Limits

Theorem lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→0

Theorem lim 𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑥→𝑎

“Some Special Limits”

sin 𝑥 𝑥
1.) lim = lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥

1−cos 𝑥
2.) lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥

1
3.) lim (1 + 𝑥)𝑥 = e
𝑥→0

1
4.) lim (1 + 𝑡𝑥)𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡
𝑥→0

Theorem. If lim 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝐿1 and lim 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙) = 𝐿2 , both exist and are finite,
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

then

1.) lim [𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) ± 𝒇𝟐 (𝑥)] = lim 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) ± lim 𝒇𝟐 (𝑥) = 𝐿1 ± 𝐿2

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

2.) lim [𝒌𝒇𝟏 (𝒙)] = klim 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝑘𝐿1

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

3.) lim [𝒇𝟏 (𝒙). 𝒇𝟐 (𝑥)] = lim 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) lim 𝒇𝟐 (𝑥) = 𝐿1 𝐿2

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑓1 (𝑥) lim 𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝐿1

4.) lim [ ]= 𝑥→𝑎 = , if 𝐿2 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑓2 (𝑥) lim 𝑓2 (𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
𝐿2

𝑛
5.) lim [𝑓1 (𝑥)]𝑛 = |lim 𝑓1 (𝑥)| = 𝐿1 𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

6.) lim 𝑛√𝑓1 (𝑥)= 𝑛√ lim 𝑓1 (𝑥)= 𝑛√𝐿1

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Theorem lim 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→0

1
Theorem lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑛
Examples:

1.) lim ( 3𝑥 + 5)
𝑥→2

Solution:

lim ( 3𝑥 + 5)
𝑥→2

= 3 lim 𝑥 + lim 5
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= 3(2) + 5

= 11

2.) lim ( 8𝑥 − 3)
𝑥→−1

Solution:

lim ( 8𝑥 − 3)
𝑥→−1

= 8 lim 𝑥 - lim 3
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

= 8 (-1) - 3

= -11
 Derivatives of a Function
𝑑
1.) (c) = 0 for any constant c
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
2.) [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐𝑓′(𝑥) for any constant c
𝑑𝑦
𝑑
3.) (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 for any real number n
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
4.) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
5.) ( 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
6.) (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
7.) (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
8.) (𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
9.) (𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
10.) (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑎 for any number a >0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
11.) (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 1
12.) [log 𝑎 (𝑥)] = . for a > 0, a ≠ 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑎
𝑑 1
13.) ( 𝑙𝑛𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 1
14.) ( 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑 −1
15.) (𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑 1
16.) (𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2
𝑑 −1
17.) (𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2
𝑑 1
18.) (𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 −1
𝑑 −1
19.) (𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 −1
𝑑
20.) (𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
21.) (𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 ) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
22.) (𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
23.) (𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥) = − sech 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
24.) (𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥) = − csch 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
25.) (𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Formal formula of Derivative

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥)+𝛿𝑥−𝑓(𝑥)
= lim
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

Theorems:

1.) If n is a positive integer and 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝑥 𝑛 , then

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑘𝑥 𝑛−1
2.) If k is a constant and if 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑘, for all 𝑥1 then
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 0
3.) If k is a constant and f is a function, then
𝐷𝑥 [𝑘𝑓 (𝑥)] = 𝑘𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
4.) If f and g are functions, then
𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓′(𝑥) ± 𝑔′(𝑥)
5.) If f and g are functions, then
𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥 ). 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔′ (𝑥 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥)
6.) If f and g are functions, then
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓′ (𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′(𝑥)
𝐷𝑥 [ ]=
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥)

7.) The chain rule.

𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 ))] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥 ))𝑔′(𝑥)
8.) Higher Derivatives
𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝐷𝑥 2 [𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐷𝑥[𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥 )]] = 𝑓′′(𝑥)
3[
𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐷𝑥[𝐷𝑥 2 [𝑓(𝑥 )]] = 𝑓′′′(𝑥)
𝐼𝑉 [
𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐷𝑥[𝐷𝑥 3 [𝑓(𝑥 )]] = 𝑓 𝐼𝑉 (𝑥)
𝑁[ 𝑁−1 [
𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐷𝑥[𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥 )]] = 𝑓 (𝑁) (𝑥)
 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(sin 𝑢) = cos(𝑢)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(cos 𝑢) = − sin(𝑢)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(tan 𝑢) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑢)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(cot 𝑢) = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 (𝑢)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(sec 𝑢) = sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(csc 𝑢) = − csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑢) = .
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑢) = − .
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑢) = .
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑢) = .
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑢) = − .
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑢) = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 √𝑢2 − 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 𝑢) = − .
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 √𝑢2 − 1 𝑑𝑥
Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

𝑑 log𝑎 𝑒 𝑑𝑢
(log 𝑎 𝑢) = . 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑢

𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(ln u) = . 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑢

𝑑 𝑢 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
(𝑎 ) = 𝑎 𝑙𝑛 𝑎 . 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(𝑒 𝑢 ) = 𝑒 𝑢 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥 =
2 sinh 𝑥

𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒−𝑥 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 = 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥

𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒−𝑥 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒−𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = tanh 𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
sinh 𝑢 = cosh 𝑢 csch 𝑢 = −csch u coth 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
cosh 𝑢 = sinh 𝑢 sech 𝑢 = −sech u tanh 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
tanh 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑢 coth 𝑢 = −𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) , 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 (𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 + 1) , 𝑥 ≥ 1

1 1+𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 = 2 𝑙𝑛 1−𝑥 , −1 < 𝑥 < 1

1 1+𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ−1 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 , 𝑥2 > 1
2 1−𝑥

−1
1 1 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 = ln ( ± √ − 1) , 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
2 𝑥 𝑥2

−1
1 1 1 2
𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥 = ln ( + √ + 1) , 𝑥 >0
2 𝑥 𝑥2

𝑑 −1
1 𝑑𝑢
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑢 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 √𝑢2 + 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑢 = ,𝑢 > 1
𝑑𝑥 2
√𝑢 + 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑢 = , −1 < 𝑢 < 1
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑢2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 −1 𝑑𝑢 2
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ−1 𝑢 = 2 ,𝑢 > 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 − 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 −1 −1 𝑑𝑢
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑢= ,0 < 𝑢 < 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 √1−𝑢2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 −1 −1 𝑑𝑢
𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑢= , 𝑢2 > 0
𝑑𝑥 √𝑢2 (1+𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑥
 Basic Integration Formulas

𝑑
𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
1
1.) ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝐶, 𝑛 ≠ 1

2.) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
1
3.) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 𝐶

4.) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐶

5.) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶
6.) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶
7.) ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 + 𝐶
8.) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝐶
9.) ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
10.) ∫ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
√1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
11.) ∫ 1+𝑥 2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑥 𝑎𝑥
12.) ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
log 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
13.) ∫ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥 √𝑥 2 −1

14.) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 | + 𝐶

15.) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 | + 𝐶
16.) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 | + 𝐶
17.) ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 | + 𝐶