Introduction

To
Information Technology

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Unit I

Computer Basics: Introduction , Evolution of Computers, Generations of Computers,

Classification of Computers.
The Computer system: Components of a Computer system, Communication among various
Units. Applications of computers.

Unit II

Computer Memory: Memory Hierarchy, Different Types of RAM & ROM.

System software: Introduction to system software, Distinction between systems software and
Application software. Introductory ideas of loaders and linkers Computer language, Assemblers,
Compilers and Interpreters.

Unit III

Operating systems: Evolution, introduction to OS , functions and facilities, single tasking and
multitasking OS , single user and multi-user OS, characteristics of MS-DOS and Unix operating
systems , DOS and UNIX commands for file and process management.

Unit IV

Text editors: overview of editing process.

Graphical User Interfaces: Introduction to Windows, Word processing software packages and
features, spread sheet packages and features, Working with Presentation packages.

Unit V

Computer Communications: Computer to computer communication through networking,

Introduction to computer networks and networking software, Types of Networks, Internet and
Intranet , Electronic mail. World Wide Web, URL ,Web browsers ,Search engine, Multimedia
and Virtual reality. E-Commerce , Global Positioning System. Specifications of a typical desktop
computer system, Recent Developments in ICT

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Unit - I

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Computer Basics
Introduction:-
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions
stored in its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified
rules, produce information (output), and store the information for future use.

Evolution of computers:-

1801: In France, Joseph Marie Jacquard invents a loom that uses punched wooden cards to
automatically weave fabric designs. Early computers would use similar punch cards.

1822: English mathematician Charles Babbage conceives of a steam-driven calculating machine

that would be able to compute tables of numbers. The project, funded by the English
government, is a failure. More than a century later, however, the world's first computer was
actually built.

1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system to calculate the 1880 census,
accomplishing the task in just three years and saving the government $5 million. He establishes a
company that would ultimately become IBM.

1936: Alan Turing presents the notion of a universal machine, later called the Turing machine,
capable of computing anything that is computable. The central concept of the modern computer
was based on his ideas.

1937: J.V. Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University, attempts
to build the first computer without gears, cams, belts or shafts.

1939: Hewlett-Packard is founded by David Packard and Bill Hewlett in a Palo Alto, California,
garage, according to the Computer History Museum.

1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design a computer that can solve 29
equations simultaneously. This marks the first time a computer is able to store information on its
main memory.

1943-1944: Two University of Pennsylvania professors, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert,
build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). Considered the grandfather
of digital computers, it fills a 20-foot by 40-foot room and has 18,000 vacuum tubes.

1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive funding from the
Census Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for business and
government applications.

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1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invent the
transistor. They discovered how to make an electric switch with solid materials and no need for a
vacuum.

1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes known as
COBOL. Thomas Johnson Watson Jr., son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson Watson Sr., conceives
the IBM 701 EDPM to help the United Nations keep tabs on Korea during the war.

1954: The FORTRAN programming language, an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, is

developed by a team of programmers at IBM led by John Backus, according to the University of
Michigan.

1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the computer chip.
Kilby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for his work.

1964: Douglas Engelbart shows a prototype of the modern computer, with a mouse and a
graphical user interface (GUI). This marks the evolution of the computer from a specialized
machine for scientists and mathematicians to technology that is more accessible to the general
public.

1969: A group of developers at Bell Labs produce UNIX, an operating system that addressed
compatibility issues. Written in the C programming language, UNIX was portable across
multiple platforms and became the operating system of choice among mainframes at large
companies and government entities. Due to the slow nature of the system, it never quite gained
traction among home PC users.

1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory
(DRAM) chip.

1971: Alan Shugart leads a team of IBM engineers who invent the "floppy disk," allowing data
to be shared among computers.

1973: Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox, develops Ethernet for
connecting multiple computers and other hardware.

1974-1977: A number of personal computers hit the market, including Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair,
IBM 5100, Radio Shack's TRS-80 — affectionately known as the "Trash 80" — and the
Commodore PET.

1975: The January issue of Popular Electronics magazine features the Altair 8080, described as
the "world's first minicomputer kit to rival commercial models." Two "computer geeks," Paul
Allen and Bill Gates, offer to write software for the Altair, using the new BASIC language. On
April 4, after the success of this first endeavor, the two childhood friends form their own
software company, Microsoft.

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1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak start Apple Computers on April Fool's Day and roll out the
Apple I, the first computer with a single-circuit board, according to Stanford University.

1977: Radio Shack's initial production run of the TRS-80 was just 3,000. It sold like crazy. For
the first time, non-geeks could write programs and make a computer do what they wished.

1977: Jobs and Wozniak incorporate Apple and show the Apple II at the first West Coast
Computer Faire. It offers color graphics and incorporates an audio cassette drive for storage.

1978: Accountants rejoice at the introduction of VisiCalc, the first computerized spreadsheet
program.

1979: Word processing becomes a reality as MicroPro International releases WordStar. "The
defining change was to add margins and word wrap," said creator Rob Barnaby in email to Mike
Petrie in 2000. "Additional changes included getting rid of command mode and adding a print
function. I was the technical brains — I figured out how to do it, and did it, and documented it. "

1981: The first IBM personal computer, code-named "Acorn," is introduced. It uses Microsoft's
MS-DOS operating system. It has an Intel chip, two floppy disks and an optional color monitor.
Sears & Roebuck and Computerland sell the machines, marking the first time a computer is
available through outside distributors. It also popularizes the term PC.

1983: Apple's Lisa is the first personal computer with a GUI. It also features a drop-down menu
and icons. It flops but eventually evolves into the Macintosh. The Gavilan SC is the first portable
computer with the familiar flip form factor and the first to be marketed as a "laptop."

1985: Microsoft announces Windows, according to Encyclopedia Britannica. This was the
company's response to Apple's GUI. Commodore unveils the Amiga 1000, which features
advanced audio and video capabilities.

1985: The first dot-com domain name is registered on March 15, years before the World Wide
Web would mark the formal beginning of Internet history. The Symbolics Computer Company, a
small Massachusetts computer manufacturer, registers Symbolics.com. More than two years
later, only 100 dot-coms had been registered.

1986: Compaq brings the Deskpro 386 to market. Its 32-bit architecture provides as speed
comparable to mainframes.

1990: Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, the high-energy physics laboratory in Geneva,
develops HyperText Markup Language (HTML), giving rise to the World Wide Web.

1993: The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and music on PCs.

1994: PCs become gaming machines as "Command & Conquer," "Alone in the Dark 2," "Theme
Park," "Magic Carpet," "Descent" and "Little Big Adventure" are among the games to hit the
market.
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1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop the Google search engine at Stanford University.

1997: Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which was struggling at the time, ending Apple's
court case against Microsoft in which it alleged that Microsoft copied the "look and feel" of its
operating system.

1999: The term Wi-Fi becomes part of the computing language and users begin connecting to the
Internet without wires.

2001: Apple unveils the Mac OS X operating system, which provides protected memory
architecture and pre-emptive multi-tasking, among other benefits. Not to be outdone, Microsoft
rolls out Windows XP, which has a significantly redesigned GUI.

2003: The first 64-bit processor, AMD's Athlon 64, becomes available to the consumer market.

2004: Mozilla's Firefox 1.0 challenges Microsoft's Internet Explorer, the dominant Web browser.
Facebook, a social networking site, launches.

2005: YouTube, a video sharing service, is founded. Google acquires Android, a Linux-based
mobile phone operating system.

2006: Apple introduces the MacBook Pro, its first Intel-based, dual-core mobile computer, as
well as an Intel-based iMac. Nintendo's Wii game console hits the market.

