ONE-DIMENSIONAL

Steady-State Conduction
Class N° 4

Facultad de minas
 2

OBJECTIVES
WHAT WE KNOW

• The term one-dimensional refers to the fact that only one coordinate is needed to
describe the spatial variation of the dependent variables.

• The system is characterized by steady-state conditions if the temperature at each point is

independent of time.

WHAT WE EXPECT

• To determine expressions for the temperature distribution and heat transfer rate in
common geometries.

• To introduce the concept of thermal resistance an to show how thermal circuits may be
used to model heat flow.

2
 3

CONDUCTION IN THE PLANE WALL (Temperature Distribution)

For one-dimensional conduction in a plane wall, temperature is a function of the -
coordinate and heat is transferred exclusively in this direction.

For steady-state conditions with no distributed

source or sink of energy within the wall:

𝑑
𝑑𝑥 ( 𝑘
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑥 )=0 (1)

If is assumed to be constant, may be integrated

twice to obtain the general solution:

𝑇 ( 𝑥 )=𝐶 1 𝑥 +𝐶(2)2
Figure 1. Steady-state heat conduction
experiment.

3
 4

CONDUCTION IN THE PLANE WALL (Temperature Distribution)

To obtain the constants of integration, and , boundary conditions must be introduced:
(3)

Applying the conditions to the general solution, we then obtain:

𝑥
𝑇 ( 𝑥 )= ( 𝑇 𝑠 , 2 − 𝑇 𝑠 ,1 ) +𝑇(4)
𝑠 ,1
𝐿

For one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane wall with no heat

generation and constant , the temperature varies linearly with .

We may use Fourier’s law to determine the conduction heat transfer rate. That is,

𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐴 }  = {{𝑞} rsub {𝑥}} over {𝐴} = {𝑘} over {𝐿} left ({𝑇} rsub {𝑠 ,1} − {𝑇} rsub {𝑠 ,2}(6)
right ¿
𝑞 𝑥 =−𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
=
𝐿
( 𝑇 𝑠 , 1 − 𝑇 (5)
𝑠 ,2 ) 𝑞𝑥

4
 5

CONDUCTION IN THE PLANE WALL (Integrated form)

𝑑 𝐸 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
˙
𝑄 ˙
𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (5)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝐸 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
=0(6)
𝑑𝑡

˙ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 , 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙=− 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑇
𝑄 (7)
𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝑇= 𝑇 2

∫ ˙ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ,𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑥=−

𝑄 ∫ (8)
𝑘𝐴𝑑𝑇
𝑥=0 𝑇 =𝑇 1

Figure 2. Under steady
conditions, the temperature
distribution in a plane wall is a
straight line: dT/dx = const.
𝑇 1− 𝑇2
˙ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 , 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙=𝑘𝐴
𝑄 [𝑊(9)]
𝐿
Once the rate of heat conduction is available, the temperature T(x)
at any location x can be determined by replacing T2 by T, and L by x.

5
 6

CONDUCTION IN THE PLANE WALL (Thermal Resistance)

Thermal resistance
𝑇 1−𝑇 2
˙
𝑄 (10)
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 , 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙=
𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝐿
𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = (11)
𝑘𝐴

Electrical resistance
𝑉 −𝑉 2
1
𝐼= (12)
𝑅𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = 𝐿 / 𝜎 𝜌 𝐴
(13)
Figure 2. Analogy between thermal
and electrical resistance concepts.
Rate of heat transfer  Electric current
Thermal resistance  Electrical resistance
Temperature difference  Voltage difference
 7

NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING (Thermal Resistance)

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = h 𝐴 𝑠 (𝑇 𝑠 −𝑇(14)
∞)

Convection resistance of the surface

𝑇 1−𝑇 2
˙
𝑄 (15)
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 =
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
1
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = (16)
h 𝐴𝑠

Figure 3. Schematic for convection resistance

at a surface.

• When the convection heat transfer coefficient is very large (h → ), the convection resistance
becomes zero and Ts  T.

• That is, the surface offers no resistance to convection, and thus it does not slow down the heat
transfer process.

• This situation is approached in practice at surfaces where boiling and condensation occur.
 8

RADIATION (Thermal Resistance)

˙ 𝑇 𝑠 − 𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 =𝜀 𝜎 𝐴 𝑠 ( 𝑇 𝑠 −𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 )= h𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐴 𝑠 ( 𝑇 𝑠 − 𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 ) =
4 4
(17)
𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑄˙ 𝑟𝑎𝑑 2 2
h𝑟𝑎𝑑 = = 𝜀𝜎 (𝑇 𝑠 − 𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 )(𝑇 𝑠 +𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 (18))
𝐴𝑠 ( 𝑇 𝑠 − 𝑇 ∞ )

1 1 1
= + (19)
𝑅 𝑡 , 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑅 𝑡 , 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑅 𝑡 , 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
Combined heat transfer coefficient
h𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 =h𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + h(20)
𝑟𝑎𝑑

Figure 4. Schematic for convection and radiation resistances at a surface.

