What is the difference between the finite element method and the RayleighRitz method for Free
vibration analysis of Continuous system.
Difference between Finite Element Method (FEM) and Rayleigh-Ritz Method for Free Vibration Analysis
of Continuous Systems
The Finite Element Method (FEM) and the Rayleigh-Ritz method are two popular numerical methods
used for free vibration analysis of continuous systems. While both methods are used to solve the same
problem, they differ in their approach, formulation, and application.
Finite Element Method (FEM)
The FEM is a numerical method that discretizes the continuous system into a finite number of elements,
each with its own set of degrees of freedom. The FEM solves the partial differential equation (PDE)
governing the free vibration of the continuous system by minimizing the residual error between the
approximate solution and the exact solution.
The FEM involves the following steps:
1. Discretization of the continuous system into finite elements.
2. Formulation of the element stiffness and mass matrices.
3. Assembly of the global stiffness and mass matrices.
4. Solution of the eigenvalue problem to obtain the natural frequencies and mode shapes.
Rayleigh-Ritz Method
The Rayleigh-Ritz method is a numerical method that uses a set of assumed modes to approximate the
solution of the free vibration problem. The method minimizes the Rayleigh quotient, which is a measure
of the energy of the system.
The Rayleigh-Ritz method involves the following steps:
1. Assumption of a set of modes that approximate the solution.
2. Formulation of the Rayleigh quotient.
3. Minimization of the Rayleigh quotient to obtain the natural frequencies and mode shapes.
Comparison of FEM and Rayleigh-Ritz Method
Here are some key differences between the FEM and the Rayleigh-Ritz method:
1. Discretization: FEM discretizes the continuous system into finite elements, while the Rayleigh-Ritz
method uses a set of assumed modes to approximate the solution.
2. Formulation: FEM formulates the element stiffness and mass matrices, while the Rayleigh-Ritz method
formulates the Rayleigh quotient.
3. Solution: FEM solves the eigenvalue problem to obtain the natural frequencies and mode shapes,
while the Rayleigh-Ritz method minimizes the Rayleigh quotient to obtain the natural frequencies and
mode shapes.
4. Accuracy: FEM provides a more accurate solution than the Rayleigh-Ritz method, especially for
complex systems.
5. Computational effort: FEM requires more computational effort than the Rayleigh-Ritz method,
especially for large systems.
In summary, the FEM is a more accurate and versatile method than the Rayleigh-Ritz method, but it
requires more computational effort. The Rayleigh-Ritz method is a simpler and more efficient method,
but it may not provide the same level of accuracy as the FEM.
What are mode shapes? Give suitable examples
Mode Shapes
Mode shapes are the characteristic patterns of vibration that a structure or system exhibits at a
particular frequency. They are also known as eigenmodes or vibration modes. Mode shapes describe the
way a structure or system vibrates, including the amplitude and phase of the vibration at different
points.
Mode Shapes in Different Systems
Mode shapes can be observed in various systems, including:
1. Beams: A beam can vibrate in different modes, such as the first mode (bending), second mode
(torsion), and third mode (bending with a node in the middle).
2. Plates: A plate can vibrate in different modes, such as the first mode (bending), second mode (torsion),
and third mode (bending with a node in the middle).
3. Shells: A shell can vibrate in different modes, such as the first mode (bending), second mode (torsion),
and third mode (bending with a node in the middle).
4. Mechanical Systems: Mechanical systems, such as gears, shafts, and bearings, can also exhibit mode
shapes.
5. Structures: Buildings, bridges, and other structures can exhibit mode shapes due to wind, seismic, or
other external loads.
Examples of Mode Shapes
Here are some examples of mode shapes:
1. First Mode of a Cantilever Beam: The first mode of a cantilever beam is a bending mode, where the
beam vibrates in a sinusoidal shape.
2. Second Mode of a Simply Supported Beam: The second mode of a simply supported beam is a torsion
mode, where the beam vibrates in a twisting motion.
3. First Mode of a Plate: The first mode of a plate is a bending mode, where the plate vibrates in a
sinusoidal shape.
4. Mode Shape of a Guitar String: The mode shape of a guitar string is a sinusoidal shape, where the
string vibrates in a wave-like motion.
Importance of Mode Shapes
Understanding mode shapes is important in various fields, including:
1. Structural Analysis: Mode shapes help engineers design structures that can withstand external loads
and vibrations.
2. Mechanical Design: Mode shapes help engineers design mechanical systems that can operate
efficiently and safely.
