Outcome 3 - Heat Transfer

Outcome 3 Objectives

To be able to perform calculations on heat transfer through complex systems including;

 Fourier's Law for conductive heat transfer.

 Heat transfer through thick cylinders, single and double lagged pipes, spheres and
hemispherical ends of cylinders.
 Heat transfer through boundary layers.
 The overall heat transfer coefficient "U" for composite flat plates and composite
lagged pipes etc., using thermal conductivity and surface heat transfer
coefficient.
 Stefan Boltzmann constant.
 "Black body" radiation and "emissivity factor".

Laws of Thermodynamics (a reminder).

The example above demonstrates the laws of thermodynamics. There are four laws of
thermodynamics which build upon each other. They are numbered 0 through 3 because the most
fundamental law was described after the first law had been given a number.

The Zeroth Law says that there is no heat flow between objects of the same temperature
which is a definition of temperature.

The First Law is that energy cannot be created or destroyed –

The Second Law says that entropy increases in a closed system.

The Third Law says that an ideal engine would convert 100% of the heat into useful work
only if its exhaust temperature were absolute zero. In other words, 100% efficiency is
impossible. Since 100% efficiency is impossible, it means that there are no truly reversible
processes. That, in turn, means that all processes are irreversible. That means, all processes
have a natural direction which causes entropy to increase.
Conduction – Fourier’s Law of Conduction

The model of molecules moving with a kinetic energy has an activity level proportional to the
temperature.

If the molecules collide with a boundary they impart

some energy to the molecules of the boundary
increase their energy, so heat is transferred raising
the temperature of the boundary due to the change
in momentum of the molecules.

Some ‘work’ is also done on the wall by way of pressure. If the boundary is a container then as the
boundary temperature is raised the heat transfer moves from the inner boundary of the container to
the outer. Hence the heat is ‘conducted’ through the boundary to the exterior. It also does some
‘work’ on the wall by way of pressure.

Heat is conducted through a boundary at a rate proportional to

the temperature difference across the boundary.
It is also proportional to the area of surface for conduction. The
amount of heat transferred is dependent on elapsed time
The rate of conduction will be slowed as the thickness increases
hence this is an inverse proportion,
A Δt
Hence Q̇ ∝ , the constant of proportionality varies with the
x
material of the boundary and is known as the Coefficient of
Thermal Conductivity, k, watts/mK, hence;
k A Δt
Q̇ = watts
x
Example

An aluminium plate, 200mm * 200mm is 20mm thick on a vessel contains a large volume of water at
1000C. The outer surface temperature is 20 0C. Calculate the rate of heat transfer through the plate?
[k for Aluminium is 201 W/mK]

k A Δt 201∗0.2∗0.2∗(20−100)
Q̇ = = = -32,160 watts
x 0.02

Δt means final minus initial temperature where the final temperature is usually the lower one
indicating the direction of heat flow from high temperature to low temperature (which would be a
heat loss from the higher temperature body), it can be less confusing and more intuitive to just use
the temperature difference and declare a loss or gain of heat depending on the direction of the
temperature gradient.
Conduction through a tube

The rate of heat flow through a tube is constant but the area
changes constantly across the radius. Consider heat transfer
across an elemental ring of thickness dr at a radius of r,
where dr tends to zero, then, for a tube of length L;

dt dt
Q̇ = kA becomes Q̇ = k 2πrL then
dx dr

dr k 2 π L dt
=
r Q̇
r t
dr k 2 π L
0 o

∫ r = Q̇ ∫ dt
ir t i

r −k 2 π L t
[ ln r ] r =
0
[t ]t
0

i
Q̇ i

r0 k 2π L
ln {}
ri
=
Q̇
[ t o−t i ]
k 2 π L(t o−t i )
Q̇=
r
ln o
ri

Conduction through thin Cylinders

Where the wall thickness, x, of a cylinder is very small compared to the radius there is little
difference between the outer and inner diameters so the change in area can be ignored and the
expression becomes;

k 2 π r L(t o−t i)
Q̇=
x

In effect this is equivalent to unfolding the shape and treating as a flat sheet of thickness x with the
area equal to the cylinder circumference x length.

