EE 326 Control Systems

Modeling in the Time Domain

ATILIM University
2022-2023 Spring Semester

1
Introduction to State Space Analysis

• For analysis and design of feedback control systems, two approaches are available.

• Classical or Frequency Domain Technique

• Linear, time invariant and SISO systems can be designed and analysis, or the systems
that can be approximated like this. The primary disadvantage of this technique is its
limited applicability.

• Based on converting a system’s differential equation to a transfer function

• The major advantage of this technique is that they rapidly provide stability and
transient response information. So we can immediately see the effects of varying
system parameters until acceptable design is met.

• While the requirements for control systems increasingly in scope, modeling systems
by using Linear, time invariant differential equations and its transfer functions
became not enough.
2
Introduction to State Space Analysis

• State Space Approach (Modern or Time Domain Technique)

• It is unified method for modeling, analyzing and designing a wide range of systems

• It can be used for non-linear systems that have backlash, saturation and dead-zone.

• It can handle conveniently systems with non-zero initial conditions.

• Time varying systems (missile with varying fuel levels, aircraft flying wide range of
altitude) can be represented in state-space.

• MIMO systems (such as autonomous vehicle’s speed and direction) can be compactly
represented in state space.

• Time domain approach can be used to represent systems with digital computer in the loop
or to model systems for digital simulation.

• It is attractive because a lot of state space software packages are available in the market.
3
Introduction to State Space Analysis

Disadvantages of State Space Approach (Modern or Time Domain Technique)

• It is not intuitive as the classical approach

• Designer has to engage in several calculations before the physical representation of the
model is apparent.

• In classical method, after a few quick calculations and graphic representation of data,
rapidly gives the physical interpretation.

• Complex technique

• Many computations are required.

• It is important to note that the state space model of any given transfer function is not
unique. There are a lot of state space model of the same transfer function.

4
Introduction to State Space Analysis

BASICS

State : It is a group of variables which summarizes the history of the system, in order to predict
the future values.

State Variable : The smallest set of variables that determines the state of the system are known as
state variable.

State Vector : It is a vector, which contains the state variables as elements

State Equations : For nth order system, n simultaneous first order differential equations in terms of
state variables are called as state equations.

In general, the differential equations of nth order system is written as,

𝑑 𝑛 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑛−2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑑 𝑚 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚−2 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑𝑢 𝑡
𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎 𝑛−1 + 𝑎 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 + 𝑎 0 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 + 𝑏𝑚−2 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 + 𝑏0 𝑢 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−2 𝑑𝑡

5
 Introduction to State Space Analysis

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 → 𝑢1 𝑡 , 𝑢2 𝑡 , 𝑢3 𝑡 , … 𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏11 𝑏12 … 𝑏1𝑚

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 → 𝑦1 𝑡 , 𝑦2 𝑡 , 𝑦3 𝑡 , … 𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏21 𝑏22 … 𝑏2𝑚
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 → 𝑥1 𝑡 , 𝑥2 𝑡 , 𝑥3 𝑡 , … 𝐴= . 𝐵=
. . . . . . .
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑛1 𝑏𝑛2 … 𝑏𝑛𝑚
𝑢1 𝑡 𝑦1 𝑡 𝑥1 𝑡
𝑢2 𝑡 𝑦2 𝑡 𝑥2 𝑡 nxn System Matrix nxm Input Matrix
𝑢 𝑡 = . 𝑦 𝑡 = . 𝑥 𝑡 = . (Evaluation Matrix) (Control Matrix)
. . .
𝑢𝑚 𝑡 𝑦𝑝 𝑡 𝑥𝑛 𝑡 ሶ = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢(𝑡) ← State Equation
𝑥(𝑡)
𝑓1 𝑡 𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑐11 𝑥1 + 𝑐12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑐1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑑11 𝑢1 + 𝑑12 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑑1𝑚 𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑥1 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑔[𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑢 𝑡 ]
= 𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 = 𝑓1 (𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑢 𝑡 ) 𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑐21 𝑥1 + 𝑐22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑐2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑑21 𝑢1 + 𝑑22 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑑2𝑚 𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑓2 𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 = . .
𝑑𝑥2 . .
= 𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡 = 𝑓2 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑢 𝑡 𝑓𝑛 𝑡 𝑦𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑝1 𝑥1 + 𝑐𝑝2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑝𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛1 𝑢1 + 𝑑𝑛2 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑝𝑚 𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑡
.
. 𝑐11 𝑐12 … 𝑐1𝑛 𝑑11 𝑑12 … 𝑑1𝑚
𝑑𝑥𝑛 𝑐21 𝑐22 … 𝑐2𝑛 𝑑21 𝑑22 … 𝑑2𝑚
= 𝑥ሶ 𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑢 𝑡 ) 𝐶= . 𝐷=
𝑑𝑡 . . . . . . .
𝑐𝑝1 𝑐𝑝2 … 𝑐𝑝𝑛 𝑑𝑝1 𝑑𝑝2 … 𝑑𝑝𝑚
𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 = 𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑏11 𝑢1 + 𝑏12 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑏1𝑚 𝑢𝑚 pxn Output Matrix pxm Direct Transmission Matrix
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡 = 𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑏21 𝑢1 + 𝑏22 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑏2𝑚 𝑢𝑚
.
.
𝑥ሶ 𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛1 𝑢1 + 𝑏𝑛2 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛𝑚 𝑢𝑚 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐷𝑢(𝑡) ← Output Equation

