1 Experiment No 1

“Investigate Fourier's law for heat conduction along a simple bar and determine its thermal
conductivity”
1.1 Objectives
i. To investigate the Fourier’s law for linear heat conduction along a simple bar.
ii. To determine the thermal conductivity of the material of the bar.
1.2 Introduction:
Heat conduction is a fundamental process in physics and engineering, governing the transfer of thermal
energy through materials. Fourier's law is a cornerstone in the field of heat conduction, providing a
mathematical framework to describe this phenomenon. Understanding and accurately measuring thermal
conductivity are essential for various practical applications, such as designing efficient heat exchangers,
insulating materials, and optimizing thermal management systems.
Materials and Applications:
The determination of thermal conductivity has practical significance in various fields:
Materials Science:
Understanding the thermal properties of materials, including metals, polymers, and ceramics, is crucial
for material selection and design. Researchers have extensively studied the thermal conductivities of
diverse materials.
Building and Construction:
In building insulation and energy-efficient design, knowing the thermal conductivity of building
materials helps optimize energy consumption and maintain comfortable indoor environments.
Thermal Engineering:
In heat exchanger design and thermal management systems, accurate thermal conductivity values are
essential for efficient heat transfer and system performance.
Challenges and Advances:
While many established techniques exist for measuring thermal conductivity, challenges persist, such as
the need for accurate temperature measurements and consideration of three-dimensional effects. Recent
advancements include the use of advanced materials, such as nanomaterials and composites, with
tunable thermal properties.
1.2.1 FOURIER’s LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION:
The Fourier’s law states that:
"The heat flux resulting from thermal conduction is proportional to the magnitude of the temperature
gradient and opposite to it in sign". For a unidirectional conduction process this observation may be
expressed as:
( Area)(Temperaturedifference )
Rate of heat conduction ∝
T h ickness
T 1−T 2 ΔT
Q̇=kA =−kA
Δx Δx
In the limiting case Δx → 0 , the equation above reduces to the differential form,
dT
Q̇=−kA
dx
Where,
Q = heat flux,
k = Thermal Conductivity
Negative sign is given to satisfy Thermodynamics 2 nd Law i.e., heat must flow downhill on the
temperature scale.

1.3 Literature Review

1.3.1 Historical Background:
Fourier's law, formulated by Joseph Fourier in the 19th century, laid the foundation for understanding
heat conduction. His work demonstrated the relationship between heat transfer rate, temperature
gradients, and the thermal properties of materials. Fourier's law has since become a fundamental concept
in heat transfer studies.
1.3.2 Experimental Methods:
Numerous experimental techniques have been developed to investigate Fourier's law and determine
thermal conductivity. These methods often involve measuring temperature changes over time in
response to a controlled heat source applied to a material. Some common techniques include the steady-
state and transient-state methods.
1.3.3 Steady-State Methods:
In steady-state experiments, a constant heat source maintains a uniform temperature difference across a
material. Researchers measure temperature distributions and use Fourier's law to calculate thermal
conductivity. Steady-state methods are suitable for materials with high thermal conductivity.
Transient-State Methods:
Transient-state experiments involve changing the heat source or temperature boundary conditions and
observing the resulting temperature changes over time. These methods are valuable for both high and
low thermal conductivity materials. Researchers apply mathematical models, such as the heat
conduction equation, to analyze transient data.

1.4 Methodology
1.4.1 Apparatus
 Heat source (e.g., electrical heater).
 Insulated bar of known length and material.
 Thermocouples (temperature sensors).
 Digital thermometer or temperature data logger.
 Power supply for the heater.
 Ruler or calipers for measuring bar dimensions.
 Stopwatch or timer.
 Data recording and analysis software.

1.4.2 Procedure
 Measure and record the length (L) and cross-sectional area (A) of the bar.
 Place the thermocouples at regular intervals along the length of the bar, ensuring good thermal
contact with the bar's surface.
 Connect the thermocouples to the digital thermometer or data logger.
 Apply a known and constant power (P) to the heater.
 Record the initial temperatures (T0) at each thermocouple location.
 Start the timer and record temperature data at regular time intervals (e.g., every minute) until a
steady-state temperature distribution is achieved.
 Calculate the temperature gradient dx/dT for each section of the bar.
  Calculate the rate of heat transfer (Q) for each section using Fourier's law.
 Plot Q as a function of dx/dT and determine the slope of the line.
 Use the slope to calculate the thermal conductivity (k) of the material.

