EE 326 Control Systems

Modeling in the Frequency Domain

ATILIM University
2022-2023 Spring Semester

1
 Introduction to Transfer Function of A Control System-I

• A Transfer Function of a control system is defined as the ratio of Laplace Transform of output to Laplace transform of input under
the assumption that all the initial conditions are zero.

𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

• 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ቚ
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

R(s) + R(s)-H.C(s) C(s) R(s) + R(s)-H.C(s) C(s)

G G
- +
Negative Feedback Positive Feedback
H.C(s) H.C(s)
H H

𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐻. 𝐶 𝑠 . 𝐺 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝐻. 𝐶 𝑠 . 𝐺

𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺. 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐺. 𝐻. 𝐶 𝑠 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺. 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝐺. 𝐻. 𝐶 𝑠

𝐶 𝑠 1 + 𝐺𝐻 = 𝐺. 𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶 𝑠 1 − 𝐺𝐻 = 𝐺. 𝑅(𝑠)

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺 𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺
= Transfer Function (T) =
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺𝐻 𝑅(𝑠) 1 − 𝐺𝐻
2
Introduction to Transfer Function of A Control System-II

• A general system or element is represented by a first-order or second-order differential equation.

• When several elements (say “n” elements) are connected in sequence, each having first-order, then total order of the
system is “n”.
• A collection of components or a system is represented by nth order differential equation.

If Input is x(t) and output y(t),

𝑑 𝑛 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑑 𝑛 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑡
𝑎0 + 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1 + 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑡

Let’s take Laplace Transform of both sides

𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑎2 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑌 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠. 𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦 𝑡

= 𝑏0 𝑠 𝑚 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝑚−1 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑏2 𝑠 𝑚−2 𝑋 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠. 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑚 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥(𝑡)

All the initial conditions are assumed to be zero to find transfer Function, then transfer function is

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏𝑜 . 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏1 . 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1 . 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑚 𝐾. 𝑠 − 𝑧1 𝑠 − 𝑧2 𝑠 − 𝑧3 … (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑚 ) 𝑏0

G s = = = where K = , 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝐹
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑎0 . 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 . 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 . 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 𝑠 − 𝑝3 … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 ) 𝑎0

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Poles and Zeros of a Transfer Function

• The Transfer Function of nth order system is given by

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏𝑜 . 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏1 . 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1 . 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑚

G s = =
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑎0 . 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 . 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 . 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛
• Let’s factorize this equation,
𝑌(𝑠) 𝐾(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑜 ). (𝑠 − 𝑧1 ). … . (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑚−1 ). (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑚 )
G s = =
𝑋(𝑠) (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑜 ). (𝑠 − 𝑝1 ). … . (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛−1 ). (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 )
jω (imaginary)
• Roots of the numerator polynomial are ZEROS of the system. (𝑧0 , 𝑧1 , 𝑧3 , … , 𝑧𝑚 ) x x
• Roots of the denominator polynomial are POLES of the system. (𝑝0 , 𝑝1 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 )
o o x o δ (real)
• No of zeros are m, no of poles are n.
x x
• Zeros are represented with o in the s-plane coordinate system. 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔
• Poles are represented with x in the s-plane coordinate system.
Characteristic Equation : is nothing more than setting the denominator of the closed loop transfer
function to zero. It is very critical for stability analysis.

𝑎0 . 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 . 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 . 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0

4
• Zeros and poles of a transfer function always appear in conjugate pairs.

• It is possible that either poles or zeros may coincide. Such poles or zeros are called as
multiple poles or multiple zeros, otherwise non-coinciding poles or zeros are called simple
poles or simple zeros.

Example on Poles and Zeros of a Transfer Function

Find the zeros and poles of the following transfer function

(2𝑠 + 6)(𝑠 + 2)
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 4)
SOLUTION:
jω (imaginary)
• ZEROS : solve numerator

2𝑠+6=0 ⇒𝑠=−3
two zeros x o o x x δ (real)
𝑠+2=0 ⇒𝑠=−2 -4 -3 -2 -1 0

𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔
• POLES : solve denominator
𝑠+1= 0 ⇒𝑠=−1

𝑠+4=0 ⇒𝑠=−4
three poles
𝑠=0

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Introduction to Transfer Function of A Control System-III

• Transfer Function characterizes the input-output relationship of components or system that are described by
Linear Time Invariant differential equations.

