Waheed ul Hassan Rasheed 2019-ME-22 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab

Lab Session 02:

To Investigate Fourier’s Law for the Linear Conduction of Heat
Along a Composite Bar and Determine Overall Thermal
Resistance of the Bar.
Objectives
• To understand concepts of thermal resistance and overall heat transfer coefficient through
Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
• To find thermal conductivity of steel by using Fourier’s law in a composite bar.
Apparatus
➢ Heat Conduction Unit
o Wattmeter
o Cylindrical Brass bars
➢ Thermocouple

Figure 1. apparatus

Introduction
In this experiment our main focus was to learn the fundamentals of heat and mass transfer. There
are three modes we have conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction is the primary mode
of heat transfer in solids and is explained by Fourier’s law. In conduction heat is transferred for
one particle to another through direct contact. Other than that thermal resistance and overall heat
transfer coefficient are covered.

Theory
Conduction
Conduction heat transfer is the transfer of heat through matter (i.e., solids, liquids, or gases)
without bulk motion of the matter. In another ward, conduction is the transfer of energy from the
Waheed ul Hassan Rasheed 2019-ME-22 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab

more energetic to less energetic particles of a substance due to interaction between the particles.
Conduction heat transfer in gases and liquids is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules
during their random motion. On the other hand, heat transfer in solids is due to the combination of
lattice vibrations of the molecules and the energy transport by free electrons.
For example, heat conduction can occur through wall of a vein in human body. The inside surface,
which is exposed to blood, is at a higher temperature than the outside surface.

Figure 2: Modes of Heat Transfer

Fourier’s Law of Thermal Conduction

Fourier’s law of thermal conduction states that,
The time rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the
temperature and to the area.
∆𝑇
𝑞̇ ∝ − ⋅𝐴
∆𝑥
∆𝑇
⇒ 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴 … … … (1)
∆𝑥

Figure 3. Heat flow by conduction

Where:
q̇ is the rate of heat transfer

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Waheed ul Hassan Rasheed 2019-ME-22 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab

A is cross sectional area

T is the temperature difference
x is the distance between faces
k is the thermal conductivity of the material
Eq. 1 is known as Fourier’s law. The minus sign accounts for the fact that heat flows from a higher
temperature to a lower temperature. Thus, for example, in heat flows in the positive x-direction.
For this to happen the temperature must decrease as x increases. Thus, ΔT is negative.
Conduction Factors
➢ Temperature difference
➢ Materials
➢ Area
➢ Thermal conductivity
The Differential Form of Fourier's Law
We obtain the differential form of Fourier's law by replacing ΔT/Δx in Eq. 1 by the derivative
dT/dx. This replacement produces
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 … … … (2)
𝑑𝑥
The derivative dT/dx is called the temperature gradient and measures how temperature changes
with position. Geometrically, dT/dx is the slope of a graph of T versus x. The heat flow shown in
is one-dimensional along the x-direction. For one-dimensional heat flow the temperature gradient
is a constant, provided that the material is uniform (k = constant).
𝑑𝑇 𝑞
=− = constant
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝐴
Consequently, the temperature decreases linearly with distance along the direction of heat flow,
giving a straight-line graph of T versus x, Figure .

Figure 4. The temperature gradient dT/dx is the slope of a graph of temperature versus distance.

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Waheed ul Hassan Rasheed 2019-ME-22 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab

Thermal Conductivity
𝑞̇
𝑘=−
𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)
The units of k are W/m · K. The value of the thermal conductivity depends primarily on the physical
composition of the material. A material with a large value of k would be described as a good
thermal conductor. Metals are among the best conductors. A material with a small value of k would
be classified as a poor thermal conductor, or a good thermal insulator. Gases and various porous
plastics such as Styrofoam are among the best insulators.
Overall Heat transfer Coefficient
The overall heat transfer coefficient, or U-value, refers to how well heat is conducted through over
a series of resistant mediums. Its units are the W/(m2°C). The overall heat transfer coefficient is
influenced by the thickness and thermal conductivity of the mediums through which heat is
transferred. The larger the coefficient, the easier heat is transferred from its source to the product
being heated. In a heat exchanger, the relationship between the overall heat transfer coefficient (U)
and the heat transfer rate (q) can be demonstrated by the following equation:
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇
Where:
Q is heat transfer rate
A is heat transfer surface area
U is overall heat transfer coefficient
ΔT is temperature difference

Figure 5. Showing heat transfer through multiple materials

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Waheed ul Hassan Rasheed 2019-ME-22 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab

Procedure
i. Make sure that the main switch is initially off. Then take a cylindrical bar of your choice
of material (Steel) and cross section (25 mm) and clamp it in the middle of two fix bars.
Make sure there is no gap or air between attached surfaces.
ii. Turn on the water supply and ensure the water flowing through the free end of the water
pipe to drainpipe to drain.
iii. Switch on the power supply and main switch.
iv. Select the amount of heat q, by rotating the knob, to 5 Watts on the Wattmeter and wait
for a sufficient amount of time (at least 10 min) for the system to be in steady state.
v. There are 7 points marked on the metallic bar, 6 on the static bars (3 each) and 1 on the
attached bar which is in the middle. The distance between these points is 10 mm each.
Use a thermocouple and measure the temperature of every point starting from the point
closest to the heater. Notice the gradual decrease in temperature.
vi. Generate a curve using dT (°C) on y-axis and dx (mm) on the x-axis. Also generate a line
that fits the curve (Theoretical or Expected) and find its slope.
vii. Find the value of k by using the expression given below
𝑞̇
𝑘=−
𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)
viii. Find thermal resistance Rth of the whole composite bar by using this expression, where
k1, k2 and k3 are thermal conductivities in order.
𝐿 1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = [ + + ]
𝐴 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
ix. Then find overall heat transfer coefficient U, by using this formula and then compare
both values.
𝑈 = 𝑞̇ 𝐴∆𝑇 = 𝑞̇ 𝐴(𝑇9 − 𝑇1 )
x. Repeat the process for different values of q i.e., 5, 10, 15 and 20 W and take the average
for the value of k. (After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady
state conditions.)

Observations and Calculation

Material of side bars = Brass
𝐷 = 25 𝑚𝑚 = 0.025 𝑚

𝐷 2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋 ( ) = 0.00049 𝑚2
2
Material of middle bar = Steel
𝐷 = 25 𝑚𝑚 = 0.025 𝑚
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴 = 0.00049 𝑚2

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Waheed ul Hassan Rasheed 2019-ME-22 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab

Table 1. Data collected from the apparatus.

𝒒̇ Temperature Measured from the Thermocouple (C) Thermal

Resistance
Thermal
Resistance
Thermal
Resistance
Thermal
Resistan
(W) (complete (complete (complete ce
Brass Steel Brass bar) bar) bar) (complet
(C/W) (C/W) (C/W) e bar)
(C/W)
T1 T2 T3 T5 T7 T8 T9

5 41.66 39.66 38 33.33 34.66 32.66 33.7 1.732 2.198 1154.7 909.9
10 54.66 51.33 50.33 34.5 34.33 33.45 32.88 2.266 2.585 882.61 774.4

15 74.33 72.66 69 37.6 36.44 34.77 33.66 2.755 3.033 725.86 659.4
20 92.33 89 84.33 37.8 35.33 34.22 33.22 2.9665 3.2165 674.19 621.7

Graphs
MATLAB is used for graphs. All graphs are Temperature (degree centigrade) vs. Distance (mm)

Figure 5. This plot is for 5watt and B/W Temperature and Distance

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Waheed ul Hassan Rasheed 2019-ME-22 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab

Figure 6. This plot is for 10 watt and B/W Temperature and Distance

Figure 7. This plot is for 15 watt and B/W Temperature and Distance

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Waheed ul Hassan Rasheed 2019-ME-22 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab

Figure 8. This plot is for 20 watt and B/W Temperature and Distance

Results
In this experiment we learned about how a linear metallic bar with different materials is affected
by heat transfer through conduction under Fourier’s law. Graphical trends are presented above in
figure 5, 6,7and 8. By changing the values of q, four different readings were taken.
For thermal resistance and overall heat transfer coefficient, their values are found to be relatively
close to each other. There are variations in values, these variations are because of the fact that we
have made many assumptions while doing theoretical calculations which are inevitable in
experimental procedures and as well the phenomena of dominating convection occur at the
interface where the two different materials join together.
Minor error is due to several factors i.e.,
➢ Imperfect insulation of bars
➢ Ineffective temperature measurement technique,
➢ Faulty equipment
➢ Insufficient time given to achieve steady state.
Despite the error, the ultimate goal was to understand its trend and from the above results it can be
concluded as,
➢ At greater rate of heat transfer, thermal and overall resistance decreases.
➢ Temperature decreases linearly with the increase in distance travelled i.e., length in this
case.

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