2007: The iPhone brings many computer functions to the smartphone.

2009: Microsoft launches Windows 7, which offers the ability to pin applications to the taskbar
and advances in touch and handwriting recognition, among other features.

2010: Apple unveils the iPad, changing the way consumers view media and jumpstarting the
dormant tablet computer segment.

2011: Google releases the Chromebook, a laptop that runs the Google Chrome OS.

2012: Facebook gains 1 billion users on October 4.

2015: Apple releases the Apple Watch. Microsoft releases Windows 10.

2016: The first reprogrammable quantum computer was created. "Until now, there hasn't been
any quantum-computing platform that had the capability to program new algorithms into their
system. They're usually each tailored to attack a particular algorithm," said study lead author
Shantanu Debnath, a quantum physicist and optical engineer at the University of Maryland,
College Park.

2017: The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is developing a new
"Molecular Informatics" program that uses molecules as computers. "Chemistry offers a rich set
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of properties that we may be able to harness for rapid, scalable information storage and
processing," Anne Fischer, program manager in DARPA's Defense Sciences Office, said in a
statement. "Millions of molecules exist, and each molecule has a unique three-dimensional
atomic structure as well as variables such as shape, size, or even color. This richness provides a
vast design space for exploring novel and multi-value ways to encode and process data beyond
the 0s and 1s of current logic-based, digital architectures

Generations of computers:-

There are five generations of computers.

First generation:-

o Introduction:
1. 1946-1959 is the period of first generation computer.
2. J.P.Eckert and J.W.Mauchy invented the first successful electronic
computer called ENIAC, ENIAC stands for “Electronic Numeric
Integrated And Calculator”.
3. used Vaccume Tubes
o Few Examples are:
1. ENIAC
2. EDVAC
3. UNIVAC
4. IBM-701
5. IBM-650
o Advantages:
1. It made use of vacuum tubes which are the only electronic component
available during those days.
2. These computers could calculate in milliseconds.
o Disadvantages:
1. These were very big in size, weight was about 30 tones.
2. These computers were based on vacuum tubes.
3. These computers were very costly.
4. It could store only a small amount of information due to the presence of
magnetic drums.
5. As the invention of first generation computers involves vacuum tubes, so
another disadvantage of these computers was, vacuum tubes require a
large cooling system.
6. Very less work efficiency.
7. Limited programming capabilities and punch cards were used to take
inputs.
8. Large amount of energy consumption.
9. Not reliable and constant maintenance is required.

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Second generation:-

 Introduction:
1. 1959-1965 is the period of second-generation computer.
2. 3.Second generation computers were based on Transistor instead of vacuum
tubes.
 Few Examples are:
1. Honeywell 400
2. IBM 7094
3. CDC 1604
4. CDC 3600
5. UNIVAC 1108
 Advantages:
1. Due to the presence of transistors instead of vacuum tubes, the size of electron
component decreased. This resulted in reducing the size of a computer as
compared to first generation computers.
2. Less energy and not produce as much heat as the first generation.
3. Assembly language and punch cards were used for input.
4. Low cost than first generation computers.
5. Better speed, calculate data in microseconds.
6. Better portability as compared to first generation
 Disadvantages:
1. A cooling system was required.
2. Constant maintenance was required.
3. Only used for specific purposes.

Third generation:-

 Introduction:
1. 1965-1971 is the period of third generation computer.
2. These computers were based on Integrated circuits.
3. IC was invented by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby In 1958-1959.
4. IC was a single component containing number of transistors.
 Few Examples are:
1. PDP-8
2. PDP-11
3. ICL 2900
4. IBM 360
5. IBM 370
 Advantages:
1. These computers were cheaper as compared to second-generation computers.
2. They were fast and reliable.
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3. Use of IC in the computer provides the small size of the computer.

4. IC not only reduce the size of the computer but it also improves the performance
of the computer as compared to previous computers.
5. This generation of computers has big storage capacity.
6. Instead of punch cards, mouse and keyboard are used for input.
7. They used an operating system for better resource management and used the
concept of time-sharing and multiple programming.
8. These computers reduce the computational time from microseconds to
nanoseconds.
 Disadvantages:
1. IC chips are difficult to maintain.
2. The highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.
3. Air conditioning is required.

Fourth generation:-

 Introduction:
1. 1971-1980 is the period of fourth generation computer.
2. This technology is based on Microprocessor (LSIC).
3. A microprocessor is used in a computer for any logical and arithmetic function to
be performed in any program.
4. Graphics User Interface (GUI) technology was exploited to offer more comfort to
users.
 Few Examples are:
1. IBM 4341
2. DEC 10
3. STAR 1000
4. PUP 11
 Advantages:
1. Fastest in computation and size get reduced as compared to the previous
generation of computer.
2. Heat generated is negligible.
3. Small in size as compared to previous generation computers.
4. Less maintenance is required.
5. All types of high-level language can be used in this type of computers.
 Disadvantages:
1. The Microprocessor design and fabrication are very complex.
2. Air conditioning is required in many cases due to the presence of ICs.
3. Advance technology is required to make the ICs.

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Fifth generation:-

 Introduction:
1. The period of the fifth generation in 1980-onwards.
2. This generation is based on artificial intelligence.
3. The aim of the fifth generation is to make a device which could respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
4. This generation is based on ULSI(Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology
resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
component.
 Few Examples are:
1. Desktop
2. Laptop
3. NoteBook
4. UltraBook
5. Chromebook
 Advantages:
1. It is more reliable and works faster.
2. It is available in different sizes and unique features.
3. It provides computers with more user-friendly interfaces with multimedia
features.
 Disadvantages:
1. They need very low-level languages.
2. They may make the human brains dull and doomed.

Classification of computers:-

A computer is an electronic device that generates output in the form of

useful information when the input is given to it by the user. A computer accepts input in different
forms such as data, program and user replay.

There are the different types of computers available these days. The
function of each type of computer is to process the data and provide some output to the users.
However, the methods or techniques used by these computers to process and handle the data may
be different. We can classify the computer according to the following three criteria:

1. Based on operating principles

2. Based on applications
3. Based on size and capability

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Based on Operating Principles:-

On the basis of the operation performed and methods used to store and
process the data information, computers can be classified into the following categories:

Analog computers:-

The analog computers represent data in the form of continuous electrical

signals having a specific magnitude. These computers are very fast in their operations to be
carried out at the same time. They are a powerful tool to solve differential equations.

Digital Computers:-

The digital computer is also known as the digital information processing

system, is a type of computer that stores and processes data in the digital form. Therefore each
type of data is usually stored in these computers in terms of 0s and 1s. The output produced by
these computers is also in the digital form.

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Hybrid Computers:-

The hybrid computer is a combination of analog computer and digital

computer because it encompasses the best features of both these computers. Therefore the
hardware components of hybrid computers are usually the mixture of analog and digital
components. The hybrid computer is also less expensive than the digital computers.

Based on Application:-

Different computers are designed for a different purpose so that they can
perform their tasks according to their capabilities. On the basis of different applications or
purpose, computers can be classified into the following categories:

General purpose computers:-

They are designed in such a manner that they can work in all environments.
The general purpose computers are versatile and can store a number of programs meant for
performing distinct tasks. The general purpose computers are not efficient and consume a large
amount of time in generating the results.

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Special purpose computers:-

They are designed in such a manner that they can perform only a specified
task. The special purpose computers are not versatile and their speed and memory size depend on
the task that is to be performed. The special purpose computers are efficient and consume less
amount of time in generating the results.

Based on size and Capabilities:-

Computers differ from each other in terms of their size, shape, and weights.
Each type of computers perform some unique functions and can be employed in the fields suited
to them. On the basis of size, shape the computers can be classified into the following categories.