6
 Introduction to State Space Analysis

• If we know the initial condition of all the state variables at t0, we can solve the simultaneous
differential equations for state variables for t ≥ t0.

• At any initial time t= t0, the state variables 𝑥1 𝑡0 , 𝑥2 𝑡0 … 𝑥𝑛 𝑡0 define initial states of the system.

• Once the input of the system for t ≥ t0 ,initial states just defined are specified.

• STATE VARIABLES SHOULD COMPLETELY DEFINE THE FUTURE BEHAVIOR OF THE SYSTEM
Multi Input, Multi Output System
STATE EQUATIONS + OUTPUT EQUATIONS = SPACE STATE REPRESENTATION (MODEL) MIMO
𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 ← State Equation
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢 ← Output Equation 𝑢1 (𝑡) 𝑦1 (𝑡)
𝑥 : State Vector 𝑢2 (𝑡) 𝑦2 (𝑡)
𝑥ሶ : Derivative of state vector with respect to time 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫
𝑦 : Output Vector
𝑢 : Input or Control Vector
𝐴 : System Matrix 𝑢𝑚 (𝑡) 𝑦𝑝 (𝑡)
𝐵 : Input Matrix
𝐶 : Output Matrix
𝐷 : Feed Forward Matrix

𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝑥𝑛 (𝑡)

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Different Types of Representation of a State Model
1. Physical Variable Form → Physical variables are used
2. Phase Variable Form → Phase variables are used.
Physical Variable Form
1. Physical quantities are chosen as state variables which
can be measured and controlled.
2. Direct relevance to the physical system
3. Solution of state equations gives time variance of state
variables
4. Any of these variables can be used for feedback and
hence the implementation is easy.
State Variables for Electrical Systems
For an electrical network; inductors and capacitors are
energy storing elements. Thus,
• Rate of change of current in inductor (
𝑑𝑖𝐿
) and
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
• Rate of change of voltage in capacitor( 𝐶)
𝑑𝑡
can be chosen as state variables.
Procedure for Writing State Equations of an Electrical System
STEP-1: Assign all inductor currents and capacitor voltages as
state variables.
STEP-2: Select a set of loop currents and write relationship
between state variables and their derivatives in terms of
these loop currents.
STEP-3: Write loop equations and eliminate all variables other
than state variables from the equation.
State Variables for Mechanical Systems
For a mechanical system; the potential energy and kinetic
energy of a mass are functions of position and velocity of the
mass respectively.
•
𝑑𝑥
Rate of change of position ( ) and
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ω
• Rate of change of velocity ( )
𝑑𝑡
can be chosen as state variables.
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State Space Model of an Electrical Network Example

EXAMPLE : Find the state space model, if the output is resistor current. STEP-4 : Substitute the results of STEP-2 and STEP-3 and find state equations.