Conduction through a Sphere

For a sphere the derivation is similar;

dt dt
Q̇ = kA becomes Q̇ = k 4πr2 then
dx dr
dr −k 4 π dt
=
r2 Q̇
r0 to
dr k 4 π
∫ r 2 = Q̇ ∫ dt
ri t i

r0 k4π t
−[ r −1 ]r = [t ]t 0

i
Q̇ i

k4π
−[ r −1 −1
o −r i ] = [ t −t ]
Q̇ o i

k 4 π (t 0−t i )
Q̇=
1 1
[ −
ri ro ]
Conduction through Multiple Layers

k A ( t 2 −t 1 ) k A ( t 3 −t 2 )
Q̇ = watts Q̇ = watts
xa xb

Taking two boundaries above gives us 2 similar expressions for heat

flow. If they were pushed together it is clear that the heat exiting
from plate a would be the heat entering plate b. Joining the two
together will change the heat flow from both and the new rate of
heat flow will be common through both plates. From a and b;
Q̇ x a
t 2−t 1=
A ka
Q̇ x b
t 3−t 2=
A kb

Adding these gives us the resultant for joining the 2 plates together, hence;

Q̇ x a x b
t 3−t 1= { +
A ka kb }
Rearranging for a Q̇ ;

A ( t 3−t 1 )
Q̇=
xa xb
( +
ka kb )
This could be extended for n layers by the same process and the rate of heat transfer could be
substituted back into the initial expressions to get the internal interface temperatures. For heat to
flow in the direction indicated, from 1 to 3, then T 1 >T3, this will produce a negative answer for Q
indicating a heat loss from 1.
Composite Thick Cylinders

The above method could be extended by a similar method to the equations for thick cylinders
resulting in,

2 π L ( t 3 −t 1 )
Q̇=
r2 r3

( ln

k1
r1
+
ln

k2
r2
)
Resistance Values

The denominator values in the equations for composite heat flow are all made up from constants
and provide resistance to heat flow. They are often represented as ‘R’ values. So for a composite
A ( t 3−t 1 )
plate the equation becomes Q̇=
( R a + Rb )
xa xb
Where Ra = ∧Rb =
ka kb

Similarly for a composite pipe

2 π L ( t 3−t 1 )
Q̇=
( R1 + R2 )
r2 r3
ln ln
Where r1 r2
R 1= ∧R2 =
k1 k2

The complex variable in the denominator can be simplified further and is often combined into a
single U value called the overall transfer coefficient with units of watts/m 2K

1 1
U= =
xa x b ( R a+ R b …… .. )
{ + ……
ka k b }
Which greatly simplifies the expression for heat transfer;

Q̇=U A ( t 3−t 1 )

This same logic can be applied to any number of layers.

Convection

Suppose the outer surface is surrounded by a fluid. The raised temperature of the outer surface will
cause heat to be conducted from the surface to the molecules of the fluid next to surface. If these
molecules stayed in roughly the same place they would further conduct heat to a layer of molecules
further from the surface, however because the molecules are free to move in the fluid the effect of
heating them will, in most cases, reduce the fluid density, causing it to rise in the fluid. This
movement of heat is then a physical process setting up ‘convection currents’ in the fluid. These
currents cause the warmer fluid to move away from the heat source drawing in cooler fluid for
further heat transfer. This creates a complex effect on the boundary layer adjacent to the surface.

This physical movement of the fluid through heating causes many complexities in the calculations,
some of the factors to be considered are;

a) The direction of fluid flow

b) Physical properties of the fluid
c) The nature of the hot surface
d) The velocity of the fluid in motion
e) The degree of turbulence created
f) Whether a change of state occurs in the fluid
g) Whether the fluid flow is free or subject to constraints

Forced Convection

This is a very important factor in heat exchangers. Flow of liquid through a pipe, a fan blowing across
a heat exchanger or even the wind blowing against a body. All of these serve to remove the
boundary layer and accelerate the block movement of heat away from the surface. It is a factor used
to advantage in heat exchangers.

To understand convection some knowledge of fluid dynamics is required. If fluid is flowing across a
surface or through a pipe the fluid layer immediately next to the surface will stick to that surface due
to friction with the microscopic surface roughness the fluid layers next to this will move slowly due
to the fluid friction and the fluid velocity will increase layer by layer as the distance from the wall
increases. Fluid flowing down a pipe will have a ‘bullet’ shaped velocity profile with the highest
speed in the middle of the pipe furthest away from the walls. This idea of ‘layers’ gives rise to the
name ‘laminar’ flow. If there is an obstruction in the pipe or the dimensions change disrupting the
layers then slower and faster layers are forced to mix and the layers breakdown into ‘turbulent ‘
flow. This turbulent flow has a more uniform velocity profile and the layers at the boundary change
from zero to turbulent rather more suddenly
The diagram shows the situation is a pipe. On a surface such as an outside wall on a calm warm day
there will be a stationary air layer next to the wall will ‘layers’ moving upwards as the friction
reduces further from the wall. If the wind builds up creating forced turbulence you can see that the
layers will be broken down.