Minicomputers:-
A minicomputer was first introduced in the year 1960 by Digital
Equipment Corporation's (DEC). They were called minicomputers because of their smaller size
than the other computers of those time.

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Microcomputers:-
A microcomputer is a small and cheap digital computer that is designed
to be used by individuals. It is built around a microprocessor, a storage unit, and an I/o channel.
The microcomputers are generally in the form of PCs, workstations and notebook computers.

Mainframe computers:-

A mainframe computer is a very large computer that is employed by the

large business organization for handling major applications such as financial transaction
processing.

Super computers:-

A super computer is the fastest type of computers that can perform

complex operations at a very high speed. The super computer was first presented in the year
1960s by Seymour Cray at Control Data Corporation(CDC). They are more expansive than the
other categories of computers.

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The computer system

Components of computer system:-

A computer comprises of some basic elements. These include hardware,

software, programmes, data and connectivity. No computer can function in the absence of these
elements. Apart from these elements, a computer system comprises of three basic components.
These components are responsible for making computers actually function. Let’s take a look at
them in detail. Every computer system has the following three basic components:

1. Input unit
2. Central processing unit
3. Output unit

Input Unit:-

These components help users enter data and commands into computer system. Data
can be in the form of numbers, words, actions, commands, etc. The main function of input
devices is to direct commands and data into computers. Computers then use their CPU to process
this data and produce output. For example, a laptop’s keyboard is an input unit that enters
numbers and characters. Similarly, even a mouse can be an input unit for entering directions and
commands. Other examples include barcode readers, Magnetic Ink Character Readers (MICR),
Optical Character Readers (OCR), etc.

Central Processing Unit (CPU):-

After receiving data and commands from users, a computer system now has
to process it according to the instructions provided. Here, it has to rely on a component called the
central processing unit. The CPU further uses these three elements:

Memory Unit:-

Once a user enters data using input devices, the computer system stores this
data in its memory unit. This data will now remain here until other components of CPU process
it. The memory unit uses a set of pre-programmed instructions to further transmit this data to
other parts of the CPU.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit:-

This part of the CPU performs arithmetic operations. It does basic mathematical
calculations like addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, etc. Further, it can even perform
logical functions like the comparison of data.

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Control Unit:-

This unit is the backbone of computers. It is responsible for coordinating

tasks between all components of a computer system. The control unit collects data from input
units and sends it to processing units depending on its nature. Finally, it also further transmits
processed data to output units for users.

Output Unit:-

The third and final component of a computer system is the output unit.
After processing of data, it is converted into a format which humans can understand. After
conversion, the output units displays this data to users. Examples of output devices include
monitors, screens, printers and speakers. Thus, output units basically reproduce the data
formatted by the computer for users’ benefit.

Communication among various units:-

In the above diagram, both control (control unit or CU) and arithmetic & logic
unit (ALU) combine called as Central Processing Unit (CPU).

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The Processor Unit (CPU):-

It is the brain of the computer system. All major calculation and comparisons are
made inside the CPU and it is also responsible for activation and controlling the operation of
other unit. This unit consists of two major components, that are arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and
control unit (CU).

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):-

Here arithmetic logic unit performs all arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. It also uses logic operation for comparison.

Control Unit (CU):-

And the control unit of a CPU controls the entire operation of the computer. It also
controls all devices such as memory, input/output devices connected to the CPU.

CU fetches instructions from memory, decodes the instruction, interprets the instruction to know
what the task are to be performed and sends suitable control signals to the other components to
perform for the necessary steps to executes the instruction.

Input/output Unit:-

The input/output unit consists of devices used to transmit information between the
external world and computer memory. The information fed through the input unit is stored in
computer's memory for processing and the final result stored in memory can be recorded or
display on the output medium.

Memory Unit:-

Memory unit is an essential component of a digital computer. It is where all data

intermediate and find results are stored. The data read from the main storage or an input unit are
transferred to the computer's memory where they are available for processing. This memory unit
is used to hold the instructions to be executed and data to be processes.

Disk Storage Unit:-

Data and instruction enters into a computer system through input device have to
stored inside the computer before actual processing start. Two types of storage unit are primary
and secondary storage unit.

1. Primary Storage Unit

2. Secondary Storage Unit

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Applications of computer:-

Computer is a device through which you can perform a variety of jobs.

You can use your computer system for different applications by changing the software packages.
Here are the list of uses or applications of computer:

 Scientific research
 Business application
 Education
 Entertainment
 Banks
 Communication
 Engineering
 Medicine
 Book Publishing
 Games
 Personal
 Accounting

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Unit - II

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Computer Memory

Memory Hierarchy:-

In computer architecture, the memory hierarchy separates computer storage into a

hierarchy based on response time. Since response time, complexity, and capacity are related, the
levels may also be distinguished by their performance and controlling technologies. Memory
hierarchy affects performance in computer architectural design, algorithm predictions, and lower
level programming constructs involving locality of reference.

This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:

1. External Memory or Secondary Memory:-

Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral storage
devices which are accessible by the processor via I/O Module.
2. Internal Memory or Primary Memory:-
Comprising of Main Memory, Cache Memory & CPU registers. This is directly
accessible by the processor.

We can infer the following characteristics of Memory Hierarchy Design from above figure:

1.Capacity:-
It is the global volume of information the memory can store. As we move
from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.

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2. Access Time:-

It is the time interval between the read/write request and the availability of
the data. As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.

3. Performance:-

Earlier when the computer system was designed without Memory Hierarchy
design, the speed gap increases between the CPU registers and Main Memory due to large
difference in access time. This results in lower performance of the system and thus,
enhancement was required. This enhancement was made in the form of Memory Hierarchy
Design because of which the performance of the system increases. One of the most
significant ways to increase system performance is minimizing how far down the memory
hierarchy one has to go to manipulate data.

4. Cost per bit:-

As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e.
Internal Memory is costlier than External Memory.

Different types of Ram & Rom:-

Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because

without it computer can’t perform simple tasks. Computer memory is of two basic type –
Primary memory(RAM and ROM) and Secondary memory(hard drive, CD, etc.). Random
Access Memory (RAM) is primary-volatile memory and Read Only Memory (ROM) is primary-
non-volatile memory.

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Random Access Memory (RAM):--

 It is also called as read write memory or the main memory or the primary memory.
 The programs and data that the CPU requires during execution of a program are stored in
this memory.
 It is a volatile memory as the data loses when the power is turned off.
 RAM is further classified into two types- SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) and
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory).

Read Only Memory (ROM) –

 Stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the program essential to
boot the computer.
 It is not volatile.
 Always retains its data.
 Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no change.
 Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
 ROM is further classified into 4 types- ROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

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Types of Read Only Memory (ROM):-

1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory) – It can be programmed by user. Once

programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.
2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory) – It can be reprogrammed. To
erase data from it, expose it to ultra violet light. To reprogram it, erase all the previous
data.
3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only memory) – The data can
be erased by applying electric field, no need of ultra violet light. We can erase only
portions of the chip.

System Software

Introduction to system software:-

System software can be separated into two different categories, utility

programs and operating systems. Operating systems are the foundation of your computer and
almost every electronic device. The OS boots up the computer and makes sure everything is
operational. The OS is also what runs your cell phone and most of your electronic devices. The
OS is, for the most part, the GUI (graphical user interface) that shows you all of your
applications, and without the OS you cannot use the computer.

System software is a software that provides platform to other softwares. Some

examples can be operating systems, antivirus softwares, disk formating softwares, Computer
language translators etc. These are commonly prepared by the computer manufacturers. These
softwares consists of programs written in low-level languages, used to interact with the hardware
at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the
end users.
There are two main types of software: systems software and application software.