L
𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 𝑑𝑣𝑐 1 1
𝐶 =− + 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 → =− 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 + 𝑖𝐿 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 They are
+ iL(t)
iR(t)
iC(t) state
𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 1 equations
Vi(t) e(t) 𝐿 = 𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 → = − 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 + 𝑒(𝑡)
R C Vo(t)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
-

STEP-5 : Find the output equations. Since the output is 𝑖𝑅 ,

SOLUTION :
1 Output Equation
𝑖𝑅 = 𝑣
STEP-1 : Label all branches current in the circuit as 𝑖𝐿 , 𝑖𝑅 , 𝑖𝐶 . 𝑅 𝐶

STEP-2 : Select state variables by writing derivative equations for all energy STEP-6 : Write the State Space Model of the Electrical Circuit from State and Output
storage elements. Equations.
They are state variables
𝑑𝑣𝑐 −1 1
𝐶 = 𝑖𝐶 They are not state variables 0 state
𝑑𝑡 𝑣ሶ 𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 𝑣𝐶
𝑑𝑖𝐿 = 1 𝑒(𝑡) equations
𝐿 = 𝑣𝐿 𝚤ሶ𝐿 −1 𝑖𝐿 +
𝑑𝑡 0 𝐿
𝐿
The derivated values are selected as state variables. 1 𝑣𝐶
𝑖𝑅 = 0 𝑖𝐿
𝑅 Output Equation
STEP-3 : Obtain non-state variables (𝑖𝐶 , 𝑣𝐿 ) expressions from the combination of
state variables and input.

𝑣𝐶 𝑡
𝑖𝐶 = −𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝐿 = − + 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑅
STATE SPACE MODEL (REPRESENTATION)
𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
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State Space Model of a Mechanical System

Procedure for Writing State Equations of a Mechanical System STEP-1 : At node X1,
𝑀1 . 𝑥ሷ 1 + 𝐵. 𝑥ሶ 1 + 𝐾. 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 0
STEP-1: Obtain mathematical model of the system by using nodal method. At node X2,
STEP-2: Define state variables 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 ,…. 𝑀2 . 𝑥ሷ 2 + 𝐾. 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = −𝑓(𝑡)
STEP-3: Arrange these state variables in proper state model equations. STEP-2 : Define the state variables with z notation
STEP-4: Using these equations, write state space equations. 𝑥1 = 𝑧1 𝑥2 = 𝑧3
EXAMPLE : Obtain State Space Model of the system by using nodal method. 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑧1ሶ = 𝑧2 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑧3ሶ = 𝑧4
𝑥ሷ 1 = 𝑧ሶ2 𝑥ሷ 2 = 𝑧ሶ4

common element STEP-3 : Arrange the differential equations with these z values

x1 x2 𝐾 𝐵 𝐾
𝑀1 . 𝑧ሶ2 + 𝐵. 𝑧2 + 𝐾. 𝑧1 − 𝐾𝑧3 = 0 → 𝑧ሶ2 = − . 𝑧1 − . 𝑧2 + 𝑧
𝑀1 𝑀1 𝑀1 3
B
K 𝐾 𝐾 1
M1 f(t) 𝑀2 . 𝑧ሶ4 + 𝐾. 𝑧3 − 𝐾𝑧1 − 𝑓 𝑡 = 0 → 𝑧ሶ4 = . 𝑧1 + 𝑧3 + 𝑓(𝑡)
M2 𝑀2 𝑀2 𝑀2
STEP-4: Using these equations, write state space equations.

0 1 0 0
has no friction has no friction −𝐾 −𝐵 𝐾 0
𝑧1ሶ 𝑡 𝑧1
0 0
𝑧ሶ2 𝑡 𝑀1 𝑀1 𝑀1 𝑧2
= + 0 𝑓(𝑡)
Solution : Let’s draw Nodal Analysis diagram of the mechanical structure. 𝑧ሶ3 𝑡 0 0 1 0 𝑧3 1
𝑧4ሶ (𝑡) 𝐾 −𝐾 𝑧4
0 0 𝑀2
X1 K X2 𝑀2 𝑀2

Output equation
𝑦1 = 𝑥1 = 𝑧1 𝑦1 (𝑡) 𝑦1 (𝑡) 1 0 𝑧1 (𝑡)
B
M1 M2 f(t) 𝑦 𝑡 = =
𝑦2 = 𝑥2 = 𝑧3 𝑦2 (𝑡) 𝑦2 (𝑡) 0 1 𝑧3 (𝑡)

