) 𝜐 ⁄𝑏 1+
𝐾𝜐 𝑎𝑅