Application Software:-

Application Software are the most common programs that run in the
foreground of the computer. They tend to perform useful tasks which are not associated with
computer maintenance, system boot-up, or hardware communication. Application software is
directly reliant on the Systems Software to communicate to the physical components of the
computer and cannot operate without it.

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Distinction between System software and application software:-

software:

System Software:-

System Software is the type of software which is the interface between

application software and system. Low level languages are used to write
write the system software.
System Software maintain the system resources and give the path for application software to run.
An important thing is that without
out system software, system cannot
cannot run. It is a general purpose
software.

Application Software:-

Application Software is the he type of software which runs as per user

request. It runs on the platform which is provide by system software. High level languages are
used to write the application software. It's
It a specific purpose software.

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The main difference between System Software and Application Software is that without system
software, system cannot run on the other hand without application software, system always runs.

S.NO System Software Application Software

System Software maintain the system
Application software is built for
1. resources and give the path for application
specific tasks.
software to run.
While high level languages are
Low level languages are used to write the
2. used to write the application
system software.
software.
While its a specific purpose
3. Its a general purpose software.
software.
While without application
4. Without system software, system can’t run.
software system always runs.
System software runs when system is turned While application software runs as
5.
on and stop when system is turned off. per the user’s request.
Example of system software are operating Example of application software
6.
system, etc. are Photoshop, VLC player etc.

Introductory ideas of loaders and linkers Computer language, Assemblers,

Interpreters and compilers:-

Linkers:-

A linker is a program that allows a user to link library programs or separate

modules of code into their own programs. It is used to combine different modules of object code
into one single executable code program. This may involve combining a program with library
programs, or involve recombining blocks of object code from the same program, or a mixture of
both.

 A program may call library modules.

 Library modules will use data stored in ‘relative addresses’
 The program itself is compiled.
 The library modules are compiled.
 The linker program is run.
 The compiled library modules are linked to (connected to) the compiled program.
 Base addresses used in the library modules are adjusted so that the calls in them to
data work from within the main program.
 One executable program is produced.

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Linkers are also used when a user has to compile a big program in sections, perhaps because
there is a shortage of RAM. The user's program is split up into sections and held on backing
storage. Each section is then brought into RAM, one section at a time, from backing storage and
compiled into object code. Each block of object code is then saved back to the backing storage.
When the whole program is compiled, the compiler can be removed from RAM and all of the
blocks of object code can then be brought into RAM because there is enough space without the
compiler program. The linker program is used to recombine the blocks of object code in RAM to
get a working full program.

Loaders:-

A loader is a piece of software that chooses exactly where to put object code in
RAM, ready for it to be run. It also adjusts the memory references in programs. The job of a
piece of software known as a loader is to take the object code generated by compilation and to
find a 'good' place for it in RAM, where it can then be executed.

The second main job involves adjusting references that are used within a
program. Programs can be written by programmers using either ‘absolute addressing’ or ‘relative
addressing’. Relative addressing is more common because then the loader can put the program
anywhere in RAM - absolute addressing isn't flexible.

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Assembler:-

An assembler is a program that converts assembly language into machine code.

It takes the basic commands and operations and converts them into binary code specific to a type
of processor. Assemblers produce executable code that similar to compilers. However,
assemblers are more simplistic since they only convert low-level code (assembly language) to
machine code. Since each assembly language is designed for a specific processor, assembling a
program is performed using a simple one-to-one mapping from assembly code to machine code.
On the other hand, compilers must convert generic high-level source code into machine code for
a specific processor.

Compiler:-

A compiler is a software that translates the code written in one language to

some other language without changing the meaning of the program. The compiler is also said to
make the target code efficient and optimized in terms of time and space.

A compiler performs almost all of the following operations during

compilation: preprocessing, lexical analysis, parsing, semantic analysis (syntax-directed
translation), conversion of input programs to an intermediate representation, code optimization
and code generation. Examples of compiler may include gcc(C compiler), g++ (C++ Compiler ),
javac (Java Compiler) etc.

Interpreter:-

An interpreter is a computer program that directly executes, i.e. it performs

instructions written in a programming or scripting language. Interpreter do not require the
program to be previously compiled into a machine language program. An interpreter translates
high-level instructions into an intermediate form, which is then executes.

Interpreters are fast as it does not need to go through the compilation stage
during which machine instructions are generated. Interpreter continuously translates the program
until the first error is met. If an error comes it stops executing. Hence debugging is easy.

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Unit - III

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Operating System

Evolution:-

The evolution of operating systems is directly dependent on the development of

computer systems and how users use them. Here is a quick tour of computing systems through
the past fifty years in the timeline.

Early Evolution:-

 1945: ENIAC, Moore School of Engineering, University of Pennsylvania.

 1949: EDSAC and EDVAC
 1949: BINAC - a successor to the ENIAC
 1951: UNIVAC by Remington
 1952: IBM 701
 1956: The interrupt
 1954-1957: FORTRAN was developed

Operating Systems - Late 1950s:-

By the late 1950s Operating systems were well improved and started
supporting following usages:

 It was able to perform Single stream batch processing.

 It could use Common, standardized, input/output routines for device access.
 Program transition capabilities to reduce the overhead of starting a new job was added.
 Error recovery to clean up after a job terminated abnormally was added.
 Job control languages that allowed users to specify the job definition and resource
requirements were made possible.

Operating Systems - In 1960s:-

 1961: The dawn of minicomputers

 1962: Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) from MIT
 1963: Burroughs Master Control Program (MCP) for the B5000 system
 1964: IBM System/360
 1960s: Disks became mainstream
 1966: Minicomputers got cheaper, more powerful, and really useful.
 1967-1968: Mouse was invented.
 1964 and onward: Multics
 1969: The UNIX Time-Sharing System from Bell Telephone Laboratories.

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Supported OS Features by 1970s:-

 Multi User and Multi tasking was introduced.

 Dynamic address translation hardware and Virtual machines came into picture.
 Modular architectures came into existence.
 Personal, interactive systems came into existence.

Accomplishments after 1970:-

 1971: Intel announces the microprocessor

 1972: IBM comes out with VM: the Virtual Machine Operating System
 1973: UNIX 4th Edition is published
 1973: Ethernet
 1974 The Personal Computer Age begins
 1974: Gates and Allen wrote BASIC for the Altair
 1976: Apple II
 August 12, 1981: IBM introduces the IBM PC
 1983 Microsoft begins work on MS-Windows
 1984 Apple Macintosh comes out
 1990 Microsoft Windows 3.0 comes out
 1991 GNU/Linux
 1992 The first Windows virus comes out
 1993 Windows NT
 2007: iOS
 2008: Android OS

Introduction to Operating System:-

An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a

computer and computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an
environment in which a user can execute programs in a convenient and efficient manner.

An operating system is a software that manages the computer hardware.

The hardware must provide appropriate mechanisms to ensure the correct operation of the
computer system and to prevent user programs from interfering with the proper operation of the
system.

 An operating system is a program that controls the execution of application programs and
acts as an interface between the user of a computer and the computer hardware.
 A more common definition is that the operating system is the one program running at all
times on the computer (usually called the kernel), with all else being application
programs.
 An operating system is concerned with the allocation of resources and services, such as
memory, processors, devices, and information. The operating system correspondingly
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includes programs to manage these resources, such as a traffic controller, a scheduler,

memory management module, I/O programs, and a file system.

Functions and Facilities:-

Operating system performs three functions:-

1. Convenience: An OS makes a computer more convenient to use.

2. Efficiency: An OS allows the computer system resources to be used in an efficient
manner.
3. Ability to Evolve: An OS should be constructed in such a way as to permit the effective
development, testing and introduction of new system functions at the same time without
interfering with service.

