Control Systems

by

Dr. Kollu Ravindra

Associate Professor
EEE Department
University College of Engineering Kakinada (A)
JNTU Kakinada
• Mathematical Modeling of physical systems

• Analysis
– Time response analysis
– Frequency response analysis

• Stability studies

• Design of controllers and compensators

References: 1.Modern control engineering- K Ogata

2. Control systems Engineering-Norman S. Nise

2
 Dominant closed loop poles
• If the ratios of the real parts of the closed-loop poles exceed 5
and there are no zeros nearby, then the closed-loop poles
nearest the jω axis will dominate in the transient response
behavior because these poles correspond to transient-response
terms that decay slowly.
• Those closed-loop poles that have dominant effects on the
transient response behavior are called dominant closed-loop
poles. Often these poles occur in the form of a complex
conjugate pair.
• Note that the gain of a higher-order system is often adjusted so
that there will exist a pair of dominant complex-conjugate
closed-loop poles.

3
 Influence of poles on Transient response behavior
Consider a first order system with gain K and time constant 𝜏
𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 =
(1 + 𝜏𝑠)
Pole of the system at “-1/𝜏 “ influences the speed of the response
of the output

Farther the pole is from jω axis, faster response (corresponding

transient term dies out quickly 4
• Dominant poles The poles that predominantly generate the
transient response.

5
• If the system has a variable loop gain, then the location of the
closed-loop poles depends on the value of the loop gain
chosen.
• It is important, therefore, that the designer know how the
closed-loop poles move in the s plane as the loop gain is
varied.
• Designer will be particularly interested to locate the dominant
pole pair at desired location which depend on the design
specification by adjusting gain ‘K’.

𝐾
• Consider a feedback system with G(s) = , H(s) =1.
𝑠(𝑠+2)
Design a controller to meet design specification:
% Mp= 20.8, Settling time (ts) = 4 sec

6
 The characteristic equation of the system is 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = 0
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0

−2 ± 4 − 4𝐾
𝑠1,2 =
2
• % 𝑀𝑝 = 20.8 translates in to ζ of 0.4472
2
Since 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 −𝜋𝜁/ 1−𝜁

• ts = 4 sec translates in to 𝜔𝑛 =2.2361 rad/sec

Using ζ and 𝜔𝑛 the closed loop pole should be equal to

− 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝑗𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 = -1±j2

Let us see at what value of K the roots are equal to -1±j2

7
• Roots with K=0.5, K=1, K=2, K=5

At K=5, the roots are equal to -1±j2

8
• For higher order systems it is difficult to check whether there
is any dominant pole pair for any value of K satisfying the
design specification (present at desired location in s-plane).
Finding the roots of the characteristic equation of degree
higher than 3 is laborious.
• It is important, therefore, that the designer know how the
closed-loop poles move in the s plane as the loop gain is
varied.
• Hence there is a need for a simple method for finding the roots
of the characteristic equation (Closed loop poles) with out
factorizing the polynomial equation.

9
 Root locus method
• Developed by W.R.Evans
• Root locus method is a graphical method for sketching the
locus of roots of the characteristic equation in the s-plane as
the design parameters (usually gain K) for the corresponding
system is varied.
• In designing a linear control system, root-locus method proves
to be quite useful, since it indicates the way in which the open-
loop poles and zeros should be modified so that the response
meets system performance specifications.

10
 Advantages of root locus method
• Contributions of each pole or zero to the location of closed
loop poles can be seen clearly from root locus

• It indicates the manner in which open loop poles and zeros

should be modified so that the response meets system
performance specifications

11
Root locus method: Angle and Magnitude Conditions

Consider the negative feedback system shown in Figure

The closed-loop transfer function is

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) (1)

12
The characteristic equation for this closed-loop system is obtained by
setting the denominator of the right-hand side of above equation equal to
zero.
1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 0 (2)

𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = −1
Since G(s)H(s) is a complex quantity, above equation can be split into
two equations by equating the angles and magnitudes of both sides,
respectively
Angle condition:
∠𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = ±180°(2𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 = 0, 1 , 2, ….) (3)

Magnitude condition:
𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 1 (4)

13
The values of s that fulfil both the angle and magnitude conditions are
the roots of the characteristic equation, or the closed-loop poles.
A locus of the points in the complex plane satisfying the angle condition
alone is the root locus.
The roots of the characteristic equation (the closed-loop poles)
corresponding to a given value of the gain can be determined from the
magnitude condition.
In many cases, G(s)H(s) involves a gain parameter K
G(s)H(s) is given by