10
Phase Variable Form

1. Phase variables are chosen as the state variables. EXAMPLE : Find the state space model of the following differential equation.
2. System model is given in the form of differential equation or transfer
function. ഻
𝑦 + 5ഺ
𝑦 + 7𝑦ሶ + 9𝑦 = 8𝑢
State Space Model of nth Order Differential Equation SOLUTION :
The nth order differential equation is
𝑦 = 𝑥1
𝑦ሶ = 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥2
𝑑𝑛 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑛−2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑦ሷ = 𝑥ሷ 1 = 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑥3
+ 𝑎1 + 𝑎 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑏. 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑡 𝑦ഺ = 𝑥ഺ1 = 𝑥ሷ 2 = 𝑥ሶ 3 = 𝑥4
The state variables are ഻
𝑦 = 𝑥ሶ 4
𝑦 = 𝑥1
𝑑𝑦 ഻
𝑦 = 8𝑢 − 5ഺ
𝑦 − 7𝑦ሶ − 9𝑦 → 𝑥ሶ 4 = 8𝑢 − 5𝑥4 − 7𝑥2 − 9𝑥1
= 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥2
𝑑𝑡 State equation is
𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑥3
𝑥ሶ 3 = 𝑥4
. 𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 0 1 0 0 𝑥1 0
. 𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡 0 0 1 0 𝑥2 0
. = 𝑥3 + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥ሶ 3 𝑡 0 0 0 1
𝑥ሶ 𝑛−1 = 𝑥𝑛 −9 −7 0 −5 𝑥4 8
𝑥ሶ 4 (𝑡)
𝑥ሶ 𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 − 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 − ⋯ − 𝑎2 . 𝑥𝑛−1 − 𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑏. 𝑢

𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 0 1 0 … 0 𝑥1 𝑡 0
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡 0 0 1 … 0 𝑥2 𝑡 0 Output equation is
. = 0 0 0 … 0 . + . 𝑢(𝑡)
. . . . . . . .
𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−2 … 𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 𝑡 𝑥1
𝑥ሶ 𝑛 𝑡 𝑏
𝑥2
𝑦(𝑡) = 1 0 0 0 𝑥
𝑥1 3
𝑥2 𝑥4
𝑦(𝑡) = 1 0 … 0 .
.
𝑥𝑛 11
 State Space Model for a Given Transfer Function
Solution Methods: STEP-2: The output of each integrator is designated by a state variable.

1. Direct Decomposition 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥2
2. Cascade Decomposition 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑥3
3. Canonical or Diagonal Form (Parallel Decomposition) 𝑥ሶ 3 = −6𝑥1 − 11𝑥2 − 6𝑥3 + 𝑢
4. Jordan’s Canonical Form (State Model using Parallel Decomposition) 𝑦 = 𝑥1 (𝑡)
5. State Model Phase Variable Formulation for Transfer Function by
Signal Flow Graph 𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 0 1 0 𝑥1 (𝑡) 0
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡 = 0 0 1 𝑥2 (𝑡) + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
I-Direct Decomposition Method
𝑥ሶ 3 𝑡 −6 −11 −6 𝑥3 (𝑡) 1
If transfer function of a given system is in the following form,
Direct decomposition method can be applied for solution. 𝑥1 (𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 1 0 0 𝑥2 (𝑡)
𝑌 𝑠 1
= 3 𝑥3 (𝑡)
𝑈 𝑠 (𝑠 + 6𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 + 6)

STEP-1: Represent the transfer function in the form of a block diagram.

The differential equation is of 3rd order. So, there are 3 summing points in
series and 3 integrators in series in block diagram.

−6𝑥1 − 11𝑥2 + 𝑢 −6𝑥1 − 11𝑥2 − 6𝑥3 + 𝑢

−6𝑥1 + 𝑢
𝑢(𝑡) + + + 𝑥ሶ 3 𝑥3 = 𝑥ሶ 2 𝑥2 = 𝑥ሶ 1 𝑥1 𝑦(𝑡)
න න න

+ + +

−6𝑥3
−6

−11𝑥2
−11

−6𝑥1
−6

12
State Space Model for a Given Transfer Function

II-Cascade Decomposition Method

If transfer function of a given system is in the following form, STEP-2: The output of each integrator is designated by a state variable.
Cascade decomposition method can be applied for solution.
𝑥ሶ 1 = −3𝑥3 + 𝑥2 𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 −3 1 0 𝑥1 (𝑡) 0
𝑌 𝑠
𝑈 𝑠
=
1
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑥ሶ 2 = −2𝑥2 + 𝑥3
𝑥ሶ 3 = −𝑥3 + 𝑢(t)
𝑦 = 𝑥1 (𝑡)
} 𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡
𝑥ሶ 3 𝑡
= 0 −2 1 𝑥2 (𝑡) + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
0 0 −1 𝑥3 (𝑡) 1

𝑥1 (𝑡)
STEP-1: Represent the transfer function in the form of a block diagram. 𝑦(𝑡) = 1 0 0 𝑥2 (𝑡)
𝑥3 (𝑡)
The differential equation is of 3rd order. So, there are 3 consequtive
summing points and integrators in series in block diagram.

𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑥ሶ 3 𝑥3 + 𝑥ሶ 2 𝑥2 + 𝑥ሶ1 𝑥1 + 𝑦(𝑡)

න න න

+ + +

−𝑥3 −2𝑥2 −3𝑥1

−1 −2 −3

13
State Space Model for a Given Transfer Function

III-Canonical or Diagonal Form (Parallel Decomposition) STEP-2: Let’s take the inverse Laplace transform

Split the transfer function into its fractions 1

𝑥ሶ 1 (𝑡) = −𝑥1 + 𝑢(𝑡)
2
𝑥ሶ 2 (𝑡) = −2𝑥2 + 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑌 𝑠 1 1/2 −1 1/2
= = + + 1
𝑈 𝑠 (𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)(𝑠+3) (𝑠+1) (𝑠+2) (𝑠+3) 𝑥ሶ 3 𝑡 = −3𝑥3 + 𝑢(𝑡)
2
𝑦 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 + 𝑥3 (𝑡)
STEP-1: After splitting,
STEP-3: The output of each integrator is designated by a state variable.
1 1
2 −1 2
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑈(𝑠) 1
𝑠+1 𝑠+2 𝑠+3
𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 −1 0 0 𝑥1 (𝑡) 2
1 𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡 = 0 −2 0 𝑥2 (𝑡) + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑋1 𝑠 = 2 𝑈 𝑠 → 𝑠. 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑋 𝑠 = 1 𝑈(𝑠) 𝑥ሶ 3 𝑡 0 0 −3 𝑥3 (𝑡) 1
1 1
𝑠+1 2 2
−1 𝑥1 (𝑡)
𝑋2 𝑠 = 𝑈 𝑠 → 𝑠. 𝑋2 𝑠 + 2. 𝑋2 𝑠 = −𝑈(𝑠)
𝑠+2 𝑦(𝑡) = 1 1 1 𝑥2 (𝑡)
1 𝑥3 (𝑡)
𝑋3 𝑠 = 2 𝑈 𝑠 → 𝑠. 𝑋 𝑠 + 3. 𝑋 𝑠 = 1 𝑈(𝑠)
2 2
𝑠+3 2

14
Derivation of Transfer Function From State Space Model

For a general state space Model, state space equations are

𝑥ሶ = Ax + Bu
𝑦 = Cx + Du
Identity Matrix
Taking Laplace Transform of both the equations assuming zero initial conditions. We get,
1 0
𝐼=
0 1
𝑠𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑆) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐶𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑠)
𝑠 0
𝑠𝐼 =
𝑠𝑋 𝑠 − 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐵𝑈(𝑠) 0 𝑠
𝑋 𝑠 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑈 𝑠 𝐼: 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
−1
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 . 𝐵. 𝑈
𝑠 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 . 𝐵. 𝑈 𝑠 + 𝐷𝑈(𝑠)
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑌 𝑠 = [𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 . 𝐵 + 𝐷]𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑌 𝑠 −1 . 𝐵
= 𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 +𝐷 Transfer function of the system
𝑈(𝑠)

15
Derivation of Transfer Function From State Space Model Example-1

EXAMPLE : Obtain the transfer function if state model is given by the followings. 𝑠+3 1
−1 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2
𝑥ሶ 1
=
0 1 𝑥1
+
0
𝑢(𝑡)
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = −2 𝑠
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑥
−2 −3 2 1
𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2
𝑥1
𝑦= 1 0 𝑥 −1
2 𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 .𝐵
Solution : Let’s use the Transfer Function Formula. Since D=0
𝑠+3 1
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
.𝐵 + 𝐷 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 0
𝑇(𝑠) = 1 0 −2 𝑠 1
𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2
1 0 0 1 𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠. − =
0 1 −2 −3 2 𝑠+3 1
𝑇(𝑠) =
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2
𝑠+3 1
−1
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −2 𝑠
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑠. 𝑠 + 3 − (−1.2)