1.5 Observations and Calculations

1.6 Results and Discussion

1.7 Conclusion
Summarize the main findings of your experiment. State whether your results support Fourier's law of
heat conduction and discuss any implications or applications of your findings. Mention any
improvements or modifications that could be made to the experiment for better accuracy.
The investigation of Fourier's law for heat conduction along a simple bar and the determination of its
thermal conductivity have a rich historical background and contemporary significance. Advancements in
experimental techniques and materials continue to enhance our understanding of heat conduction,
allowing for more precise and practical applications in various industries.
In conclusion, this lab report has detailed the experimental procedure and analysis required to
investigate Fourier's law for heat conduction along a simple bar and determine its thermal conductivity.
The results obtained provide valuable insights into the thermal properties of the material tested, and they
align with established principles of heat conduction. Future experiments or improvements in
measurement techniques may further enhance the accuracy of thermal conductivity determinations.

2 Experiment No 2
Investigate overall heat transfer coefficient of a composite bar using Fourier’s Law
2.1 Objectives
i. To investigate the Fourier’s law for linear heat conduction along a composite bar.
ii. To study the effect of conduction of heat along a composite bar.
iii. To determine the thermal conductivity of each material of bar.
iv. To evaluate the overall heat transfer coefficient.
2.2 Introduction

2.2.1 FOURIER’s LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION:

The Fourier’s law states that:
"The heat flux resulting from thermal conduction is proportional to the magnitude of the temperature
gradient and opposite to it in sign". For a unidirectional conduction process this observation may be
expressed as:
( Area)(Temperaturedifference )
Rate of heat conduction ∝
T h ickness
T 1−T 2 ΔT
Q̇=kA =−kA
Δx Δx
In the limiting case Δx → 0 , the equation above reduces to the differential form,
 dT
Q̇=−kA
dx
Where,
Q = heat flux,
k = Thermal Conductivity
Negative sign is given to satisfy Thermodynamics 2 nd Law i.e., heat must flow downhill on the
temperature scale.

In case of plate of uniform thickness L, the above equation can be simplified as:
ΔT
Q̇=−kA
L
−ΔT
Q̇=
( )
L
kA

Where,
L
=R cond = Conductive Resistance
kA
−ΔT
Q̇=
R cond

2.2.2 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (k):

Thermal Conductivity is the property of a material to conduct heat. It is evaluated primarily in terms of
Fourier’s law for heat conduction. In general, thermal conductivity is a tensor property. It is a property
that depends on temperature but not on too extent. For gases, k increases with temperature due to
collision as result vibration increase.

2.2.3 OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (U):

Fig. 1: Overall Heat Transfer through a Plane Wall

Consider a plane wall as shown in Fig. 1 interacting with a hotter fluid at surface A and cooler fluid at
surface B. The heat transfer under steady conditions is given as:
kA
q=h1 A ( T A−T 2 )= ( T −T 2 ) =h2 A (T 2−T B )
Δx 1
The overall heat transfer is given as:
Δ T overall
q=
∑R
T A−T B
q=
1 Δx 1
+ +
h 1 A k 1 A h2 A

The overall heat transfer is usually expressed in terms of overall heat transfer coefficient U given
by the relation:
q=UA ΔT overall
Thus,
1
UA=
1 Δx 1
+ +
h1 A k 1 A h2 A

and,
1
U=
1 Δx 1
+ +
h1 k 1 h2
The overall heat transfer coefficient is also expressed as:
1
U=
R−Value

2.3 Literature Review

2.4 Methodology
2.4.1 Apparatus
1. Display and Control Unit
2. Temperature Sensors (Thermocouple & Multimeter)
3. Heat Conduction Apparatus
4. 25 mm diameter Brass and Steel Bar