Although this description uses the idea of ‘layers’ it is really a gradually changing continuum.

The effect of these layers is provide thermal insulation for the surface. If we want to maintain the
insulation the layers can be protected in a still air gap. If we need to reduce the insulation, increasing
the rate of heat flow then a forced draft fan would be used.

The general expression for convection heat flow across a solid/fluid boundary is;

Q̇ = - k A ΔT watts

Where k is the surface transfer coefficient for the boundary layer.

As stated previously there are a large number of factors affecting this value so test figures calculated
by manufacturers or contractors in accordance with standard tests is normally used. The boundary
condition might be thought of as another ‘layer’ in the multi-layer calculation determined for unit
thickness.
Compound Surfaces including Boundary Layers

Because the surface effects can be so complex a k value for

the boundary layer cannot be determined in the same way
as for other materials. In place of this a ‘surface transfer
coefficient’, U, is used for the boundary layer which is
usually determined experimentally with assumptions made
about the determining conditions. The U value also
encompasses the ‘thickness’ of the boundary layer, hence;

Q̇
U s1 = so Q̇=U s 1 (t 1 −t s 1) = U s2 (t s 2−t 3 )
A ∆t

By adding these surface equations into the equations determined earlier for the compound wall
alone the complete equation becomes;

A ( t s 2−t s 1 )
Q̇=
1 xa xb 1
{ + + +
U s 1 ka kb U s 2 }
By a similar process the surface effect for pipes can
be derived ( because of the forced nature of pipe-
flow internal surface effect through convection are
often irrelevant and because of the high
conductivity of thin metal pipes the temperature
across the pipe itself is often considered constant).

2 π L ( t a−t i )
Q̇=
r2 r3

( ln

k1
r1
+
ln

k2
r2
+
1
U sr 3 )
Worked Examples

1. A steam main, 100mm diameter, is covered with 2 layers of lagging, the inside layer is 40mm
thick where k = 0.07 W/m2K. The outer layer is 25mm thick where k = 0.1 W/m 2K. The
internal temperature of the steam main is 234.4 0C and the outside temperature of the
lagging is 24 0C. If the steam main is 20m long, Determine;
a) The heat lost per hour?
b) The interface temperature of the lagging?

Let t 1=234.4 C , t 2=insulationinterface temperature∧t 3=24 C

Heat will flow from t1 to t3, so make t3 the final temperature, there will be a heat loss from 1

2 π L ( t 3 −t 1 )
Q̇=
r2 r3

( ln

k1
r1
+
ln

k2
r2
)
2 π 20 ( 24−234.4 )
Q̇=
0.09 0.115

( ln
0.05
0.07
+
ln
0.09
0.1 )
26426
Q̇= = -2435 W =-2435* 3600 = - 8.7681 MJ/hr
( 8.4+ 2.5 )

The negative sign indicates a heat loss

Consider the same heat flow through the first layer only so the final temperature is now t 2

2 π L ( t 2−t 1 ) 2 π 20 ( t 2−234.4 )
Q̇=−2435= ¿
r2 0.09 40 π ( t 2−234.4 )

( ) ( )
ln

k1
r1
ln
0.05
0.07
¿
( 8.39 )

8.39 (−2435 )
t 2−234.4= =−162.6
40 π

t 2=−162.6+234.4=71.80 C

2. A steam pipe is 80m long and 75mm external diameter. It conveys 1000kg of steam per hour
at a pressure of 2MN/m2. The steam enters the pipe with a dryness fraction of 0.98 and must
leave the pipe with a dryness fraction of not less than 0.96. Lagging is available with a
coefficient of thermal conductivity of 0.08 W/mK. Determine the minimum thickness of
lagging to achieve this. ?
 The surface temperature of the lagging should not exceed 27 oC. Temperature drop across
the steam pipe can be considered negligible. [38.6mm]

t1 = tsat @20 b = 212.4oC

hentry = hf + x hfg = 908.5 + 0.98 * 1888.7 = 2759.4 kJ/kg
hexit = hf + x hfg = 908.5 + 0.96 * 1888.7 = 2721.6 kJ/kg

therefore heat loss = 2721.6 - 2759.4 = -37.8 kJ/kg = -37.8* 1000/3600 = -10.5 kJ/s

2 π L ( t 2−t 1 )
Q̇=−10.5=
r2

( )
ln

k1
r1

2 π 80 ( 27−212.4 )
¿
r2

( ln
0.0375
0.08 )
r2

therefore ( ln
0.0375
0.08 )=
160 π (−185.4)
−10500

r2 0.08 160 π 185.4

ln =¿ = 0.71
0.0375 10500

r 2=0.0375∗2.032=0.0762m=76.2 mm

Therefore minimum lagging thickness is 76.2 – 37.5 = 38.7 mm

Radiation

Heat transfer by radiation is done with contact using parts of the electro-magnetic spectrum. The
prime source of heat in our solar system is the sun which emits vast quantities of heat transmitted to
us through the vacuum of space. Radiant heat also travels through gases without appreciably
heating them.