8
 9

THE COMPOSITE WALL

Composite walls may involve any number of series an parallel thermal resistances due to layers of
different materials. Heat transfer rate for the example may be expressed as:
𝑇∞ −𝑇
˙ =
𝑄
,1 ∞, 4
(21)
∑ 𝑅𝑡
˙ ≡ 𝑈𝐴 ∆ 𝑇
𝑄 (22)

∆𝑇 1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑅 𝑡 = = (23)
𝑄˙ 𝑈𝐴
Where is the overall temperature difference, and the
summation includes all thermal resistances. Alternatively, the
heat transfer rate can be related to the temperature
Figure 5. Equivalent thermal circuit for a series difference and resistance associated with each element.
composite wall.
𝑇 ∞ ,1 −𝑇 𝑠 , 1 𝑇 𝑠, 1− 𝑇2 𝑇 2− 𝑇3
˙
𝑄= = = =…
(24)
( 1/ h 1 𝐴 ) ( 𝐿 𝐴/ 𝑘 𝐴 𝐴 ) ( 𝐿𝐵 / 𝑘 𝐵 𝐴)
 10

GENERALIZED THERMAL RESISTANCE NETWORKS

( )
˙ ˙ ˙ 𝑇1− 𝑇 2 𝑇1− 𝑇 2 1 1
𝑄=𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = + = (𝑇 1 −𝑇 2) + (25)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅 1 𝑅2

˙ =(𝑇 1 − 𝑇 2 )/ 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑄 (26)

Thermal resistance network for two parallel layers.

1 1 1 𝑅1 𝑅 2
= + → 𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (27)
𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅1 𝑅 2 𝑅 1+ 𝑅2

Figure 6. Parallel layers resistance

 11

GENERALIZED THERMAL RESISTANCE NETWORKS

𝑇1− 𝑇 ∞
˙ =
𝑄 (28)
𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑅1 = 𝑅 2= (29)
𝑘 1 𝐴1 𝑘2 𝐴 2
𝐿3
𝑅3 = (30)
𝑘3 𝐴3

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅 12 + 𝑅 3+ 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
(31a)

𝑅1 𝑅 2 (31b)
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + 𝑅3 + 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Figure 7. Thermal resistance network for
combined series-parallel arrangement.
 12

GENERALIZED THERMAL RESISTANCE NETWORKS

Although the heat flow is now multidimensional, it is often reasonable to assume
one-dimensional conditions. Subject to this assumption, two different thermal
circuits may be used:

Figure 8a. Thermal resistance network model for

multidimensional conduction.

Case A: It is presumed that surfaces normal

to the -direction are isothermal.
Case B: It is assumed that surfaces parallel
Figure 8b. Thermal resistance network
model for multidimensional conduction.
to the -direction are adiabatic.
 13

THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE

• When two such surfaces are pressed against each other,
the peaks form good material contact but the valleys
form voids filled with air.

• These numerous air gaps of varying sizes act as

insulation because of the low thermal conductivity of air.

• Heat transfer is due to conduction across the actual

contact area and to conduction and/or radiation across
Figure 9. Temperature distribution and heat
the gaps. flow lines along two solid plates pressed
against each other for the case of perfect and
• The contact resistance may be viewed as two parallel imperfect contact.
resistances: that due to the contact spots and that due to
the gaps.

• The contact resistance may be reduced by increasing the

joint pressure, by reducing the roughness of the mating
surfaces or by selecting an interfacial fluid of large
thermal conductivity.
 14
THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE
• The thermal contact
resistance can be minimized
by applying a thermal
grease such as silicon oil.

• A better conducting gas

such as helium or hydrogen.

• A soft metallic foil such as

tin, silver, copper, nickel, or
aluminum
Figure 10. Thermal contact resistance
for different gas gaps

Figure 11. Effect of metallic coatings

on thermal contact conductance
 15

CONDUCTION IN RADIAL SYSTEMS (The Cylinder)

We may determine the temperature distribution in the cylinder by solving conduction equation
and applying appropriate boundary conditions.

1 𝜕
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 (
𝑘𝑟
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕
+ 2 )𝑘
𝜕𝑇
+
𝜕
𝑘
𝜕 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕 𝑧 𝜕 𝑧( ) ( )
𝜕𝑇
+ 𝑞=𝜌
˙ 𝑐𝑝
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑡

Assuming Steady State, to be constant, one direction

heat flow.

