Metabolism

(from Greek: "metabol ","change"or Greek: metabolismos, "outthrow") is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Category: a) Anabolism energy-requiring process where small molecules joined to form larger molecules b) Catabolism energy-releasing process where large molecules are broken down to smaller. Metabolic pathways: 1. Carbon fixation or photosynthesis, in which Co2 is reduced to carbohydrate. 2. Glycolysis. The oxidation metabolism of glucose to obtain ATP and Pyruvate. - Oyruvate from glycolysis enters the Krebs cycle in aerobic organisms. 3. Pentose phosphate pathway. Acts in the conversion of hexoses into pentoses and in NADPH regeneration. 4. Glycogenesis. The conversion of excess glucose into glycogen as a cellular storage mechanism. 5. Glycogenolysis. The breakdown of glycogen into glucose (which could occur several hours after meal or overnight) in the liver or in the absence of glucose-6-phosphate in the muscle, to lactate. 6. Gluconeogenesis. The synthesis of glucose molecules from non-carbohydrate sources, such as certain amino acids and the glycerol fraction of fats when carbohydrate intake is limited. Liver is the main site except during starvation. 7. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions. The loss of hydrogen or the gain of oxygen.

Carbohydrate metabolism
k Oxidation of glucose: C6h12o6 + 6O2 p 6CO2 + 36 ATP + heat k Glucose catabolized in 3 pathways: Glycolysis Krebs Cycle The electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Glycolysis Glucose is oxidize to pyruvic acid NAD+ is reduced to NADH+H ATP is synthesized by substrate-level phosphorylation Pyruvic acid is the end product -moves in the krebs cycle in an aerobic environment or reduced to lactic acid in anaerobic environment.

Krebs cycle     The engine of metabolism Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is fueled by pyruvic acid and fatty acids Connects through the electron transport chain to oxygen consumption By product is CO2

Oxidative Phosphorylation     The hydrogens delivered to the chain are split into protons and electrons Electrons are delivered to oxygen, forming oxygen ions Oxygen ions attract H+ that were pumped into intermembrane space to form water H+ that were pumped to the intermembrane space

Electron transport chain  Food(glucose) is oxidized and the released hydrogens: - Are transported by coenzyme NADH and FADH2 - Enter a chain of CHON bound to metal atoms - Combine with molecular oxygen to form water - Release energy  The energy is released is harnessed to attach inorganic phosphate groups to ADP, making ATP by oxidative phosphorylation Anaerobic Respiration  Breakdown of glucose in the absence of O2.  Produces 2 molecules of lactic acid and 2 molecules of ATP  Phases: Glycolysis and Lactic acid formation

Lipid Metabolism
Main pathways of lipid metabolism are lipolyis, betaoxidation, ketosis, and lipogeneses k Lipolysis and Beta-oxidation. Occurs in the mitochondria. It is a cyclical process in which 2 carbons are removed from the fatty acid per cycle in the form of acetyl Co A, which proceeds through the Krebs cycle to produce ATP, CO2, and water. k Ketosis. Occurs when the rate of formation of ketones by the liver is greater than the ability of tissues to oxidize them. It occurs during prolonged starvation and when large amounts of fat are eaten in the absence of CHO. k Lipogenesis. Occurs in the cytosol. The main sites of triglyceride synthesis are the liver, adipose tissue, and intestinal mucosa. The fatty acids are derived from the hydrolysis of fats, as well as from the synthesis of acetyl CoA through the oxidation of fats, glucose, and some amino acid. Lipogenesis also occurs in steps of two carbon atoms. NADPH produced by the pentose-phospahte shunt is required for this process.

Protein Metabolism
k Non-essential amino acids can be formed by transamination, transfer of an amine group to keto acid. k If used for energy, amino acids undergo oxidative deamination. Ammonia and keto acids are produced as by-products of oxidative deamination. k Ammonia is converted to urea and excreted k Protein catabolism:  Yield glucose, used immediately for energy or stored as glycogen or fat  Converted to fat free for immediate use as energy or fat storage as adipose tissue.  Nitrogen-free molecule may recombine with free amino groups to build new amino acids Urea Cycle k Describes the reactions of ammonia into urea. Since these reactions occur in the liver, the urea is then transported to the kidneys where it is excreted. k 2 ammonia + CO2 + 3ATP p urea + H2O + 3 ADP