2.4.2 Procedure
1. Take a composite bar made up of brass and steel.
2. Insert the brass and steel samples to the test unit.
3. Allow a fair amount of cold water to flow through the test unit.
 4. Select an intermediate position for the heater power control and allow sufficient time (10 min.)
for a steady state condition to be achieved.
5. The input powers are given from 5W to 20W.
6. Record the temperature (T) at T1, T3, T7 and T9 points and the input power reading on the
wattmeter (Q).
7. Repeat the procedure for other input powers keeping the equilibrium temperature below 100 o C.
After each change, allow sufficient time to achieve steady state conditions.
8. Plot the temperature profile along the length of the core and obtain the slope dT/dx.
9. Calculate the thermal conductivity (k) of the brass and compare with the typical values contained
in tables of published data.

2.5 Observations and Calculations

2.6 Results and Discussion

3 Experiment No 3
To investigate the conduction of heat along a brass bar having different cross sectional area with the
help of temperature profile
3.1 Objectives

3.2 Introduction

3.3 Literature Review

3.4 Methodology
3.4.1 Apparatus
5. Display and Control Unit
6. Temperature Sensors (Thermocouple and Multimeter)
7. Heat Conduction Apparatus
8. Brass Bar (d = 90 mm, 25 mm)

3.4.2 Procedure
10. Take a brass sample of varying cross-sectional area and place it in the linear module and clamp
together.
11. Allow a fair amount of cold water to flow through the test unit.
12. Select an intermediate position for the heater power control and allow sufficient time (10 min.)
for a steady state condition to be achieved.
13. The input powers are given from 5W to 20W.
14. Record the temperature (T) at T1, T2, T3, T7, T8, T9 and the input power reading on the
wattmeter (Q).
 15. Repeat the procedure for other input powers keeping the equilibrium temperature below 100 o C.
After each change, allow sufficient time to achieve steady state conditions.
16. Plot the temperature profile along the length of the core and obtain the slope dT/dx.
17. Compare the gradient ratio obtained from the plot of measured temperature vs length
(experimental result) with the inverse ratio of the two different areas (Theoretical result).

3.5 Observations and Calculations

3.6 Results and Discussion

4 Experiment No 4
To investigate the rate of heat transfer resulting from radial heat conduction through a plane wall of
cylinder
4.1 Objectives

4.2 Introduction

4.2.1 FOURIER’s LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION:

The Fourier’s law states that:
"The heat flux resulting from thermal conduction is proportional to the magnitude of the
temperature gradient and opposite to it in sign". For a unidirectional conduction process this
observation may be expressed as:
( Area)(Temperaturedifference )
Rate of heat conduction ∝
T h ickness
T 1−T 2 ΔT
Q̇=kA =−kA
Δx Δx
In the limiting case Δx → 0 , the equation above reduces to the differential form,
dT
Q̇=−kA
dx
Where,
Q = heat flux,
k = Thermal Conductivity

Negative sign is given to satisfy Thermodynamics 2 nd Law i.e., heat must flow downhill on the
temperature scale.

4.2.2 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (k):

Thermal Conductivity is the property of a material to conduct heat. It is evaluated primarily in
terms of Fourier’s law for heat conduction. In general, thermal conductivity is a tensor property.
It is a property that depends on temperature but not on too extent. For gases, k increases with
temperature due to collision as result vibration increase.
4.2.3 HEAT TRANSFER RATE q̇ :

There are two methods for finding the heat transfer rate:

STANDARD METHOD:
∫ drd (kr dT
dr )
=0 … …(i)
dT
kr =c
dr
dT c
r =
dr k
dT
r =c1
dr
1
dT =c1 . dr
r
Taking Integration on both sides,
1
∫ dT =c 1 r ∫ dr
T (r )=c 1 lnr +c 2 … … ( ii )
Applying B.Cs to find constants:
At r = r1, T = T1
At r = r2, T = T2
T 1=c 1 ln r 1+ c2 … … … (a)
T 2=c 1 ln r 2+ c 2 … … … ( b )
For solving c1 and c2,
( T 1−T 2 )
c 1=
ln ( )
r1
r2
( T 1 −T 2 )
c 2=T 1− ln r 1
r
ln 1
r2()
Thus Eq (ii) leads to:
( T 1−T 2 ) lnr ( T 1−T 2 ) ln r 1
T =T 1− + … … ( iii )
ln ( )
r2
r1
ln
r2
r1 ( )
Now, Heat transfer through the pipe of Length L:
dT
q=−KA … …(iv)
dr
Differentiating Eq (iii) with respect to r:
dT −1 ( T 1−T 2)
= … …(v )