All things can both absorb and emit heat via radiation. If two bodies face each other, the first at a
temperature of 500oC and the second at 300oC both will emit and absorb radiation. With all other
factors equal the hotter body will cool because it emits more via radiation than it absorbs from the
cool body and the cool body will heat up because it absorbs more heat via radiation than it emits.

The rate at which a body emits or absorbs radiation is affected by the nature of the surface of the
body. If we take two bodies at the same temperature, one with a polished finish and one with a dull
finish, it will be found that the body with the dull finish will radiate more heat in the same time.

The polished surface also absorbs less radiation than the dull finish as it reflects more from its
surface.

So radiation may be absorbed, (α =absorbtivity), reflected (r= reflectivity ) or transmitted (τ=

transmissivity) through a body. For most engineering purposes the amount of radiation transmitted
is negligibly small and can be disregarded.

Taking these factors to extremes, a body which is a ‘perfect’ absorber is known as a ‘BLACK BODY’.
(this has nothing to do with the actual colour) A black body is also a perfect emitter.

The situation also has an effect for example the interior of a boiler may have walls made with a
material with an emissivity less than 1 but in the totally enclosed boiler furnace they act as if
emissivity was 1 this is due to the total internal reflection of any reflected heat.

Laws of Radiation

1/ Stephan- Boltzmann Laws

A perfect black body, ε =1 , in isolation will radiate heat (and absorb heat) according to the law

Q̇=σ ε A ( T 41 )

If a second body perfect black body is radiating heat according to its temperature T2 then the first
body will absorb radiant energy from it, the net radiant energy is the difference between the two.

Q̇=σ ε A ( T 41 −T 24 )
Where
Q̇=heat flow , J / s
 W
σ =Stephan−Boltzmann const =56.7∗10−9 ,
m2 K 4
ε =Emissivity [ for a ‘black body’ ε = 1]
t 1=temp of body , K
t 2=temp of surroundings , K

2/ The amount of radiant energy received by a body is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance from the radiation source.

Problems in engineering with Radiation also often involve some conduction from through the
incident surface which also affects the surface temperature. Some examples will help to show this

Examples

Take a plastic water tank 200mm thick with water at 10 oC inside. The outside surface is subject to
radiation from hot bodies in the engine room at a rate of 500w/m 2. What is the surface temperature
outside? (Assume the water temperature stays approximately constant for the purpose of the
calculation and that there is no convection)

[Assume absorbtivity and emmissivity are both 0.8 and k=0.19 for the plastic]

The heat source on the left is the incident radiation, because it will change the temperature
difference across the plate some heat will conduct through the plate to the water, the remainder will
reflect off the plate. (on the way to this equilibrium some energy will have raised the internal energy
of the plate)

Energy absorbed from radiation:

Ein(absorbed) = Ein x 0.8 =500*0.8 = 400 W/m2

This is because 80% is absorbed and 20% is reflected, due to the properties of PVC.
For energy balance, once the surface has reached a new steady temperature:

Ein(absorbed) = q” + Eout (see the diagram)

The energy radiated using the Stephan-Boltzman equation,

Eout = εσT4

Ein(absorbed) = q” + Eout

400 =  0.19 x (T1-283) / 0.2   +   0.8 x 5.67×10-8 x T14

This can be solved easily in a spreadsheet graphically and T1 = 302.8K or 29.8 oC

T1 = 302.80 K = 29.65°C

And using this value, conducted heat, q” = 18.7 W/m² and radiated heat, E out = 381.3 W/m².

Example 2

As example 1 but with a much thinner wall, the balance changes.

Changing the thickness of the wall from 0.2m to 2mm, keeping everything else the same and so
using exactly the same equations as above, we get:

T1 = 284.24 K = 11.09°C

Note that this means the temperature differential across the wall has reduced to only (just over) 1°C.

And using this value, conducted heat, q” = 103.6 W/m² and radiated heat, E out = 297.4 W/m².