1 𝑑
𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑘𝑟(𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑟
=0 ) 𝑇 ( 𝑟 ) =𝐶 1 ln 𝑟 +𝐶 2

𝑇 𝑠 ,1 − 𝑇 𝑠 , 2
𝑇 (𝑟 )=
Figure 11. Cylinder Resistance Model ln ¿ ¿ ¿

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 2 𝜋 𝐿𝑘 (𝑇 𝑠 ,1 −𝑇 𝑠 , 2)
𝑞𝑟 =− 𝑘𝐴 =− 𝑘(2 𝜋 𝑟𝐿) 𝑞𝑟 =
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 ln ¿ ¿ ¿
 16

CONDUCTION IN RADIAL SYSTEMS (The Cylinder)

For radial conduction in a cylindrical wall, the thermal resistance is of the form

𝑅𝑡 ,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 =ln ¿¿¿

Consider now the composite system. Neglecting the
interfacial contact resistances, the heat transfer rate may
be expressed as:
𝑇 ∞ , 1 − 𝑇 ∞ ,4
𝑞𝑟 =
1
+ ln ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
2 𝜋 𝑟 1 𝐿 h1

𝑇 ∞, 1− 𝑇∞ , 4
𝑞𝑟 = =𝑈𝐴(𝑇 ∞ ,1 − 𝑇 ∞ , 4 )
𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡
Figure 12. Temperature distribution for a
𝑈 1 𝐴 1=𝑈 2 𝐴2=𝑈 3 𝐴 3=𝑈 4 𝐴 4 =( Σ 𝑅 𝑡 )−1 composite cylindrical wall.
 17

CONDUCTION IN RADIAL SYSTEMS (The Sphere)

Now consider applying the alternative method to analyzing conduction in a hollow sphere.

For a differential control volume, energy conservation

requires that for steady-state, one-dimensional conditions
with no heat generation. The appropriate form of Fourier’s
law is
𝑑𝑇 2 𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑟 =− 𝑘𝐴 =− 𝑘( 4 𝜋 𝑟 ) (43)
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
Where is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer. Figure 13. Conduction in a spherical shell

Acknowledging that is a constant, independent of , Equation 43 may

be expressed in the integral form, with K constant:

4 𝜋 𝑘(𝑇 𝑠 , 1 − 𝑇 𝑠 ,2 )
( )
𝑟2 𝑇 𝑠 ,2
𝑞𝑟 𝑑𝑟 1 1 1
∫
4 𝜋 𝑟 𝑟2
=− ∫ 𝑘 ( 𝑇 ) 𝑑𝑇 𝑞𝑟 =
¿¿
𝑅𝑡 ,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −
4 𝜋 𝑘 𝑟 1 𝑟2
1 𝑇 𝑠 ,1
 18
CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION
• In a cylindrical pipe or a spherical shell, the
additional insulation increases the conduction
resistance of the insulation layer but decreases the
convection resistance of the surface because of the
increase in the outer surface area for convection.
• The heat transfer from the pipe may increase or
decrease, depending on which effect dominates.

Figure 15. Cylinder insulation.

𝑘 𝑇1− 𝑇 ∞
˙
𝑄=
𝑟 𝑐𝑟 , 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑅 𝑖𝑛𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
h
𝑇 1− 𝑇∞
˙
𝑄=
2𝑘 ln ( 𝑟 1/ 𝑟 2 ) 1
𝑟 𝑐𝑟 , 𝑠𝑝h𝑒𝑟𝑒 = +
h 2 𝜋 𝐿𝑘 2 𝜋h𝑟2𝐿
Figure 14. Heat transfer vs external radius.

18
 19

CONDUCTION RESULTS (Summary)

Key results for one-dimensional, steady state on a plane, cylindrical and spherical walls are
summarized in next table, where refers to the temperature difference, between the inner
and outer surfaces.
Plane Wall Cylindrical Walla Spherical Walla

Heat equation

Temperature
distribution

Heat flux

Heat rate

Thermal resistance

a
The critical radius of insulation is for the cylinder and for the sphere.
 20

CONDUCTION (Thermal Energy Generation)

Now, we consider situations for which thermal energy is being generated due to
conversion from some other energy form.

• Conversion from electrical to thermal energy: The rate at which energy is

generated by passing a current through a medium of electrical resistance is

˙ 𝑔= 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑒
𝐸

• If this power generation occurs uniformly throughout the medium of volume

the volumetric generation rate is then
˙ 𝑔
𝐸 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑒
𝑞
˙ ≡ =
𝑉 𝑉

 Conversion from nuclear to thermal energy: Is a result of the deceleration

and absorption of neutrons in the fuel element of a nuclear reactor.
 21
CONDUCTION (Thermal Energy Generation)
• Conversion from chemical to thermal energy: It occurs as a result of an
exothermic chemical reaction within a medium.

Gummy bear with

molten potassium
chlorate:
exothermic
reaction.