𝑲(𝒔 + 𝒛𝟏 )
𝑮 𝒔 𝑯 𝒔 = (5)
𝒔 + 𝒑𝟏 𝒔 + 𝒑𝟐 𝒔 + 𝒑𝟑 (𝒔 + 𝒑𝟒 )

14
The characteristic equation may be written as

𝑲 𝒔 + 𝒛𝟏 𝒔 + 𝒛𝟐 … . . (𝒔 + 𝒛𝒎 )
𝟏+ =𝟎 (6)
𝒔 + 𝒑𝟏 𝒔 + 𝒑𝟐 … . . (𝒔 + 𝒑𝒏 )

Then the root loci for the system are the loci of the closed-loop poles as
the gain K is varied from zero to infinity.

The angles of the complex quantities originating from the open-loop

poles and open-loop zeros to the test point s are measured in the counter
clockwise direction.

15
–p2 and –p3 are complex-conjugate
poles, then the angle of G(s)H(s) is
∠𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = ∅1 − 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 − 𝜃3 − 𝜃4
where ∅1 , 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 , and 𝜃4 are
measured counter clockwise.
The magnitude of G(s)H(s) for this
system is
𝐾𝐵1
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴4
where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , 𝐴4 , and 𝐵1 are the 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯 𝒔 =
magnitudes of the complex quantities
𝑲 𝒔 + 𝒛𝟏
s+𝑝1 , s+𝑝2 , s+𝑝3 , s+𝑝4 , and s+𝑧1 ,
𝒔 + 𝒑𝟏 𝒔 + 𝒑𝟐 (𝒔 + 𝒑𝟑 )(𝒔 + 𝒑𝟒 )
respectively.

16
Example

Consider the negative feedback system shown in Figure

𝐾
For this system, 𝐺 𝑠 = , 𝐻 𝑠 =1
𝑠 𝑠+1 (𝑠+2)

17
Number of poles = Number of zeros

18
Steps for sketching the root-locus plot is as follows:

1. The open-loop poles, s=0, s= –1, and s= –2,

There are no open loop zeros in this system.

Consider characteristic equation of nth order

𝐾 ς𝑚𝑖=1(𝑆 + 𝑍𝑖 ) (7)
1+ =0
ς𝑛𝑖=1(𝑆 + 𝑃𝑖 )

𝑛 𝑚

ෑ(𝑆 + 𝑃𝑖 ) + 𝐾 ෑ(𝑆 + 𝑍𝑖 ) = 0 (8)

𝑖=1 𝑖=1

With K=0, ς𝑛𝑖=1(𝑆 + 𝑃𝑖 ) = 0 (9)

It implies that open loop poles are part of root locus and all roots
originate from open loop poles.
i.e., A root-locus plot will have just as many branches as the number of
open loop poles (or number of roots of the characteristic equation)
19
 𝑛 𝑚
1
ෑ(𝑆 + 𝑃𝑖 ) + ෑ(𝑆 + 𝑍𝑖 ) = 0 (10)
𝐾
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

With K→ ∞ ς𝑚 (𝑆 + 𝑍 ) = 0 (11)
𝑖=1 𝑖
It implies that all open loop zeros lie on root locus branches and these
open loop poles are terminating points of the root locus branches.
With n>m, only m poles (m number of root branches) terminate at open
loop zeros. (number of poles is always equal to number of zeros
(finite zeros and zeros at infinity) of a system)

What about remaining (n-m) root branches?

In this example n=3, m=0.

• Rule: Locate the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) on the s plane

20
2. Determine the root loci on the real axis

To determine the root loci on the real axis, select a test point, s.
If the test point is on the positive real axis, then
∠𝑠 = ∠ 𝑠 + 1 = ∠(𝑠 + 2) = 0°

This shows that the angle condition cannot

be satisfied. Hence, there is no root locus
on the positive real axis.

21
Next, select a test point on the negative real axis between 0 and –1

∠𝑠 = 180° ∠ 𝑠 + 1 = ∠ 𝑠 + 2 = 0°

−∠𝑠 − ∠ 𝑠 + 1 − ∠ 𝑠 + 2 = −180°

Angle condition is satisfied. Therefore, the portion of the negative real

axis between 0 and –1 is part of the root locus.