16
Derivation of Transfer Function From State Space Model Example-2

EXAMPLE : Obtain the transfer function if state model is given by the followings. 𝑠+8 1
−1 𝑠 2 +8𝑠+12 𝑠 2 +8𝑠+12
𝑥ሶ 1
=
0 1 𝑥1
+
0
𝑢(𝑡)
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = −12 𝑠
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑥
−12 −8 2 1
𝑠 2 +8𝑠+12 𝑠 2 +8𝑠+12
𝑥1
𝑦= 8 1 𝑥 −1
2 𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 .𝐵
Solution : Let’s use the Transfer Function Formula. Since D=0
𝑠+3 1
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
.𝐵 + 𝐷 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 0
𝑇(𝑠) = 8 1 −2 𝑠 1
𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2
1 0 0 1 𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠. − =
0 1 −12 −8 12 𝑠+8 𝑠+8
𝑇(𝑠) =
𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 12
𝑠+8 1
−1
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −12 𝑠
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑠. 𝑠 + 8 − (−1.12)

17
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation

For a time invariant system, the state space equation is given by 𝜑 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1

𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 𝜑 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
→ 𝜑 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡

Classified into 2 groups : Properties of State Transition Matrix

• Homogeneous State Equation [𝑢 𝑡 = 0 ]
• Non- homogeneous State Equation [𝑢 𝑡 ≠ 0 ]
1. 𝜑 0 = 𝑒 𝐴(0) = 1
Homogeneous State Equation
2. 𝜑 𝑡 == (𝑒 −𝐴𝑡 )−1 = [𝜑 −𝑡 ]−1 → 𝜑 −1 𝑡 = 𝜑(−𝑡)
• Since 𝑢 𝑡 = 0 , 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥
• Taking the Laplace transform of both sides
3. 𝜑 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 = 𝑒 𝐴(𝑡1 +𝑡2) = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡1+𝐴𝑡2 = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡1 . 𝑒 𝐴𝑡2 = 𝜑 𝑡1 ). 𝜑(𝑡2

𝑠𝑋 𝑠 − 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑥(0) 4. [𝜑(𝑡)]𝑛 = (𝑒 𝐴𝑡 )𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑛𝐴𝑡 = 𝜑(𝑛𝑡)

𝑋 𝑠 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑥 0
5. 𝜑 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 . 𝜑 𝑡1 − 𝑡0 = 𝜑 𝑡2 − 𝑡0
−1
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 .𝑥 0

𝑋 𝑠 = 𝜑 𝑠 .𝑥 0

−1
𝜑 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 State Transition Matrix
or Resolvent Matrix
18
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation

Non-Homogeneous State Equation (𝑢(𝑡) ≠ 0)

ሶ = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡)

• Taking the Laplace transform of both sides

𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑥 0 + න 𝑒𝐴
𝐴𝑡 𝑡−𝑥
. 𝐵. 𝑈 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐴𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑥 0 + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠) 0
𝑋 𝑠 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑥 0 + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 . (𝑥 0 + 𝐵𝑈 𝑠 ) Solution part of Solution part of non-
homogeneous State homogeneous State
𝑥 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 . 𝑥
0 + ℒ −1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 . 𝐵𝑈 𝑠 Equation Equation

𝜑 𝑠

19
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation Example-1

EXAMPLE : Obtain the of the following state equation.

𝑠+3 1
𝑥ሶ 1 0 1 𝑥1 0 2 2
= 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2
= 𝑥 + 𝑢(𝑡) −1
𝑥ሶ 2 −2 −3 2 1 𝜑 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
−2 𝑠
Solution : Let’s use the State Transition Formula 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2
−1
𝜑 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 → 𝜑 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡 2 1 1 1
− −
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
1 0 0 1 𝑠 −1 𝜑 𝑠 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠. − = −2 2 −1 2
0 1 −2 −3 2 𝑠+3 + +
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
𝑠+3 1
−1
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −2 𝑠
𝜑 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = = 𝜑 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝜑 𝑠
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑠. 𝑠 + 3 − (−1.2)
State Transition Matrix
𝑠+3 1
−𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
= 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2
𝜑 𝑡 = 2𝑒 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡
−2 𝑠 −2𝑒 −𝑡 + 2𝑒 −2𝑡 −𝑒 −𝑡 + 2𝑒 −2𝑡
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2