Operating system as User Interface:-

1. User
2. System and application programs
3. Operating system
4. Hardware

Every general-purpose computer consists of the hardware, operating system, system programs,
and application programs. The hardware consists of memory, CPU, ALU, and I/O devices,
peripheral device, and storage device. System program consists of compilers, loaders, editors,
OS, etc. The application program consists of business programs, database programs.

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Every computer must have an operating system to run other programs. The
operating system coordinates the use of the hardware among the various system programs and
application programs for various users. It simply provides an environment within which other
programs can do useful work.

The operating system is a set of special programs that run on a computer system
that allows it to work properly. It performs basic tasks such as recognizing input from the
keyboard, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, sending output to the display screen
and controlling peripheral devices.

OS is designed to serve two basic purposes:

1. It controls the allocation and use of the computing System’s resources among the various
user and tasks.
2. It provides an interface between the computer hardware and the programmer that
simplifies and makes feasible for coding, creation, debugging of application programs.

The Operating system must support the following tasks:

1. Provides the facilities to create, modification of programs and data files using an editor.
2. Access to the compiler for translating the user program from high level language to
machine language.
3. Provide a loader program to move the compiled program code to the computer’s memory
for execution.
4. Provide routines that handle the details of I/O programming.

I/O System Management:-

The module that keeps track of the status of devices is called the I/O traffic
controller. Each I/O device has a device handler that resides in a separate process associated with
that device. The I/O subsystem consists of

 A memory Management component that includes buffering caching and spooling.

 A general device driver interface.

Single Tasking and Multitasking OS:-

Single Tasking OS:-

An operating system that allows a single user to perform only one task at a
time is called a Single-User Single-Tasking Operating System. Functions like printing a

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document, downloading images, etc., can be performed only one at a time. Examples include
MS-DOS, Palm OS, etc.

Advantages :- This operating system occupies less space in memory.

Disadvantages:- It can perform only a single task at a time.

Multitasking OS:-

An operating system that allows a single user to perform more than one task at
a time is called Single-User Multitasking Operating System. Examples include Microsoft
Windows and Macintosh OS.

Advantages:- It is time saving as it performs multiple tasks at a time yielding high

productivity.

Disadvantages:- This operating system is highly complex and occupies more space.

Single User and Multiuser Operating System:-

Single user Operating System:-

A single-user operating system is a type of system that has been developed

and designed to use on a computer. It can be used on a similar device, and it only has one user at
a time. It’s the most common system used for home computers. It’s also used in offices and other
work environments. There are two types of this operating system – single-task and multitask. It
can connect to other systems in a network, but it is only ever used by one person.

Single-user operating systems have the ability to run multiple programs. A

person can only focus on one task while on their home computer like writing in a word
processor. That’s similar to how this system can only focus on one user. Though there may be
multiple aspects involved, there’s still only one person in the center.

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Multiuser Operating System:-

A multi-user operating system (OS) is a computer system that allows

multiple users that are on different computers to access a single system's OS resources
simultaneously. Users on the system are connected through a network. The OS shares resources
between users, depending on what type of resources the users need. The OS must ensure that the
system stays well-balanced in resources to meet each user's needs and not affect other users who
are connected. Some examples of a multi-user OS are Unix, Virtual Memory System (VMS) and
mainframe OS.

Multi-user operating systems were originally used for time-sharing and

batch processing on mainframe computers. These types of systems are still in use today by large
companies, universities, and government agencies, and are usually used in servers, such as the
Ubuntu Server edition (18.04.1 LTS) or Windows Server 2016. The server allows multiple users
to access the same OS and share the hardware and the kernel, performing tasks for each user
concurrently.

Characteristics of MS-Dos:-

Any operating system which runs from the hard disk drive is termed as Disk
Operating System ( D.O.S ). This also refers to the specific family of disk operating system
which is also known as MS-DOS or Microsoft disk operating system. Anything which
commands and controls the computer’s hardware and its peripheral devices with control over the
program and its functionality is known as the operating system. This operating system which
runs through the hard disk is known as a disk operating system. For the very first time, It was
made and introduced for IBM by Microsoft which was known as IBM PC DOS in the year 1981.
List of DOS made from 1981 – 1998 are as follows :

1. IBM PC DOS – 1981

2. DR-DOS – 1988
3. ROM-DOS – 1989
4. PTS-DOS – 1993
5. FREE-DOS – 1998

Here are some of the distinguishing features:

 It is a 16-bit operating system

 The mouse cannot be used to operate it e, Input in it is through basic system commands.
 The maximum space available is 2 GB.
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 It is a free OS.
 It uses a text-based interface and requires text and codes to operate
 It does not support graphical interface
 It is a single user operating system.
 It is a Character Based interface system.
 It is very helpful in making file management e.g., creating, editing, deleting files, etc.

Characteristics of UNIX OS:-

Unix is an Operating System which is truly the base of all Operating

Systems like Ubuntu, Solaris, POSIX, etc. It was developed in the 1970s by Ken Thompson,
Dennis Ritchie, and others in the AT&T Laboratories. It was originally meant for programmers
developing software rather than non-programmers.

Unix and the C were found by AT&T and distributed to government and
academic institutions, which led to both being ported to a wider variety of machine families than
any other operating system. The main focus that was brought by the developers in this operating
system was the Kernel. Unix was considered to be the heart of the operating System.

Portability:-

The system is written in high-level language making it easier to read,

understand, change and, therefore move to other machines. The code can be changed and
complied on a new machine. Customers can then choose from a wide variety of hardware
vendors without being locked in with a particular vendor.

Machine-independence:-

The System hides the machine architecture from the user, making it easier to
write applications that can run on micros, mins and mainframes.

Multi-Tasking:-

Unix is a powerful multi-tasking operating system; it means when a active task

in process, there can be a simultaneous background process working too. Unix handles these
active and background threads efficiently and manages the system resources in a fair-share
manner.

Multi-User Operations:-

UNIX is a multi-user system designed to support a group of users

simultaneously. The system allows for the sharing of processing power and peripheral resources,
white at the same time providing excellent security features.

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Hierarchical File System:-

UNIX uses a hierarchies file structure to store information. This structure has
the maximum flexibility in grouping information in a way that reflects its natural state. It allows
for easy maintenance and efficient implementation.

UNIX shell:-

UNIX has a simple user interface called the shell that has the power to provide
the services that the user wants. It protects the user from having to know the intricate hardware
details.

Pipes and Filters:-

UNIX has facilities called Pipes and Filters which permit the user to create
complex programs from simple programs.

Utilities:-

UNIX has over 200 utility programs for various functions. New utilities can be
built effortlessly by combining existing utilities.

Dos and Unix Commands for File and Process management:-

Dos Commands:-

Any instruction given to the computer to perform a specific task is called

command. The DOS has several commands, each for a particular task and these are stored in
DOS directory on the disk. The commands are of two types :

1. Internal Commands:-

These are in built commands of MS-DOS i.e. these are stored in Command
interpreter file (COMMAND.COM). These commands reside in the memory as long as the
machine is at he system prompt(C:\>) level. To use these commands no extra /external file is
required. E.g. DATE, TIME, DIR, VER etc.

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2. External commands:-

These are separate program (.com) files that reside in DOS directory and
when executed behave like commands. An external command has predefined syntax. for e.g.
HELP, DOSKEY, BACKUP, RESTORE, FORMAT etc.

BASIC DOS COMMANDS:-

a) Directory Commands:

DIR: To list all or specific files of any directory on a specified disk.