22
If a test point is selected between –1 and –2, then
∠𝑠 = ∠ 𝑠 + 1 = 180° ∠ 𝑠 + 2 = 0°

−∠𝑠 − ∠ 𝑠 + 1 − ∠ 𝑠 + 2 = −360°

It can be seen that the angle condition is not satisfied. Therefore, the
negative real axis from –1 to –2 is not a part of the root locus.

Similarly, if a test point is located on the negative real axis from –2 to

–∞, the angle condition is satisfied.

Thus, root loci exist on the negative real axis between 0 and –1 and
between –2 and –∞.

23
• Angle contribution by every poles and zeros on the real axis to the
right of the test point is 1800

• Angle contribution by every poles and zeros on the real axis to the
left of the test point is 00

• Rule: Determine the root loci on real axis:

If the total number of real poles and real zeros to the right of this
test point is odd, then this point lies on a root locus.

The roots of characteristic equations are either real, imaginary or

complex conjugate or combination of all. Therefor the root locus
is symmetrical about the real axis

24
3. Determine the asymptotes of the root loci:
At test points located far away from origin, the root loci is asymptotic
in nature. The angle of these asymptotes is determined as follows

Angle condition becomes

± 180° (2𝑘 + 1)
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 = 𝑘 = 0,1,2 … (12)
3
The distinct angles for the asymptotes are determined as 60°, –60°,
and 180°.

25
• Consider a test point 𝑠𝑜 at infinity. The angles made by the line
joining the test point 𝑠𝑜 and the open loop poles and zeros are equal
to each other (𝜃𝑎 )
• Total number of such angles is (n-m). So, the net angle contribution
made by all open loop poles and zeros to the test point 𝑠𝑜 is
–(n-m) 𝜃𝑎
• As 𝑠𝑜 is part of root locus, total angle contribution at 𝑠𝑜 must satisfy
the angle condition
±180∘ 2𝑘+1
• (n-m) 𝜃𝑎 = (𝑘 = 0,1,2, … (𝑛 − 𝑚 − 1))
𝑛−𝑚
±180∘ 2𝑘+1
• Angle of asymptotes (𝜃𝑎 ) = (𝑘 = 0,1,2, … (𝑛 − 𝑚 − 1))
𝑛−𝑚
(13)
• Rule: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci:
(n-m) root branches that proceed to infinity do so along the
±𝟏𝟖𝟎∘ 𝟐𝒌+𝟏
asymptotes with angles (𝒌 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … (𝒏 − 𝒎 − 𝟏))
𝒏−𝒎
26
Before we can draw these asymptotes in the complex plane, we must
find the point where they intersect the real axis. i.e centroid.

𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 + 2)

if a test point is located very far from the origin, then G(s) may be
written as

𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 = 3
𝑠 + 3𝑠 2 + ⋯
this equation may be approximated by
𝐾 (14)
𝐺 𝑠 ≈
(𝑠 + 1)3
27
 A root-locus diagram of G(s) given by above equation consists of
three straight lines.
𝐾
∠ = ±180°(2𝑘 + 1)
(𝑠 + 1)3

−3∠(𝑠 + 1) = ±180°(2𝑘 + 1)

∠(𝑠 + 1) = ±60°(2𝑘 + 1)
By substituting s=σ+jω the above equation
∠(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 + 1) = ±60°(2𝑘 + 1) (15)

𝜔
tan−1 = 60° , −60° , 0°
1+𝜎

28
 𝜔
= 3, − 3 , 0
1+𝜎

𝜔
𝜎+1− =0 ,
3

𝜔
𝜎+1+ = 0,
3

𝜔=0
The three straight lines shown here are the asymptotes.
They meet at point s= –1.

29
30
Generalized expression for centroid
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =0

𝐾(𝑠 + 𝑧1 )(𝑠 + 𝑧2 ). . . . (𝑠 + 𝑧𝑚 ) (16)

1+ =0
(𝑠 + 𝑝1 )(𝑠 + 𝑝2 ). . . . . (𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛 )

𝐾
1 + 𝑛−𝑚 𝑛−𝑚−1
=0 (17)
𝑠 + (𝑝1 + 𝑝2 +. . . 𝑝𝑛 ) − (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 +. . . 𝑧𝑚 ) 𝑠 +. . .