• Independent of the magnitude and nature of the input

• Does not provide any information about physical structure of the system

• Transfer function of physically different systems can be identical.

• If the transfer function is known, the output response can be studied for various input (impulse, step, ramp,
sinusoidal, …) to understand the nature of the system.

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Introduction to Transfer Function of A Control System-IV

• Procedure to determine Transfer Function

• STEP-1 : write the differential equation of the given system

• STEP-2: Take the Laplace Transform of the equation obtained in STEP-1, with an
assumption that all the initial conditions are zero

• STEP-3: take the ratio of the output to the input.

• STEP-4: The ratio obtained in STEP-3 is the Transfer Function of the given system.

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Problems on Transfer Functions/Differential Equation Conversions

Question : Find the transfer function of below differential Question : Find the differential equation from below transfer
equation. function.
𝐶(𝑠) (2𝑠 + 1)
𝑑 3 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑𝑟(𝑡) 𝐺 𝑠 = = 2
+ 3 + 7 + 5𝑐 𝑡 = + 4 + 3𝑟 𝑡 𝑅(𝑠) (𝑠 + 6𝑠 + 2)
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Solution : Let’s distribute terms of equation first.
Solution : Let’s take Laplace transform of the equation first.
𝐶(𝑠)(𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 2) = 𝑅(𝑠)(2𝑠 + 1)

𝑠 3 𝐶 𝑠 + 3𝑠 2 𝐶 𝑠 + 7𝑠𝐶 𝑠 + 5𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑠 2 𝑅 𝑠 + 4𝑠𝑅 𝑠 + 3𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 2 𝐶(𝑠) + 6𝑠𝐶(𝑠) + 2𝐶(𝑠) = 2𝑠𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑅(𝑠)

𝐶(𝑠)(𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 5) = 𝑅(𝑠)(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 3) Let’s take the inverse Laplace Transform

𝐶(𝑠) (𝑠 2 +4𝑠 + 3)
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑅(𝑠) (𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 5) 𝑑 2 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑𝑟(𝑡)
+ 6 + 2𝑐 𝑡 = 2 +𝑟 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
9
Partial Fraction Expansion Example-1

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Partial Fraction Expansion Example-2

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Partial Fraction Expansion Example-3

12
Partial Fraction Expansion Example-4

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Homework - 1

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Electrical Network Transfer Functions-I

• We will examine the transfer function of electrical circuits including passive networks
(resistor, capacitor, inductor)
• Table summarizes the components and the relationship between voltage and current and
voltage and charge under zero initial conditions.
• Guiding principles are Kirchhoff's laws.

15
Electrical Network Transfer Functions-II

QUESTION: Find the Transfer Function relating capacitor voltage, 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 , to input voltage, 𝑉𝑖 𝑠
R L

i C
Input Vi Vo Output

SOLUTION: Summing the voltages around the loop (mesh), assuming zero initial conditions, the differential
equation will be as follows.

𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑉𝑜 (𝑡)

𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) and 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 2 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑉0 𝑑 2 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑅 𝑑𝑉0 1 1

𝐿𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) ⇒ + . + 𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝑉 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝑜 𝐿𝐶 𝑖

Let’s take tle Laplace Transform of both sides of equation

1
1 𝑅 1 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝐿𝐶
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑠 2 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 + s𝑉𝑜 𝑠 + 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑇 𝑠 = =
𝐿𝐶 𝐿 𝐿𝐶 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) (𝑠 2 + 𝑅 𝑠 + 1 )
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

16
Electrical Network Transfer Functions-III

QUESTION: Find the Transfer Function relating capacitor voltage, 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 , to input voltage, 𝑉𝑖 𝑠
L

i(t)
i2(t)
i1(t)
Input Vi(t) R C Vo(t) Output

SOLUTION: Summing the voltages around the loop (mesh), assuming zero initial conditions and no external load,
the differential equation will be as follows.

𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑉𝑜 (𝑡)

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖1 𝑡 + 𝑖2 𝑡 = +𝐶
𝑅 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑉𝑜 𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑉𝑜 𝑡
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖1 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 ⇒ 𝐿𝐶 + + 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑖 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡

Take Laplace Transform

𝐿 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 1 1
𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 + 𝑠𝑉𝑜 𝑠 + 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑠 ⇒ = =
𝑅 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) (𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝐿 𝑠 + 1) (𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝐿 𝑠 + 1)
𝑅 𝑅

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Mechanical Systems Transfer Functions-I

• Based on type of motion, Mechanical Systems are classified into two types

• Translational Mechanical Systems

• Rotational Mechanical Systems

Symbols of Translational Mechanical Systems Symbols of Rotational Mechanical Systems

• 𝑥 ∶ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, m • 𝜃 ∶ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, rad

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃
• 𝑣 ∶ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, m/sec • 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, rad/sec
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑚 𝑑2 𝜃 𝑟𝑎𝑑
• 𝑎 ∶ = , 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, • , 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 2
• 𝑓 ∶ 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 • 𝑇 ∶ 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒. Nm
• 𝑓𝑚 ∶ 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 • 𝐽: 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎, 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2 /𝑟𝑎𝑑
• 𝑓𝑘 ∶ 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑁.𝑚
• 𝐾: 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
• 𝑓𝑏 : 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑝𝑜𝑡
• 𝐵 ∶ 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑁. 𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑
• 𝑀 ∶ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑘𝑔
• 𝐾: 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑁/𝑚
• 𝐵 ∶ 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑁. 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑚

18
Translational Mechanical Systems

• Translational Mechanical Systems Elements

19
Rotational Mechanical Systems

• Rotational Mechanical Systems Elements

20
Force-Voltage Analogy
• In mechanical systems, the elements having same velocity
Translational Mechanical
Electrical are said to be in series. In electrical system, the elements in
Systems Elements series will have same current.
Systems Elements
Input : voltage source
Input : Force
Output: Current through
Output: Velocity
element • Each node (mass) in the mechanical system corresponds to a
closed loop in electrical system.
i(t)

x
• Number of meshes in electrical system is equal to number of
f + 𝑑𝑖(𝑡) masses in mechanical system.
MASS 𝑒 𝑡 =𝐿
M e(t) L 𝑑𝑡
- • The element connected between masses in mechanical
2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑣(𝑡) system is represented as a common element between meshes
𝑓 𝑡 =𝑀 = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 in electrical analogues system.
i(t)
x1 x2
x
f + K1 K2
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑅. 𝑖(𝑡)
DASHPOT e(t) R f

B
M1 M2 𝑓 𝑡 ⇔𝑒 𝑡
- 𝑀⇔𝐿
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) B1 B2 𝐵⇔𝑅
𝑓 𝑡 =𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐾⇔𝐶
has friction no friction
𝑣 𝑡 ⇔𝑖 𝑡
i(t)
x L1 L2 C2
f R (friction)
+
SPRING e(t) C 1
K 𝑒 𝑡 = න 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + C1
𝐶 e(t) R2
- i1 i2
-
R1
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐾 න 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 mesh-1 mesh-2

21
Force-Current Analogy
• In mechanical system, the elements in parallel will have same
Translational Mechanical
Electrical force. In electrical system, the elements in parallel will have
Systems Elements same voltage
Systems Elements
Input : current source
Input : force
Output: voltage across
Output: Velocity
element • Each node (mass) in mechanical system corresponds to a
node in electrical system.
i(t)

• Number of nodes in electrical system is equal to number of

x 𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
f nodes in mechanical system
MASS
M
i(t) C 𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡
• The elements connected between two nodes in mechanical
2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑣(𝑡) system is represented as common element nodes in electrical
𝑓 𝑡 =𝑀 = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 system.
i(t) common elements
v1 v2
x
f
𝑣(𝑡) x1 x2
DASHPOT i(t) R 𝑖 𝑡 =
𝑅 K1 K2
B f
M1 M2
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑓 𝑡 ⇔𝑖 𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 =𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 B1 B2
𝑀⇔𝐶
i(t) 𝐵⇔𝑅
has friction no friction 𝐾⇔𝐿
f x 𝑣 𝑡 ⇔𝑖 𝑡
L1
i(t) V1 V2
SPRING L 1
𝑖 𝑡 = න 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 R1
K 𝐿
i(t)
C1 R (friction) C2 L2 R2
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐾 න 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