3. Vibration Analysis: Mode shapes help engineers analyze and predict the vibration behavior of systems.
4. Acoustics: Mode shapes help engineers design acoustic systems, such as musical instruments and
sound systems.
Rayleigh-Ritz Method
The Rayleigh-Ritz method is a numerical technique used to solve the eigenvalue problem associated with
the free vibration of a continuous system. The method is based on the principle of minimum potential
energy and is used to estimate the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a system.
Assumptions
The Rayleigh-Ritz method assumes that:
1. The system is conservative, meaning that the energy is conserved.
2. The system is linear, meaning that the stiffness and mass matrices are constant.
3. The system is homogeneous, meaning that the material properties are constant.
Formulation
The Rayleigh-Ritz method involves the following steps:
1. Assume a set of trial functions, φ(x), that approximate the mode shape of the system.
2. Formulate the Rayleigh quotient, R, which is a measure of the energy of the system:
Advantages
The Rayleigh-Ritz method has several advantages, including:
1. Simplicity: The method is relatively simple to apply, especially for simple systems.
2. Efficiency: The method is computationally efficient, especially for large systems.
3. Accuracy: The method can provide accurate results, especially for systems with simple geometry and
material properties.
Disadvantages of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method
1. Dependence on Trial Functions: The accuracy of the method depends heavily on the selection of
appropriate trial functions. If the trial functions do not adequately capture the system's
behavior, the results may be inaccurate.
2. Limited to Simple Geometries: The Rayleigh-Ritz method works best for problems with simple
geometries or when a closed-form solution is desirable. It becomes less practical for complex
geometries or highly irregular systems.
3. Limited Applicability: The method may not be suitable for systems with non-linear behavior,
large deformations, or very complex boundary conditions unless sophisticated trial functions are
used.
4. No Direct Handling of Damping: The Rayleigh-Ritz method is typically applied to undamped
systems. While it can be extended to include damping, this is often more challenging than with
methods like the finite element method (FEM).
Limitations
The Rayleigh-Ritz method also has several limitations, including:
1. Assumptions: The method assumes that the system is conservative, linear, and homogeneous, which
may not always be the case.
2. Trial functions: The method requires the selection of trial functions, which can be difficult to choose
for complex systems.
3. Convergence: The method may not always converge to the exact solution, especially for systems with
complex geometry and material properties.
Examples
The Rayleigh-Ritz method has been applied to a wide range of problems, including:
1. Beams: The method has been used to analyze the vibration of beams with different boundary
conditions and loading conditions.
2. Plates: The method has been used to analyze the vibration of plates with different boundary
conditions and loading conditions.
3. Shells: The method has been used to analyze the vibration of shells with different boundary conditions
and loading conditions.
Explain transverse vibration.
Transverse Vibration
Transverse vibration, also known as bending vibration, is a type of vibration that occurs when an object
or structure is subjected to a force that causes it to bend or deform in a direction perpendicular to its
longitudinal axis.
Transverse Vibration in Beams
In the case of a beam, transverse vibration occurs when the beam is subjected to a load that causes it to
bend or deform in a direction perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. The beam will vibrate in a mode
shape that is characterized by a sinusoidal curve, with the amplitude of the vibration decreasing as you
move towards the fixed end of the beam.
Causes of Transverse Vibration
Transverse vibration can be caused by a variety of factors, including:
1. External loads: Transverse vibration can be caused by external loads, such as wind, earthquakes, or
traffic.
2. Imbalance: Transverse vibration can be caused by imbalance in rotating machinery, such as
unbalanced wheels or gears.
3. Misalignment: Transverse vibration can be caused by misalignment of machinery or components.
Effects of Transverse Vibration
Transverse vibration can have a number of effects on structures and machinery, including:
1. Fatigue: Transverse vibration can cause fatigue in structures and machinery, leading to premature
failure.
2. Damage: Transverse vibration can cause damage to structures and machinery, including cracks, dents,
and other forms of damage.
3. Noise: Transverse vibration can cause noise, which can be a problem in a variety of applications,
including industrial, commercial, and residential settings.
Analysis of Transverse Vibration
The analysis of transverse vibration typically involves the use of mathematical models, such as the Euler-
Bernoulli beam equation, to predict the behavior of the vibrating system. The analysis may also involve
the use of experimental techniques, such as modal analysis, to measure the vibration response of the
system.