• If the test point is selected at infinity, that is the large value of s, the
characteristic equation is approximated to first two terms of the
denominator polynomial of C.E
𝐾
1 + 𝑛−𝑚 𝑛−𝑚−1 =0
𝑠 + (𝑝1 + 𝑝2 +. . . 𝑝𝑛 ) − (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 +. . . 𝑧𝑚 ) 𝑠
𝐾
1 + 𝑛−𝑚 𝑛 𝑚 𝑛−𝑚−1
=0 (18)
𝑠 + σ𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 − σ𝑖=1 𝑍𝑖 𝑠
31
• Now consider a transfer function which (n-m) repeated poles at 𝜎𝑎
and no zeros
𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = (19)
(𝑆+𝜎𝑎 )𝑛−𝑚
Characteristic equation
𝐾
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =1+ (20)
(𝑆+𝜎𝑎 )𝑛−𝑚
For the above there are (n-m) root locus branches and all are
originating at 𝜎𝑎 and terminates at infinity
Binomial expansion of equation (20) is given by
𝐾
1 + 𝑛−𝑚 =0
𝑠 + 𝑛 − 𝑚 𝜎𝑎 𝑠 𝑛−𝑚−1 + ⋯ . (21)
For large values of s (18) and (21) are identical
Hence, we can say that the straight line root locus branches of system
defined by equation (20) are asymptotes of the system defined by
equation (16) with centroid 𝜎𝑎 .
32
• Equating coefficients of equations (18) and (21)

𝑛 − 𝑚 𝜎𝑎 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 − σ𝑚
𝑖=1 𝑍𝑖

• Note: Centroid may or may not be part of root locus

Rule: Intersection of asymptotes known as centroid is given by
σ𝑛 𝑚
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 −σ𝑖=1 𝑍𝑖
𝜎𝑎 = (22)
(𝑛−𝑚)

33
4. Determine the breakaway point:
The breakaway point corresponds to a point in the s plane where multiple
roots of the characteristic equation occur.
(23)

(24)

where

The value of K which yield multiple roots of the C.E is

Substitute K in equation (23) (25)

34
 𝐵 𝑠 𝐴 𝑠 ℩ − 𝐵 𝑠 ℩𝐴 𝑠 = 0 (26)
• Equation (26) can be solved to obtain multiple roots of C.E
• Equation (26) can also be obtained using equation (23)
𝐵(𝑠)
𝐾=−
𝐴(𝑠)

𝑑𝐾 𝐵 𝑠 ℩ 𝐴 𝑠 −𝐵 𝑠 𝐴 𝑠 ℩
= − (27)
𝑑𝑠 𝐴(𝑠)2

• Equating (27) to zero, we get the same equation as equation (26)

𝑑𝐾
• Hence breakaway points can be simply obtained by using =0
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐾
• Not all roots of = 0 are actual break-away points. If the value of
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐾
K corresponding to a root s=𝑠1 of = 0 is positive, then point s=s1
𝑑𝑠
is an actual breakaway or break-in point.
35
• Characteristic equation 1+G(s)=0 is given by
𝐾
+ 1=0
𝑠 𝑠+1 (𝑠+2)

𝐾 = −(𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 2𝑠)
𝑑𝐾
By setting = 0, we obtain
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐾
= − 3𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 2 = 0
𝑑𝑠

𝑠 = −0.4226 , 𝑠 = −1.5774

𝐾 = 0.3849 𝐾 = −0.3849

Rule: The breakaway and break-in points can be determined from

𝒅𝑲
the roots of =𝟎
𝒅𝒔
36
5. Determine the points where the root loci cross the imaginary axis
These points can be found by use of Routh’s stability criterion as
follows:
The characteristic equation for the present system is

𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0
the Routh array becomes
𝑠3 1 2

𝑠2 3 𝐾

6−𝐾
𝑠1
3

0
𝑠 𝐾

37
The value of K that makes the 𝑠1 term in the first column equal zero is
K=6.
The crossing points on the imaginary axis can then be found by solving
the auxiliary equation obtained from the 𝑠 2 row

3𝑠 2 + 𝐾 = 3𝑠 2 + 6 = 0

𝑠 = ±𝑗 2

The frequencies at the crossing points on the imaginary axis are 𝜔 =

± 2.
The gain value corresponding to the crossing points is K=6.

Rule: To find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary
axis use Routh’s stability criterion.
38
• Alternate way to find the gain K at which the root locus crosses
imaginary axis.