Example 3

As example 1 but now the temperature of the colder side increases from 10°C to 25°C.
Using the same maths we find that the temperature, T1, has increased:

T1 = 305.16K = 32.01°C

An increase of 2.36°C.
Further Mixed Examples

1) A steam pipe, which is 200mm internal diameter, carries wet steam at a temperature of
250oC. It is covered with two layers of lagging each 100mm thick. The coefficients of thermal
conductivity for the two layers are 0.07 W/mK for the inner layer and 0.1 W/mK for the
outer layer.
Estimate the heat loss for a 100 m length of lagged pipe. The ambient temperature is 10 oC.
What would be the surface temperature of the lagging? Neglect the thickness of the steam
pipe and assume that its temperature is constant throughout the length of the pipe and,
together with the inside surface of the inner layer of lagging, is at the same temperature of
the wet steam.

2) A cabin bulkhead is made of 15mm steel plate lined with 100mm of insulation.

Take the internal temperature as 21 oC and the outside temperature as -10 oC

[k for steel 60 W/m2, k for insulation 0.035 W/m2]

Determine
a) The heat lost through such a bulkhead 3m high and 6 m long.?
b) What is the interface temperature?

3) A steam pipe, which is 150mm internal diameter, carries wet steam at a pressure of
3.6MN/m2. It is covered with two layers of lagging each 40mm thick. The coefficients of
thermal conductivity for the two layers are 0.07 W/mK for the inner layer and 0.1 W/mK for
the outer layer. The surface transfer coefficient for the outer surface is 7.0 W/mK. Estimate
the heat loss for a 50 m length of lagged pipe. The ambient temperature is 27 oC. What would
be the surface temperature of the lagging? Neglect the thickness of the steam pipe and
assume that its temperature is constant throughout and, together with the inside surface of
the inner layer of lagging, is at the same temperature of the wet steam. [46.7 oC]

4) A dockside refrigeration room has an exposed wall 6m long and 3m high. The wall is made of
brick, 120mm thick, insulated on the inside with 80mm of cork faced with a thin metal sheet.
The exterior temp of the brick wall is 21 oC and the interior metal sheet is -4.0 oC the temp
across the metal sheet can be considered constant.

a) Estimate the heat loss in a 24hour period and the interface temperature between cork and
brick?
a. [k for brickwork = 0.7 W/mK k for Cork = 0.043 W/mK]
[19.14 MJ/day, 18.9oC]
5) A composite cabin wall is made up of a 12mm steel shell lined with 75mm of fibre glass
insulation which is faced internally with 25mm of insulation board. The surface transfer
coefficient of the inside wall is 2.5W/m2K and that of the outer wall is 3.1 W/m 2K.

a. Take the internal ambient temperature as 27 oC and the outside ambient as 10oC and
k for steel 60 W/mk, k for fibreglass 0.04 W/mK & k for insulation board 0.06 W/mK.

b. Determine
i. The overall transfer coefficient for the bulkhead and, using the coefficient,
determine the heat lost /h through such a wall 3m high and 6 m long.?
[0.332 W/m2, 365.73KJ/h]
ii. The temperature at each interface and draw a diagram of temperature against
thickness? [ temp gradient, 27, 24.7, 22.4, 11.825, 11.82, 10 oC]

6) Wet steam at 2MN/m2 flows through a pipe 20 m long. The pipe has an external diameter of
80mm and is covered with lagging 35mm thick with a k value of 0.065 W/mK. The surface
transfer coefficient is 4.5 W/M2K and ambient temp is 15oC. The steam flow rate is 300 kg/h
and enters the pipe with a dryness fraction of 0.97. Assuming there is no temperature drop
across the pipe determine;
a) The dryness fraction of the steam as it leaves the pipe [0.95]
b) The surface temperature of the lagging [61.3oC]

7) A steam pipe, 100 mm diameter is to be lagged with 2 layers of insulation each 25mm thick.
Material A has a k-val of 0.052 and B is 0.086 w/mK
a) Which material should be on the inside for the best insulation [ material A]
b) If the internal temp is 320oC and external temp is 20oC determine the minimum heat
loss for a 10m run of pipe [ 1692 J/s]

8) 8. A steam pipe, which is 125mm internal diameter, carries 2kg/s of steam at a pressure of
4MN/m2 which is dry saturated. It is covered with two layers of lagging the first is 40mm
thick and the second 35mm thick. The coefficients of thermal conductivity for the two layers
are 0.05 W/mK for the inner layer and 0.07 W/mK for the outer layer. The surface transfer
coefficient for the outer surface is 6.5 W/mK. The ambient temperature is 27 oC. Neglect the
thickness of the steam pipe and assume that its temperature is constant along the pipe

a) Determine the overall U value per metre of pipe. [0.0657W/mK]

b) Calculate the heat loss for a 50 m length of lagged pipe. [-4610 J/s]
c) What is the surface temperature of the lagging?. [43.5oC]
d) What is the condition of steam at exit?