20
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation Example-2

EXAMPLE : Determine the time response of the following system. 𝑢 𝑡 is unity

step input occurring at 𝑡 = 0.
1 1
𝑥ሶ 1 1 0 𝑥1 1 0 0
= + 𝑢(𝑡) −1 (𝑠 − 1) 1 −1 (𝑠 − 1) 1 1
𝑥 𝑡 =ℒ . +ℒ . .
𝑥ሶ 2 1 1 𝑥2 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 𝑠
(𝑠 − 1)2 (𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 − 1)2 (𝑠 − 1)
Initial conditions of the system → 𝑥 0 = 1 0
1 1
Solution : Formula of the state equation for non-homogeneous system. 𝑠−1 𝑠 𝑠−1
𝑥 𝑡 = ℒ −1 + ℒ −1
1 1 1
2
+
𝑠−1 2 𝑠 𝑠−1 𝑠(𝑠 − 1)
𝑥 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
. 𝑥0 + ℒ −1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
. 𝐵𝑈 𝑠
1 −1 1
1 0 1 0 𝑠−1 0 −
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠. − = 𝑠−1 𝑠 (𝑠 − 1)
0 1 1 1 −1 𝑠 − 1 𝑥 𝑡 = ℒ −1 + ℒ −1
1 1
𝑠−1 2 𝑠−1 2
𝑠−1 0
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 1 𝑠−1
𝜑 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
= = 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑡 + −1 + 𝑒 𝑡
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 (𝑠 − 1)2 𝑡. 𝑒 𝑡 𝑡. 𝑒 𝑡

1 𝑡
0 𝑥 𝑡 = −1 + 2.𝑡𝑒
(𝑠 − 1) 2. 𝑡. 𝑒
−1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
1 1
(𝑠 − 1)2 (𝑠 − 1)

21
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation Example-3 Let’s solve the homogeneous part (A) of the system.

(𝑠 + 4) 1 (𝑠 + 4)
EXAMPLE : Determine the output time response of the following system. Input
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) 1 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑢 𝑡 = 5 at 𝑡 = 0. 𝑥𝐴 𝑡 = ℒ −1 . = ℒ −1
−3 𝑠 0 −3
𝑥ሶ 1 (𝑡) 0 1 𝑥1 (𝑡) 0 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
= + 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥ሶ 2 (𝑡) −3 −4 𝑥2 (𝑡) 1
3 1
2 − 2 3 −𝑡 1 −3𝑡
1 0 𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑒 − 𝑒
𝑦 𝑡 = (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 3) 2 2
1 1 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝑥𝐴 𝑡 = ℒ −1 =
3 3 3 −𝑡 3 −3𝑡
−2 − 𝑒 + 𝑒
1 − 2 2 2
Initial conditions of the system → 𝑥 0 = (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 3)
0
Solution : Formula of the state equation for non-homogeneous system. Let’s solve the non-homogeneous part (B) of the system.

𝑥 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
. 𝑥0 + ℒ −1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
. 𝐵𝑈 𝑠 (𝑠 + 4) 1 5
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) 0 5 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑥𝐵 𝑡 = ℒ −1 . . = ℒ −1
1 0 0 1 𝑠 −1 −3 𝑠 1 𝑠 5
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠. − =
0 1 −3 −4 3 𝑠+4 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)

𝑠+4 1 5 5 5
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 3− 2 − 6 5 5 −𝑡 5 −3𝑡
𝜑 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
= = 1 𝑠 − 𝑒 − 𝑒
𝑠 𝑠+1 (𝑠 + 3)
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) 𝑥𝐵 𝑡 = ℒ −1 = 3 2 6
5 5 5 −𝑡 5 −3𝑡
2 − 2 𝑒 − 𝑒
2 2
(𝑠 + 4) 1 𝑠+1 (𝑠 + 3)

−1 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
−3 𝑠 3 −𝑡 1 −3𝑡 5 5 −𝑡 5 −3𝑡
𝑒 − 𝑒 − 𝑒 − 𝑒 5 −𝑡
4 −3𝑡
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑥𝐵 𝑡 = 2 2 + 3 2 6 = 3 −𝑒 − 3 𝑒
3 3 5 −𝑡 5 −3𝑡
− 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡
2 2 2 2
22
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation Example-3 (cont.)

5 −𝑡
4 −3𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 3 −𝑒 − 𝑒
3
𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡

5 4 −3𝑡
1 0 𝑥1 (𝑡) 1 0 −𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = = . 3 −𝑒 − 3 𝑒
1 1 𝑥2 (𝑡) 1 1
𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡

5 4
−𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = 3 3
5 7 −3𝑡
− 𝑒
3 3

23