LECTURE 3 – ELEMENTARY BUILDING BLOCKS

The formulation of the equations to describe commonly used engineering components

included in electrical, mechanical, fluidic and thermal systems. A discussion of methods of
transduction is also given.

1. MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

SPRINGS

TRANSLATIONAL 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 , ROTATIONAL Г = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

DAMPERS A resistive force is generated by virtue of relative velocity; e.g. a viscous

retarding force.

TRANSLATIONAL 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐶𝐶(𝑥𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥𝑥̇ 2 ) , ROTATIONAL Г = 𝐶𝐶�𝜃𝜃̇1 − 𝜃𝜃̇2 �

INERTIA A consequence of Newton’s 2nd Law

TRANSLATIONAL 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥̈ , ROTATIONAL Г = 𝐽𝐽𝜃𝜃̈

LEVERS For small deflections, we may apply SUPERPOSITION to determine y from x 1 and
x2

Thus
 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎
𝑦𝑦|𝑥𝑥2 =0 = 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦|𝑥𝑥1 =0 = 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥2

𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎
∴ 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦|𝑥𝑥2 =0 + 𝑦𝑦|𝑥𝑥1 =0 = 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥2

We can also relate forces in the same way

𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 | 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 | 𝑥𝑥1 =− ∙ 𝐹𝐹1 − ∙ 𝐹𝐹2
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎

GEARS For two inter-meshing gears, we can relate a number of parameters to one another.

𝑑𝑑1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑥𝑥̇

𝑛𝑛 = ≡ , 𝜔𝜔 = 𝜃𝜃̇ =
𝑑𝑑2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟

Thus
𝑑𝑑 𝜔𝜔 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 𝜃𝜃̈ Г
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑑𝑑1 = 𝜔𝜔2 = 𝜃𝜃2 = 𝜃𝜃̇2 = 𝜃𝜃̈2 = Г1
2 1 1 1 1 2

Note the gear train reverses at each meshing.

2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

RESISTANCE

𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 −𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜
𝑖𝑖 = OHMS LAW
𝑅𝑅

CAPACITANCE

𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶 ∙ (𝑣𝑣 − 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖
1
OR 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 = 𝐶𝐶 ∫ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

INDUCTANCE
1
𝑖𝑖 = �(𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
OR 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 = 𝐿𝐿 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

THE CONCEPT OF IMPEDENCE: (this is an interlude)

We may recast all our equations so far into LAPLACE

 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 becomes 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)

𝐹𝐹 = 𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥𝑥̇ 2 ) becomes 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑋𝑋1 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑋𝑋2 (𝑠𝑠))

𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥̈ becomes 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 2 ∙ 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)

𝑣𝑣1 −𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠)−𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠)

𝑖𝑖 = becomes 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) =
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅

𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 ) becomes 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠))

1 1
𝑖𝑖 = 𝐿𝐿 ∫(𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 becomes 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (𝑉𝑉1 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠))

If we consider a VOLTAGE or a FORCE as the initiator and the CURRENT or MOVEMENT as

the output, the coefficient that links the two has the form of IMPEDENCE i.e. impeding the
outcome → bigger impedance means less output for same force.

THE SERIES CIRCUIT

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
𝜐𝜐 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐶𝐶 ∫ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = �𝑅𝑅 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿� ∙ 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)

SERIES IMPEDENCE
THE PARALLEL CIRCUIT

𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖2 + 𝑖𝑖3

𝜐𝜐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
𝑖𝑖 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐿𝐿 ∫ 𝜐𝜐𝜐𝜐𝜐𝜐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) = �𝑅𝑅 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿� 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠)

PARALLEL IMPEDENCE
KIRCHOFFS LAWS

The net flow of CURRENT to a junction is ZERO

𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖2 − 𝑖𝑖3 − 𝑖𝑖4 = 0 or ∑ 𝑖𝑖 = 0

The sum total of VOLTAGE around any loop is ZERO

𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜐𝜐𝑖𝑖 − 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 − � 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝐿𝐿 = 0
𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

3. THERMAL COMPONENTS

HEAT CONDUCTION

(𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2 )
Flow of heat 𝑞𝑞 = −𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 [Discrete version]
𝑑𝑑

In terms of a thermal impedance

𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2 = − 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 ∙ 𝑞𝑞

𝑑𝑑
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
has the units of impedance °𝐾𝐾/(𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 −1 )

HEAT CONVECTION

Flow of heat 𝑞𝑞 = ℎ𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴(𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2 ) as a simple model

ℎ𝑐𝑐 is a surface convective coefficient of heat transfer.

THERMAL CAPACITANCE

The rate of net heat transfer to a body is equivalent to its rate of increase in internal energy.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Thus 𝑞𝑞 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 where ρ is density, c is specific heat, V is volume
Let 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 and is the thermal capacitance (𝐽𝐽°𝐾𝐾 −1 ) of the body. This is analogous to
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
electical capacitance 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

THERMAL RADIATION

Stefan’s Law states 𝑞𝑞 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 4 , σ is Stefan’s Constant. Let us invoke linearisation to make
the law useable in our systems. 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 is the temperature operating point

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 ) ≡ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜4 , 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 ) ≡ 4𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜3

∴ 𝑞𝑞 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜4 + (𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 )4𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜3

∴ 𝑞𝑞 = 4𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜3 𝑇𝑇 − 3𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜4 ≡ [𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐]

Be careful, the approximation is only valid very close to 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 because of the 𝑇𝑇 4 power law.

4. FLUIDIC SYSTEMS

We will show how previous concepts can be derived.

RESISTANCE

𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 𝑞𝑞 where 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 is known as a fluidic impedance.

CAPACITANCE

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌) = 𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 if V is assumed a constant

Apply the equation above to a LIQUID.

𝜌𝜌−𝜌𝜌𝑜𝑜
By definition p−𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 = 𝛽𝛽 ∙ at constant volume
𝜌𝜌𝑜𝑜

𝛽𝛽 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑉𝑉𝜌𝜌𝑜𝑜
Or 𝑝𝑝̇ = 𝜌𝜌 ∙ 𝜌𝜌̇ but 𝜌𝜌̇ = 𝑉𝑉
∴ 𝑚𝑚̇ = ∙ 𝑝𝑝̇
𝑜𝑜 𝛽𝛽

𝛽𝛽 is known as the bulk modulus. Equation for 𝑚𝑚̇ has similarities to electrical capacitance
in that flow is related to rate of charge of driving force.
Apply the equation above to a GAS.

The gas law is: p𝑉𝑉 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 m is in moles, R is universal gas constant.

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉
𝑚𝑚 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ∴ 𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 or 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ∙ 𝑝𝑝̇ similarly to above.

INERTIA

Mass of fluid 𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌

The force acting on the slug by the pressure drop is 𝐹𝐹 = (𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 )𝐴𝐴

Using Newton’s 2nd Law (𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)

𝑞𝑞̇
(𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 )𝐴𝐴 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℓ ∙ ℓ̈ and ℓ̈ ≡ 𝜐𝜐̇ = where 𝜐𝜐 is velocity, 𝑞𝑞 is flow rate
𝐴𝐴

𝜌𝜌ℓ
∴ (𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 ) = 𝐴𝐴
∙ 𝑞𝑞̇

𝜌𝜌ℓ
𝐴𝐴
is a term similar to inductance in electrical circuits.

5. THERMAL AND FLUID SYSTEMS IN THE NUTSHELL

𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) 𝑑𝑑(𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑(𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌)

𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑄𝑄̇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚̇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