Examples of Transverse Vibration
Examples of transverse vibration include:
1. Bridge vibration: Transverse vibration can occur in bridges due to wind, traffic, or other external loads.
2. Building vibration: Transverse vibration can occur in buildings due to wind, earthquakes, or other
external loads.
3. Machine vibration: Transverse vibration can occur in machinery, such as pumps, motors, and
gearboxes, due to imbalance, misalignment, or other factors.
What are Eigen values and Eigen vectors? Explain with a suitable example.
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are fundamental concepts in linear algebra and are used to describe the
behavior of linear transformations.
Eigenvalues
Eigenvalues are scalar values that represent the amount of change or scaling that a linear transformation
applies to a vector. They are also known as characteristic values or latent roots.
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are non-zero vectors that, when transformed by a linear transformation, result in a scaled
version of the same vector. In other words, eigenvectors are vectors that do not change direction when
transformed, but may change magnitude.
Example
Consider a 2x2 matrix A that represents a linear transformation:
A=|2 1|
|1 1|
To find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, we need to solve the characteristic equation:
|A - λI| = 0
where λ is the eigenvalue, and I is the identity matrix.
Solving the characteristic equation, we get:
λ^2 - 3λ + 1 = 0
This equation has two solutions:
λ1 = 2.618
λ2 = 0.382
These are the eigenvalues of A.
To find the corresponding eigenvectors, we need to solve the equation:
(A - λI)v = 0
For λ1 = 2.618, we get:
v1 = | 1 |
| 1.618 |
For λ2 = 0.382, we get:
v2 = | 1 |
| -0.618 |
These are the eigenvectors of A.
Interpretation
The eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A can be interpreted as follows:
- The eigenvalue λ1 = 2.618 represents a scaling factor of 2.618 in the direction of the eigenvector v1.
- The eigenvalue λ2 = 0.382 represents a scaling factor of 0.382 in the direction of the eigenvector v2.
In other words, when the linear transformation A is applied to a vector, it stretches the vector by a factor
of 2.618 in the direction of v1 and by a factor of 0.382 in the direction of v2.
Applications
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors have numerous applications in science and engineering, including:
1. Vibration analysis: Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are used to analyze the vibration of mechanical
systems.
2. Stability analysis: Eigenvalues are used to determine the stability of a system.
3. Image and signal processing: Eigenvectors are used in image and signal processing to represent the
directions of maximum variance.
4. Machine learning: Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are used in machine learning to reduce the
dimensionality of data and to identify patterns.
What are Eigen values and Eigen vectors? Explain with a suitable example.
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are fundamental concepts in linear algebra and are used to describe the
behavior of linear transformations.
Eigenvalues
Eigenvalues are scalar values that represent the amount of change or scaling that a linear transformation
applies to a vector. They are also known as characteristic values or latent roots.
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are non-zero vectors that, when transformed by a linear transformation, result in a scaled
version of the same vector. In other words, eigenvectors are vectors that do not change direction when
transformed, but may change magnitude.
Example
Consider a 2x2 matrix A that represents a linear transformation:
A=|2 1|
|1 1|
To find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, we need to solve the characteristic equation:
|A - λI| = 0
where λ is the eigenvalue, and I is the identity matrix.
Solving the characteristic equation, we get:
λ^2 - 3λ + 1 = 0
This equation has two solutions:
λ1 = 2.618
λ2 = 0.382
These are the eigenvalues of A.
To find the corresponding eigenvectors, we need to solve the equation:
(A - λI)v = 0
For λ1 = 2.618, we get:
v1 = | 1 |
| 1.618 |
For λ2 = 0.382, we get:
v2 = | 1 |
| -0.618 |
These are the eigenvectors of A.
Interpretation
The eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A can be interpreted as follows:
- The eigenvalue λ1 = 2.618 represents a scaling factor of 2.618 in the direction of the eigenvector v1.
- The eigenvalue λ2 = 0.382 represents a scaling factor of 0.382 in the direction of the eigenvector v2.
In other words, when the linear transformation A is applied to a vector, it stretches the vector by a factor
of 2.618 in the direction of v1 and by a factor of 0.382 in the direction of v2.
Applications
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors have numerous applications in science and engineering, including:
1. Vibration analysis: Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are used to analyze the vibration of mechanical
systems.
2. Stability analysis: Eigenvalues are used to determine the stability of a system.
3. Image and signal processing: Eigenvectors are used in image and signal processing to represent the
directions of maximum variance.