39
40
Example: Sketch the root-locus plot of a negative feedback system
𝐾(𝑠+2)
whose 𝐺 𝑠 = and H(s)=1
𝑠2 +2𝑠+3

Open loop poles:

𝑠1 = −1 + 𝑗 2
𝑠2 = −1 − 𝑗 2
Open loop zero at s=-2.
1. Locate the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) on the s plane :

41
2. Determine the root loci on the real axis:
• For any test point s on the real axis, the sum of the angular
contributions of the complex-conjugate poles is 360°.
• Thus the net effect of the complex-conjugate poles is zero on
the real axis.

42
• The location of the root locus on the real axis is determined from the
open-loop zero on the negative real axis.
• A simple test reveals that a section of the negative real axis, that
between –2 and – ∞, is a part of the root locus.

3. Angle of asymptotes: n-m = 1, hence only one asymptote exists.

±180∘ 2𝑘 + 1
= 180∘
𝑛−𝑚

43
4. Determine the angle of departure from the complex-conjugate
open-loop poles

• To check whether the locus originating from the complex pole

migrates toward the real axis or extends toward the asymptote,
we need to determine the angle of departure
• Choose a test point and move it in the very vicinity of the
complex open-loop pole
at 𝑠 = −𝑝1

Rule: Determine the angle of departure of the root locus from

a complex pole and angle of arrival of the root locus at a
complex zero.
44
 𝜙 ′1 − 𝜃1 + 𝜃 ′ 2 = ±180∘ (2𝑘 + 1)

𝜃1 = 180∘ − 𝜃 ′ 2 + 𝜙 ′1 = 180∘ − 𝜃2 + 𝜙1

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠

𝜃1 = 180∘ − 𝜃2 + 𝜙1 = 180∘ − 90∘ + 55∘ = 145∘

Since the root locus is symmetric

about the real axis, the angle of
departure from the pole at s= –𝑝2 is
–145°.
5. Determine the break-in point:
• If the root locus lies between two adjacent zeros (one zero may be
located at –∞) on the real axis, then there always exists at least one
break-in point between the two zeros.
1+𝐺 𝑠 =0

𝐾(𝑠 + 2)
𝟏+ 2 =0
𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 3

𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 3
𝐾=−
𝑠+2

𝑑𝐾 2𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 2 − 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 3
=− =0
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 + 2)2

𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 1 = 0

𝑠 = −3.7320 K=5.4641 𝑜𝑟 𝑠 = −0.2680 (K= –1.4641) 46

• Circular root loci may occur in systems that involve two poles and
one zero, two poles and two zeros, or one pole and two zeros. Even
in such systems, whether circular root loci occur depends on the
locations of poles and zeros involved.
• Use angle condition to prove that loci is circular in shape
∠(𝑠 + 2) − ∠(𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗 2) − ∠(𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗 2) = ±180∘ (2𝑘 + 1)

Substituting 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔

∠ 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 + 2 − ∠ 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 + 1 − 𝑗 2 − ∠ 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 + 1 − 𝑗 2
= ±180∘ (2𝑘 + 1)

48
 ∠(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 + 2) − ∠ 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 + 1 − 𝑗 2 − ∠ 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 + 1 + 𝑗 2 = ±180°(2𝑘 + 1)

−1
𝜔 −1
𝜔− 2 −1
𝜔+ 2
tan − tan − tan = ±180°(2𝑘 + 1)
𝜎+2 𝜎+1 𝜎+1

𝜔− 2 𝜔+ 2 𝜔
tan−1 + tan−1 = tan−1 ± 180°(2𝑘 + 1)
𝜎+1 𝜎+1 𝜎+2
since
tan 𝑥 ± tan 𝑦
tan(𝑥 ± 𝑦) =
1 ∓ tan 𝑥 tan 𝑦

−1
𝜔− 2 −1
𝜔+ 2 −1
𝜔
tan tan + tan = tan tan ± 180°(2𝑘 + 1)
𝜎+1 𝜎+1 𝜎+2
which can be simplified to
𝜔− 2 𝜔+ 2 𝜔
+ ±0
𝜎+1 𝜎+1 = 𝜎 + 2
𝜔− 2 𝜔+ 2 𝜔
1− 1 ∓ ×0
𝜎+1 𝜎+1 𝜎 + 2