MD: To make directory or subdirectory on a specified disk/drive.

CD or CHDIR: Change DOS current working directory to specified directory on specified disk
or to check for the current directory on the specified or default drive.

RMDIR or RD: Removes a specified sub-directory only when it is empty. This command
cannot remove root directory (C:\) or current working directory.

TREE: Displays all of the directory paths found on the specified drive.

PATH: Sets a sequential search path for the executables files, if the same are not available in the
current directory.

SUBST: Substitutes a string alias for the pathname and creates a virtual drive.

b) File Management Commands:

COPY: Copies one or more files from source disk/drive to the specified disk/drive.

XCOPY: Copies files and directories, including lower-level directories if they exists.

DEL: Removes specified files from specified disk/drive.

REN: Changes the name of a file(Renaming).

ATTRIB: Sets or shows file attributes (read, write, hidden, Archive).

BACKUP: Stores or back up one or more files/directories from source disk/drive to other
destination disk/drive.

RESTORE: Restores files that were backed up using BACKUP command.

EDIT: Provides a full screen editor to create or edit a text file.

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FORMAT: Formats a disk/drive for data storage and use.

c) General Commands:

TIME: sets or displays the system time.

DATE: Sets or displays system date.

TYPE: Displays the contents of at the specified file.

PROMPT: Customizes the DOS command prompt.

If a users requires help on any DOS commands he/she may type help and command name at the
command prompt.

Unix Commands:-

Files:-

 ls --- lists your files

ls -l --- lists your files in 'long format', which contains lots of useful information, e.g. the
exact size of the file, who owns the file and who has the right to look at it, and when it
was last modified.
ls -a --- lists all files, including the ones whose filenames begin in a dot, which you do
not always want to see.
There are many more options, for example to list files by size, by date, recursively etc.
 more filename --- shows the first part of a file, just as much as will fit on one screen. Just
hit the space bar to see more or q to quit. You can use /pattern to search for a pattern.
 emacs filename --- is an editor that lets you create and edit a file. See the emacs page.
 mv filename1 filename2 --- moves a file (i.e. gives it a different name, or moves it into a
different directory (see below)
 cp filename1 filename2 --- copies a file
 rm filename --- removes a file. It is wise to use the option rm -i, which will ask you for
confirmation before actually deleting anything. You can make this your default by
making an alias in your .cshrc file.
 diff filename1 filename2 --- compares files, and shows where they differ
 wc filename --- tells you how many lines, words, and characters there are in a file
 chmod options filename --- lets you change the read, write, and execute permissions on
your files. The default is that only you can look at them and change them, but you may
sometimes want to change these permissions. For example, chmod o+r filename will
make the file readable for everyone, and chmod o-r filename will make it unreadable for
others again. Note that for someone to be able to actually look at the file the directories it
is in need to be at least executable. See help protection for more details.

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 File Compression
o gzip filename --- compresses files, so that they take up much less space. Usually
text files compress to about half their original size, but it depends very much on
the size of the file and the nature of the contents. There are other tools for this
purpose, too (e.g. compress), but gzip usually gives the highest compression rate.
Gzip produces files with the ending '.gz' appended to the original filename.
o gunzip filename --- uncompresses files compressed by gzip.
o gzcat filename --- lets you look at a gzipped file without actually having to
gunzip it (same as gunzip -c). You can even print it directly, using gzcat filename
| lpr

 printing
o lpr filename --- print. Use the -P option to specify the printer name if you want to
use a printer other than your default printer. For example, if you want to print
double-sided, use 'lpr -Pvalkyr-d', or if you're at CSLI, you may want to use 'lpr -
Pcord115-d'. See 'help printers' for more information about printers and their
locations.
o lpq --- check out the printer queue, e.g. to get the number needed for removal, or
to see how many other files will be printed before yours will come out
o lprm jobnumber --- remove something from the printer queue. You can find the
job number by using lpq. Theoretically you also have to specify a printer name,
but this isn't necessary as long as you use your default printer in the department.
o genscript --- converts plain text files into postscript for printing, and gives you
some options for formatting. Consider making an alias like alias ecop 'genscript
-2 -r \!* | lpr -h -Pvalkyr' to print two pages on one piece of paper.
o dvips filename --- print .dvi files (i.e. files produced by LaTeX). You can use
dviselect to print only selected pages. See the LaTeX page for more information
about how to save paper when printing drafts.

Directories:-
Directories, like folders on a Macintosh, are used to group files together in a
hierarchical structure.

 mkdir dirname --- make a new directory

 cd dirname --- change directory. You basically 'go' to another directory, and you will see
the files in that directory when you do 'ls'. You always start out in your 'home directory',
and you can get back there by typing 'cd' without arguments. 'cd ..' will get you one level
up from your current position. You don't have to walk along step by step - you can make
big leaps or avoid walking around by specifying pathnames.
 pwd --- tells you where you currently are.
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Finding things:-

 ff --- find files anywhere on the system. This can be extremely useful if you've forgotten
in which directory you put a file, but do remember the name. In fact, if you use ff -p you
don't even need the full name, just the beginning. This can also be useful for finding other
things on the system, e.g. documentation.
 grep string filename(s) --- looks for the string in the files. This can be useful a lot of
purposes, e.g. finding the right file among many, figuring out which is the right version
of something, and even doing serious corpus work. grep comes in several varieties (grep,
egrep, and fgrep) and has a lot of very flexible options. Check out the man pages if this
sounds good to you.

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Unit - IV

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Text Editors

Overview of editing process:-

A text editor is a tool that allows a user to create and revise documents in
a computer. Though this task can be carried out in other modes, the word text editor commonly
refers to the tool that does this interactively. Earlier computer documents used to be primarily
plain text documents, but nowadays due to improved input-output mechanisms and file formats,
a document frequently contains pictures along with texts whose appearance (script, size, color
and style) can be varied within the document. Apart from producing output of such wide variety,
text editors today provide many advanced features of inter activeness and output.

A text editor has to cover the following main aspects related to document creation, storage and
revision -

1. Interactive user interface

2. Appropriate format for storing the document in file in secondary storage
3. Efficient transfer of information between the user interface and the file in secondary
storage.

Structure of Text Editor

The structure of a text editor depends largely on the types of editing
features and displaying capabilities that are to be supported. To implement the diplaying
capabilities, the semantics of the meta data that may be present in the document file needs to be
implemented as display actions. For example, if the meta data implies a particular colour to be
used for a segment of text, editor should invoke methods to effect that colour for the particular
segment of text. Since at a time only a finite portion of the document can be displayed, such
actions are to be taken for a portion of the information in the file. However, the user may specify
some other portion to be displayed (through page-up, page-down, pattern search, etc.), in which
case the display actions must be performed for that portion. Thus the editor program should keep
track of the size of the display window, and the boundaries of the current displayed portion in
terms of offsets from some fixed point in the document (such as line number of the first and the
last displayed lines, etc.)

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Graphical User Interface

Introduction to windows:-

The history of Microsoft Windows dates back to 1985, when Microsoft released Microsoft
Windows Version 1.01. Microsoft’s aim was to provide a friendly user-interface known as a GUI
(graphical user interface) which allowed for easier navigation of the system features. Windows
1.01 never really caught on. (The amazing thing about Windows 1.01 is that it fitted on a single
floppy disk!). In 1987 Microsoft revamped the operating system and released Windows
2.03. The GUI was very slightly improved but still looked too similar to Windows 1.01. The
operating system again failed to capture a wide audience.

Microsoft made an enormous impression with Windows 3.0 and 3.1. Graphics and functionality
were drastically improved. The Windows 3.x family provided multimedia capabilities as well as
vastly improved graphics and application support.