• Conversion from electromagnetic to thermal energy: It occurs due to

absorption of radiation within the medium.
 22

CONDUCTION WITH GENERATION (The Plane Wall)

𝜕
𝜕𝑥
𝑘 (
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥
+
𝜕
𝜕𝑦
𝑘 )
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑦
+
𝜕
𝜕𝑧
𝑘 (
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑧
+ 𝑞=
˙ 𝜌 𝑐𝑝)𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑡 ( )
For a plane wall, in which there is uniform energy generation per unit volume ( is
constant) and the surfaces are maintained at and the appropriate form of the
heat equation is:
𝑑2 𝑇 𝑞 ˙
+ =0
𝑑𝑥
2
𝑘
𝑞
˙ 2
𝑇 =− 𝑥 +𝐶 1 𝑥 +𝐶 2
2𝑘
For the prescribed boundary conditions, Figure 16. Wall
with constant
heat generation
 23

CONDUCTION WITH GENERATION (The Plane Wall)

The temperature distribution is

˙ 𝐿2
( )
𝑇 𝑠 ,2 −𝑇 𝑠 , 1 𝑥 𝑇 𝑠 , 1+𝑇 𝑠 ,2
2
𝑞 𝑥
𝑇 ( 𝑥 )= 1− 2 + +
2𝑘 𝐿 2 𝐿 2
The preceding result simplifies when both surfaces are maintained at
a common temperature, . The temperature distribution is then
symmetrical about the midplane and is given by

˙ 𝐿2
( )
2
𝑞 𝑥
𝑇 ( 𝑥 )= 1 − 2 +𝑇 𝑠
2𝑘 𝐿
The maximum temperature exists at the midplane.

˙ 𝐿2
𝑞
𝑇 (0 )≡ 𝑇0= +𝑇 𝑠
2𝑘 Figure 17. Symmetrical plane wall
 24

CONDUCTION WITH GENERATION (The Plane Wall)

• At the plane of symmetry, the temperature gradient is zero, . Accordingly, there is
no heat transfer across this plane, and it may be represented by the adiabatic
surface.
• To use the foregoing results, the surface temperature(s) must be known. A
common situation is one for which the temperature of an adjoining fluid, is
known. It then becomes necessary to relate to by means of a surface energy
balance.
Neglecting radiation, the energy balance reduces to

−𝑘
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑥 |
𝑥=𝐿
=h(𝑇 𝑠 −𝑇 ∞ )

𝑞
˙ 𝐿
𝑇 𝑠= 𝑇 ∞ +
h
 25

CONDUCTION WITH GENERATION (Radial Systems)

1 𝜕
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 (
𝑘𝑟
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕
+ 2 )𝑘
𝜕𝑇
+
𝜕
( ) ( )
𝑘
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕 𝑧 𝜕 𝑧
𝜕𝑇
+ 𝑞=𝜌
˙ 𝑐𝑝
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑡

For steady-state conditions, the rate at which heat is generated within a long, solid
cylinder must equal the rate at which heat is convected from the surface of the
cylinder to a moving fluid. The appropriate form of the heat equation is:

1 𝑑
𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 (
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑟
𝑞
˙
+ =0
𝑘 )
Separating variables and assuming uniform generation, this expression may be
integrated to obtain
𝑑𝑇 𝑞˙ 2
𝑟 =− 𝑟 +𝐶 1
𝑑𝑟 2𝑘
𝑞˙ 2
𝑇 ( 𝑟 ) =− 𝑟 +𝐶 1 ln 𝑟 +𝐶 2
4𝑘
 26

CONDUCTION WITH GENERATION (Radial Systems)

To obtain the constants of integration and , we apply the boundary conditions
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑟 |
𝑟=0
=0,      𝑇 ( 𝑟 0 ) =𝑇 𝑠  

For the solid cylinder the centerline is a line of

symmetry for the temperature distribution and the
temperature gradient must be zero.
The temperature distribution is therefore

( )
˙ 𝑟 20
𝑞 𝑟
2
𝑇 (𝑟 )= 1− 2 + 𝑇 𝑠
4𝑘 𝑟0

( )
𝑇 (𝑟 ) −𝑇 𝑠 𝑟
2
=1 −
Figure 18. Conduction in a solid cylinder with 𝑇 0 −𝑇 𝑠 𝑟0
uniform heat generation.
 27

REFERENCES
TEXTS, FIGURES AND TABLES

• Bergman, T. et al. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. John Wiley & Sons, 2011

• Cengel, Y. A., Boles, M. A., Campos Olguín, V., & Colli Serrano, M. T. (2003). Termodinámica.

VIDEOS
Video 2.1: MDR Science. Conductivity of metals II [on line]. Available on:
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RHQ17S72ON4> .

Video 2.2: Bruno Ozi. Têmpera direta em água do aço SAE 1045 [on line].
Available on: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xaVCX0EMGac >