2𝜔(𝜎 + 1) 𝜔
=
(𝜎 + 1)2 − (𝜔 2 − 2) 𝜎 + 2

𝜔 (𝜎 + 2)2 + 𝜔2 − 3 = 0

𝜔=0 (𝜎 + 2)2 + 𝜔2 = ( 3)2

50
• ω = 0, is the equation for the real axis

2
𝜎+2 2 + 𝜔2 = 3

• Second equation corresponds to a circle with centre at s = –2,

ω = 0 and the radius equal to 3

51
Summary of Rules for Constructing Root Loci:

1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 0

𝐾(𝑠 + 𝑧1 )(𝑠 + 𝑧2 ). . . . (𝑠 + 𝑧𝑚 )
1+ =0
(𝑠 + 𝑝1 )(𝑠 + 𝑝2 ). . . . . (𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛 )

52
Rule1: Locate the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) on the s plane
• A root-locus plot will have just as many branches as the number of
open loop poles (or number of roots of the characteristic equation)
• Open loop poles are part of root locus and all roots originate from
open loop poles.
• All open loop zeros lie on root locus branches and these open loop
poles are terminating points of the root locus branches.
• Root loci are symmetrical about the real axis of the s plane, because
the complex poles and complex zeros occur only in conjugate pairs.
• The number of individual root-locus branches terminating at finite
open-loop zeros is equal to the number m of the open-loop zeros.
The remaining n-m branches terminate at infinity (n-m implicit
zeros at infinity) along asymptotes.

53
Rule 2: Determine the root loci on real axis:

• The complex-conjugate poles and complex conjugate zeros of the

open-loop transfer function have no effect on the location of the
root loci on the real axis because the angle contribution of a pair
of complex-conjugate poles or complex-conjugate zeros is 360°
on the real axis.
• Root loci on the real axis are determined by open-loop poles and
zeros lying on it.

• If the total number of real poles and real zeros to the right of
a test point chosen on the real axis is odd, then this point lies
on a root locus.

54
Rule 3: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci:
• If the test point s is located far from the origin, then the angle of each
complex quantity may be considered the same.
• Therefore, the root loci for very large values of s must be asymptotic
to straight lines whose angles is
±𝟏𝟖𝟎∘ 𝟐𝒌+𝟏
Angle o𝐟 𝐚𝐬𝐲𝐦𝐩𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐬 = (𝒌 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … (𝒏 − 𝒎 − 𝟏))
𝒏−𝒎

Where
n= number of finite poles of G(s)H(s)
m=number of finite zeros of G(s)H(s)
• Intersection of asymptotes known as centroid is given by

σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 − σ𝑚
𝑖=1 𝑍𝑖
𝜎𝑎 = −
(𝑛 − 𝑚)
55
Rule 4: Breakaway or Break-in points
• Because of the conjugate symmetry of the root loci, the
breakaway points and break-in points either lie on the real axis or
occur in complex-conjugate pairs.
• If a root locus lies between two adjacent open-loop poles on the
real axis, then there exists at least one breakaway point between
the two poles.
• Similarly, if the root locus lies between two adjacent zeros (one
zero may be located at – infinite) on the real axis, then there
always exists at least one break-in point between the two zeros.
• If the root locus lies between an open-loop pole and a zero (finite
or infinite) on the real axis, then there may exist no breakaway or
break-in points or there may exist both breakaway and break-in
points.
• The breakaway and break-in points can be determined from
𝒅𝑲
the roots of =𝟎
𝒅𝒔
56
Rule 5: Determine the angle of departure of the root locus from a
complex pole and angle of arrival of the root locus at a complex zero
• To draw the root loci with reasonable accuracy, we need to find the
directions of the root loci near the complex poles and zeros.
• Angle of departure from a complex pole=180°
– (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from
other poles)
+ (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from
zeros)

• Angle of arrival at a complex zero=180°

– (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex zero in question from
other zeros)
+ (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex zero in question from
poles)
57
Rule 6: Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary
axis

a) using Routh’s stability criterion

or
b) Substitute s=jω in the characteristic equation, equating both the real
part and the imaginary part to zero, and solving for ω and K.

Rule 7: Taking a series of test points in the broad neighbourhood of

the origin of the s plane, sketch the root locus.

Note: The value of K corresponding to any point s on the root locus

can be obtained using magnitude condition 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯 𝒔 = 𝟏

58