( )
dr r r2
ln
r1
 Put A = 2πrL & Eq (v) in Eq (iv), we get:
(T 1−T 2) (T 1−T 2)
q= =
1 r R cc
ln ⁡( 2 )
2 πKL r1

ALTERNATIVE METHOD:

As the Heat transfer through the pipe of Length L is given by:

dT
q=−KA … …(i)
dr
Here A is the surface area of the cylinder and,
Surface Area of Cylinder=A=2 πrL
Now, Eq (i):
dT
q=−K (2 πrL)
dr

( q 1
2 πkL r )
dr =−dT
r2 T2
q 1
2 πkL ∫
dr =−∫ dT
r
r
1 T 1

q
2 πkL
[ ln r 2−ln r 1 ]=− [T 2−T 1 ]
q
2 πkL
ln
()
r2
r1
=T 1−T 2

(T 1−T 2)
q= × 2 πKL
r2
ln ⁡( )
r1
Also,
r2
)
ln ⁡(
r1
Rth =
2 πKL

4.3 Literature Review

Experimental Setup and Procedure

Figure 1 depicts the experimental setup for the study of radial heat transfer under transient conditions
with stagnant fluid. Experiments were carried out for the bed heights of 200 mm and 300 mm. The bed is
formed with iron ore particles with the average size of 4.3 mm. As shown in Figure 1(a), a cylindrical
electrical resistance furnace was designed and fabricated. In order to ensure a sufficiently long hot zone
wherein the temperature is uniform, three independently controlled electrical heating coils are placed,
one at the center and the other two on each end of the furnace. By adjusting the heat input to the three
segments independently one can achieve a large constant temperature zone. A thin wall cylinder of
stainless steel 316L containing the packed bed is inserted vertically within the furnace. The packed bed
is placed almost entirely within the constant temperature zone. All the temperature measurements are
done in the middle section of the packed bed on a horizontal plane. Thermocouples are placed along a
diameter of the packed bed. Temperature in the vicinity of any particle and within it has been verified to
be within experimental error of ±0.1%.

Figure 1
Schematic of an experimental setup for transient heat transfer experiments: (a) packed bed arrangement
and (b) thermocouple positions inside the stainless steel pipe as elevation and plan.

Cylinder wall temperatures are obtained by embedding thermocouples into the wall, by first drilling a
small blind hole and then closing it after inserting the thermocouple tip. This is to ensure good contact
and, specifically, to avoid direct radiation from the furnace. To avoid the fin effect, this thermocouple is
led along the wall for some distance before being taken out. Similarly the thermocouples measuring bed
temperatures are led axially, since axial variation of temperature is expected to be small due to the large
constant temperature zone. To ensure proper positioning of the thermocouple tips, the wires coming out
through the bottom flange are weighed down so that the wire remains taut within the bed. Figure 1(b)
depicts the thermocouple positions and the respective distances. Instrumentation for the experiments is
shown in Figure 2. Calibrated chromel-alumel -type thermocouples of gauge 0.25 mm have been used
for temperature measurement. The temperature measuring accuracy was ±1 K. The sheath of the
shielded thermocouple wire is properly grounded. Data from the thermocouples are recorded
continuously using a high-gain data acquisition card (PCL 818HG, Advantech, USA) and a personal
computer. The maximum sampling rate of the card is 100 kS/s. Thermocouples are connected to the data
acquisition system card through isolation modules (ADAM 3011, Advantech, USA). The selected
temperature range for the present work is 400 K to 900 K.

Figure 2
Schematic diagram of experimental setup and instrumentation for radial heat transfer measurements.

4.4 Methodology
4.4.1 Apparatus

4.4.2 Procedure

4.5 Observations and Calculations

4.6 Results and Discussion