4. Machine learning: Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are used in machine learning to reduce the
dimensionality of data and to identify patterns.
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Q4) What is force transmissibility? Derive the expression for it.
Force Transmissibility
Force transmissibility refers to the ability of a system, particularly a mechanical vibration
system (such as a damped or undamped system), to transmit force from one point to
another, usually through a system that might involve mass, damping, and spring elements.
In other words, it quantifies how much of an external force applied to a vibrating system is
transmitted through the system to the base or another part of the structure.
In a vibrating system, force transmissibility is particularly relevant when we are considering
the behavior of the system under harmonic excitation (i.e., sinusoidal forcing). The
transmissibility function can tell us how much of the applied force is transmitted through the
system to the output, which might be of interest in vibration isolation or shock absorption
systems.
Derivation of the Force Transmissibility Expression
Let’s consider a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system consisting of a mass m, spring k ,
and damper c, subjected to a harmonic force F0 cos(ωt), where ω is the driving (excitation)
frequency.
The equation of motion for such a system under harmonic excitation is given by:
mẍ + cẋ + kx = F0 cos(ωt)
Where:
m is the mass,
c is the damping coefficient,
k is the spring constant,
i th l f f th li d f
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c is the damping coefficient,
k is the spring constant,
ω is the angular frequency of the applied force,
F0 is the magnitude of the external force,
x(t) is the displacement of the mass.
The force transmissibility is the ratio of the output force (force transmitted to the base or
another part of the system) to the input force F0 .
1. Solve for the displacement x(t): The equation of motion for a harmonic force can be
solved using standard techniques for second-order differential equations. The solution
for x(t) can be written as:
x(t) = X cos(ωt + ϕ)
Where X is the steady-state amplitude of displacement, and ϕ is the phase angle, which
can be found from the system parameters.
2. Find the transmitted force: The force transmitted through the system (due to the
displacement x(t)) can be obtained by calculating the force exerted by the spring and
the damper. The total transmitted force is:
Ftrans = Fspring + Fdamper = kx + cẋ
Since ẋ(t) = −Xω sin(ωt + ϕ), we can substitute this into the equation for transmitted
force to get:
Ftrans = kX cos(ωt + ϕ) − cXω sin(ωt + ϕ)
This can be simplified into a form involving the magnitude of the transmitted force.
3. Force Transmissibility: The force transmissibility T (ω) is the ratio of the transmitted
force to the applied force F0 :
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This can be simplified into a form involving the magnitude of the transmitted force.
3. Force Transmissibility: The force transmissibility T (ω) is the ratio of the transmitted
force to the applied force F0 :
Transmitted Force Amplitude
T (ω) =
F0
For the case of harmonic excitation, the amplitude of the transmitted force is related to the
amplitude of displacement X , the spring constant k , the damping coefficient c, and the
frequency ω . The amplitude of the transmitted force is given by:
∣Ftrans ∣ =
(kX)2 + (cωX)2
Therefore, the transmissibility function becomes:
(kX)2 + (cωX)2
T (ω) =
F0
4. Expressing in terms of system parameters: The displacement amplitude X can be
k
written in terms of the system's natural frequency ωn = m and damping ratio
ζ=
c
. By substituting these values into the expression, we get the final expression for
2 km
force transmissibility:
k 2 2
(m ) + ( cω
m)
T (ω) =
F0
By simplifying further, the expression for force transmissibility is typically given in terms of
ω
the frequency ratio r = ωn
:
(r2 )2 + (2ζr)2
T (ω) =
1 − r2
Where:
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k
written in terms of the system's natural frequency ωn = m and damping ratio
ζ=
c
. By substituting these values into the expression, we get the final expression for
2 km
force transmissibility:
k 2 2
(m ) + ( cω
m)
T (ω) =
F0
By simplifying further, the expression for force transmissibility is typically given in terms of
ω
the frequency ratio r = ωn
:
(r2 )2 + (2ζr)2
T (ω) =
1 − r2
Where:
ω is the excitation frequency,
ωn =
k/m is the natural frequency,
c
ζ= 2 km
is the damping ratio.
Summary
Force transmissibility measures how much of the external force is transmitted through a
mechanical system in vibration.
The transmissibility function depends on the mass, damping, spring stiffness, and the
frequency of the applied force relative to the system’s natural frequency.
1
For an undamped system, force transmissibility is simply T (ω) = 2 , and for a
1−( ωωn )
damped system, the expression involves damping and the frequency ratio.
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