Building on the success of Windows 3.x, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows For
Workgroups 3.11. This gave Windows the ability to function on a network. It is not uncommon
to find companies still using Windows 3.11.

In 1993 Microsoft divided the operating system into two categories; Business and home user.
Windows NT (New Technology) was a lot more reliable than Windows 3.x. Windows NT
provided advanced network features. On the business front, Windows NT continued to develop
with the release of version 3.51. Different versions were provided which offered different
functionality. Server provided the higher network functions and Workstation was mainly for the
client machines.

In 1995 Windows went through a major revamp and Microsoft Windows 95 was released. This
provided greatly improved multimedia and a much more polished user interface. The now
familiar desktop and Start Menu appeared. Internet and networking support was built in
Although Windows 95 was a home user operating system, it proved to be very popular in schools
and businesses.

After the success of Windows 95, Microsoft improved the GUI interface of Windows NT and
released Windows NT 4.0. NT4 could be tailored to the size of the business, NT4 Server for
small to medium sized businesses and Enterprise Server for larger networks. Microsoft continued
to improve the Windows format. Although Microsoft Windows 98 was very similar to Windows
95, it offered a much tidier display and enhanced multimedia support.

Breaking with its own naming conventions, Microsoft released Windows 2000 (initially called
NT 5.0) for the business market. It appeared in 4 models: Professional -which replaced
Workstation, Server, Advanced Server and Datacenter Server catered for differing business
requirements.

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Although Windows 2000 had a greatly improved user interface, the best of the enhancements
appeared on the server side. Active Directory was introduced which allowed much greater
control of security and organization. Improvements to the overall operating system allowed for
easier configuration and installation.

Word processing software packages and features:-

Word processing software is used to manipulate text and apply a basic design to your pages.

Working with Text:-

Multimedia files, such as digital imagery and video, have become increasingly popular in today's
business world, but the written word remains as important as ever. Just think about the nature of
the documents being produced and circulated within any organization. Some examples include:

 A marketing plan to promote a new product.

 A memo from senior management regarding corporate strategy.
 A new benefits policy developed by human resources.

Most of these documents are produced using word processing software.

Word Processing:-

Word processing software is used to manipulate a text document, such as a resume or a report.
You typically enter text by typing, and the software provides tools for copying, deleting and
various types of formatting. Some of the functions of word processing software include:

 Creating, editing, saving and printing documents.

 Copying, pasting, moving and deleting text within a document.
 Formatting text, such as font type, bolding, underlining or italicizing.
 Creating and editing tables.
 Inserting elements from other software, such as illustrations or photographs.
 Correcting spelling and grammar.

Word processing includes a number of tools to format your pages. For example, you can
organize your text into columns, add page numbers, insert illustrations, etc. However, word
processing does not give you complete control over the look and feel of your document. When
design becomes important, you may need to use desktop publishing software to give you more
control over the layout of your pages.

Word processing software typically also contains features to make it easier for you to perform
repetitive tasks. For example, let's say you need to send a letter to all your customers regarding a
new policy. The letter is the same for all customers except for the name and address at the top of

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the letter. A mail merge function allows you to produce all the letters using one template
document and a table with customer names and addresses in the database.

Text editors shouldn't be confused with word processing software. While they do also allow you
to create, edit and save text documents, they only work on plain text. Text editors don't use any
formatting, such as underlined text or different fonts. Text editors serve a very different purpose
from word processing software. They are used to work with files in plain text format, such as
source code of computer programs or configuration files of an operating system. An example of
a text editor would be Notepad on the Windows platform.

Word Processing Software:-

There are a number of different word processing applications. One of the most widely used ones
is Word, which is part of Microsoft Office. Another widely used one is WordPerfect by the Corel
Corporation. A third one is Writer, which is part of OpenOffice by Apache. While the first two
are commercial software, OpenOffice is open source and can be downloaded and used free of
charge. Finally, there is Pages, which is part of iWork by Apple.

While there are many differences between the various word processing applications, they all
accomplish pretty much the same thing. Which one you use is partly a matter of personal
preference. It is also important to consider which software is being used by the people you
normally collaborate with. In many cases, people within the same organization will use the same
software to make it easier to share documents or to work on the same document together.

BASIC COMMANDS:- Basic commands include the operations necessary to view, save, print,
and close a document.
■ Open. Displays lists of folders and files (documents). Use this command to locate a desired
document and open (display) it on the screen.
■ Save/Save As. Saves a document on a disk while leaving a copy of it on the screen. Use Save
As the first time a document is saved (give it a filename) and to rename a document. Use Save to
save a revised document without renaming it.
■ Print Preview. Shows a document as it will look when printed, including multiple pages in
one view.
■ Print. Prints documents. Select print options and settings (Print dialog box) before printing.
■ Close. Removes a document from the display screen. If the document has not been saved, you
will be prompted to save it before closing.

EDITING FEATURES:- Editing features allow the user to locate, revise, correct, and rearrange
text in a document.
■ Copy. Copies selected text so it can be placed in another location, leaving the original text
unchanged.
■ Cut. Removes selected text from the current location.
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■ Paste. Places selected text that has been copied or cut at another location.
■ Find. Locates a specified keystroke, word, or phrase in a document. Available Find options
include:
– Find only occurrences that match the specified case.
– Find only whole words containing the specified text.
– Find all forms of a specified word.
– Find specified text using the asterisk (*) and question mark (?) as wildcard (unspecified)
characters.
■ Replace. Finds a specified keystroke, word, or phrase, and then replaces it with another
keystroke, word, or phrase. All occurrences of the specified text can be replaced at one time, or
replacements can be made individually (selectively).
■ Select. Highlights text on which various operations may be performed. Use the mouse and/or
key combinations to select text. Once selected, the text can be bolded, underlined, italicized,
deleted, copied, moved, printed, saved, etc.
■ Spell-Check. Checks words, documents, or parts of documents for misspellings.
■ Undo. Reverses the last change made in the text. This feature restores moved text to its
original location.
■ Redo. Reverses the last Undo action.
■ Typeover. Replaces existing text with newly keyed text (also called Overstrike or Overtype).

ENHANCEMENT FEATURES:- Enhancement features improve the appearance of a

document and/or emphasize important words, phrases, or sentences.
■ Bold. Prints text darker than other copy as it is keyed. Bold may be added after text has been
keyed by first selecting the text.
■ Borders. Adds a border to any or all sides of a page, paragraph, or column, as well as to a
table or a cell within a table. Page border options may include small pictures. Borders not only
enhance appearance, but also make text easier to read by emphasizing certain passages. Borders
are most effective when used sparingly.
■ Bullets. Highlights each item in a list with a heavy dot or other character, as demonstrated in
this list of features. Bullets add visual interest and emphasis.
■ Change Case. Changes capitalization. The lowercase option changes all selected text to
lowercase; the UPPERCASE option changes selected text to all capitals. The Sentence case
option capitalizes the first letter of the first word, and the Title Case option capitalizes the first
letter of each selected word.
■ Drop Cap. Formats paragraphs to begin with a large dropped capital letter. Drop caps are
objects (pictures) that can be formatted and sized.
■ Font. Consists of the typeface, style, size, and any effects used. Font features may be changed
before or after text is keyed. The number and size of fonts available depends on the software and
printer used.