22
Torque-Voltage Analogy
K1 K2
Electrical 𝑇 𝑡 ⇔𝑖 𝑡
Rotational Mechanical 𝐽⇔𝐶
Systems Elements M1 M2
Systems Elements T ϴ 𝐵⇔𝑅
Input : Voltage source
Input : Torque 𝐾⇔𝐿
Output: Current through
Output: Angular Velocity ω 𝑡 ⇔𝑖 𝑡
element
has friction has friction
i(t) B1 B2

+ L1 R1 (friction) L2 R2 (friction)
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
MASS J e(t) L 𝑒 𝑡 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡 +
T ϴ - e(t) C1 C2
i1 i2
2
𝑑 ϴ 𝑡 𝑑ω(𝑡) -
𝑇 𝑡 =𝐽 = 𝐽
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 mesh-2 mesh-3
i(t)

+ 𝑑𝑖1 (𝑡) 1
e(t) R 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑅. 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝐿1 + 𝑖1 (𝑡)𝑅1 + න 𝑖1 (𝑡) − 𝑖2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
DASHPOT T ϴ 𝑑𝑡 𝐶1
B -
𝑑𝑖2 (𝑡) 1 1
𝑑ϴ(𝑡) 0 = 𝐿2 + 𝑖2 𝑡 𝑅2 + න 𝑖2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑖2 (𝑡) − 𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡 =𝐵 = 𝐵. ω(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 𝐶1
𝑑𝑡
i(t)

+ 1
SPRING T K ϴ e(t) C 𝑒 𝑡 = න 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶
-

𝑇 𝑡 = 𝐾ϴ(𝑡) = 𝐾 න ω 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

23
 K1 K2
Torque-Current Analogy
Electrical
M1 M2 𝑇 𝑡 ⇔𝑒 𝑡
Rotational Mechanical T ϴ 𝐽⇔𝐿
Systems Elements
Systems Elements 𝐵⇔𝑅
Input : Current source
Input : Torque 𝐾⇔𝐶
Output: voltage across has friction has friction
Output: Angular Velocity ω 𝑡 ⇔𝑖 𝑡
element B1 B2

i(t)
V1 L1 V3
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
MASS J
C 𝑒 𝑡 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡
T ϴ i(t) C2 L2 R2 (friction)
C1 R1 (friction)
𝑑2 ϴ 𝑡 𝑑ω(𝑡)
𝑇 𝑡 =𝐽 = 𝐽
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
i(t)

𝑑𝑉1 (𝑡) 𝑉1 (𝑡) 1

R 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑅. 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶1 + + න 𝑉1 (𝑡) − 𝑉2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
DASHPOT 𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝐿1
T B
ϴ
𝑑𝑉2 (𝑡) 𝑉2 (𝑡) 1 1
𝑑ϴ(𝑡) 0 = 𝐶2 + + න 𝑉2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑉2 (𝑡) − 𝑉1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡 =𝐵 = 𝐵. ω(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝐿1
𝑑𝑡
i(t)

1
SPRING L 𝑒 𝑡 = න 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
T K ϴ 𝐶

𝑇 𝑡 = 𝐾ϴ(𝑡) = 𝐾 න ω 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

24
Transfer Functions of Operational Amplifiers (OPAMP)-I

• An operational amplifier is an electronic device used as a basic building

block to implement transfer functions. Operational Amplifier Inverting Operational Amplifier

• It has following characteristics:

• Differential input, 𝑣2 (𝑡) − 𝑣1 (𝑡)

• High Input impedance, 𝑍𝐼 = ∞ 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑚𝑝
• Low output impedance, 𝑍𝑂 = 0 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑚𝑝
• High constant gain amplification, 𝐴 = ∞ 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑚𝑝

• If positive input of OPAMP is connected to the GND, we have

𝑣2 𝑡 = 0.
Inverting Operational Amplifier
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑣2 𝑡 − 𝑣1 𝑡 = −A𝑣1 𝑡 configured for Transfer Function
realization. Typically, the
𝐼𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 𝐼1 (𝑠) = −𝐼2 (𝑠) amplifier gain A is omitted.

• Since the gain of OPAMP,A, is large, 𝑣1 𝑡 ≈ 0.

𝐼1 (𝑠) = 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)/𝑍1 (s)
-𝐼2 𝑠 = −𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)/𝑍2 (s)

• The transfer function of inverting operational amplifier is

𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑍2 (𝑠)
=−
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑍1 (𝑠)

25
Transfer Functions of Operational Amplifiers (OPAMP)-II

26
Non-Linearities

27
Linearization

28