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– Typeface. Refers to the design of the characters. Examples include Times New Roman,
Courier New, and Arial.– Styles. Include bold and italic.
– Size. Measured in points such as 10 point or 12 point. One point is about 1⁄72 of an inch.
– Effect. Added to give text a special look. Examples of effects are shadow, emboss, and small
caps. Effects should be used infrequently.
■ Italic. Prints letters that slope up toward the right. Italic may be added after text has been
keyed by first selecting the text.
■ Numbering. Shows the proper order of a series of steps or items. Use numbers instead of
bullets whenever the order of items is important.
■ Shading. Adds color or patterns to paragraphs or table cells to emphasize them and focus the
reader’s attention on the contents.
■ Superscript. Places text slightly higher than other text on a line. Superscript is commonly
used for footnotes and endnotes, and for mathematical formulas and equations.
■ Underline. Underlines text as it is keyed. An underline may be added after text has been keyed
by first selecting the text.
■ Watermark. Prints any desired text or graphics behind the main text on document pages.

FORMATTING FEATURES:- Formatting features change the arrangement, or layout, of

pages. These features include aligning text vertically and horizontally, indenting and
hyphenating text, and changing margins and line spacing.
■ Alignment. Refers to the horizontal position of a line of text (also called justification).
– Use left alignment to start text at the left margin (even left margin).
– Use right alignment to align text at the right margin (even right margin).
– Use center alignment to center text between the left and right margins.
– Use justify alignment for even left and right margins.
■ Center Page. Centers text between top and bottom margins of a page. This feature leaves an
equal (or nearly equal) amount of white space above and below text. Inserting two hard returns
below the last keyed line gives centered documents a better appearance.
■ Hyphenation. Automatically divides (hyphenates) words that would normally wrap to the next
line. When used with left-aligned text, hyphenation makes the right margin less ragged, making
text more attractive.
■ Indent. Moves text away from the left or right margin.
– Left indent (paragraph indent) moves the text one tab stop to the right (usually 0.5"), away
from the left margin.
– Hanging indent moves all but the first line of a paragraph 0.5" (one tab stop) to the right.
Hanging indent is commonly used on bibliographies and reference pages.
■ Line Spacing. Changes the amount of blank space between lines of text.
■ Margins. Changes the amount of blank space at the top, bottom, right, and/or left edges of a
page. Default margin settings are not the same for all software.
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■ Page Break. Inserts a soft page break automatically when the current page is full. A hard page
break can be inserted manually to start a new page before the current page is full.
■ Tab. Aligns text according to the type of tab set. By default, most word processing software
programs have left tabs already set at half-inch (0.5") intervals from the left margin. These preset
tabs can be cleared and reset.
– Left tabs, commonly used to align words, align text evenly at the left by placing the keyed text
to the right of the tab setting.
– Right tabs, commonly used to align whole numbers, align text evenly at the right by placing
the keyed text to the left of the tab setting.
– Decimal tabs align numbers at the decimal point, regardless of the number of places before or
after the decimal point.
– Dot Leader tabs automatically place dot leaders (. . . .) between columns of designated text.
The leaders lead the reader’s eyes from text in the left column to text in the right column.
■ Text Wrapping. Positions text in relation to an inserted object (graphic). Text may appear
above and below, around, behind, or in front of an object.
■ Widow/Orphan. Ensures that the first line of a paragraph does not appear by itself at the
bottom of a page (orphan line) or that the last line of a paragraph does not appear by itself at the
top of a page (widow line).

INSERT FEATURES:- Various commands on the Insert menu are used to add page numbers,
dates, headers, footers, and footnotes and to insert symbols, clip art, files, pictures, shapes, text
boxes, and word art.
■ Shapes. Adds a variety of shapes (rectangles, stars, banners, arrows, flow chart symbols, etc.)
to a document.
■ Clip Art. Drawings, pictures, sounds, and video clips can be inserted into documents. A
collection of clip art files is provided with word processing software; additional clip art can be
purchased or downloaded from the Internet.
■ Date. Automatically inserts the date into a document. Some software contains an Update
option that automatically replaces the previous date with the current date each time the document
is opened or printed.
■ Footnote and Endnote. Identifies sources quoted or paraphrased in the text or gives extra
information about the main text. Word processing software automatically positions and prints
each footnote at the bottom of the same page as the reference to it. It prints endnotes on a
separate page at the end of a report. When footnotes or endnotes are edited, added, or deleted, the
software feature automatically makes the necessary changes in numbering, formatting, and page
breaks.
■ Header and Footer. Adds text (such as a chapter title, date, filename, or name of a person or
company) or graphic (a company logo, for example) in the top margin (header) or bottom margin
(footer) of a page. Headers or footers often include page numbers.

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■ Page Numbers. Places page numbers in a specified location on printed pages.

– Most software contains a variety of numbering styles from which to choose:
Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3), lowercase Roman numerals (i, ii, iii), uppercase
Roman numerals (I, II, III), uppercase letters (A, B, C), and lowercase letters (a, b, c).
– Numbers can be placed at the top or bottom of the page, and aligned at the left margin, center,
or right margin.
– The Hide or Suppress option keeps the page number from appearing on a specified page.
■ Text Boxes. Frequently used for labels or callouts in a document. Once a textbox is inserted in
a document, it can be formatted, resized, and moved.
■ Word Art. Changes text into a graphic object. Most word processing software programs have
a word art gallery that contains predefined styles such as curved or stretched text.

MISCELLANEOUS FEATURES:-
This group contains features included in most word processing software that make the
keying task easier and more efficient.
■ AutoFormat. Automatically formats headings, bulleted and numbered lists, borders, numbers,
symbols, and so on as a document is keyed. Table AutoFormat applies borders, shading, font
effects, etc., to tables.
■ AutoCorrect. Automatically corrects many common keying, spelling, and grammatical errors.
It can also insert certain text, graphics, and symbols automatically.
■ AutoComplete. Inserts entire items such as dates and AutoText (stored phrases) when a few
identifying characters are keyed.
■ Macro. Allows the user to save (record) keystrokes and/or commands for retrieval (playback)
later. Macros save time by eliminating repetitive keying and formatting. ■ Show. Displays marks
in text showing where tabs, spaces, and hard returns are inserted. Being able to see these marks
helps when editing a document or solving formatting problems. The marks do not print.
■ Split Window. Displays a document in two panes, each with its own scroll bars. This feature
can be useful when copying text between parts of a long document, or when it is necessary to see
text not visible in the window where you are keying.
■ Zoom. Increases or decreases the size of text and amount of a page appearing on the screen.
Zoom out (a rate below 100%) to see more of a page and smaller text; zoom in (a rate above
100%) to see less page area and larger text.

SPECIAL FEATURES:-
The word processing features listed below are used to create specific kinds of documents.
■ Merge. Combines information from two files into one merged file. The feature is often used to
merge a form letter (main document) with a name and address file (data source) to create a
personalized letter (merged file) to each recipient in the data source file.
■ Newspaper-Style Columns. Divides a page into two or more side-by-side columns to create
pamphlets, leaflets, brochures, and newsletters. The columns may be equal or unequal width. As
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the document is keyed, text fills a column before moving to the next column. Often, newspaper-
style columns need to be balanced (equal or nearly equal in length). The desired balance can be
achieved by inserting column breaks as needed.
■ Outline. Automatically labels each topic (paragraph) with a number or letter. The
alphanumeric outlining system uses Roman and Arabic numbers and capital and lowercase
letters. For example, Level 1 items might be labeled I, II, III, etc. Level 2 would be A, B, C, etc.,
and Level 3 would be labeled 1, 2, 3, etc.
■ Styles. Applies a predefined set of formatting options to text to add consistency to a document.
■ Table. Creates a grid for arranging information in rows and columns. A table can be used to
summarize information and to arrange it into easily identifiable categories. Note: Table features
are discussed in the Tables section of this manual.
■ Web Page. Creates a new blank Web page in the document window. The file is saved in
HTML format so it can be viewed in a Web browser.
■ E-Mail. Creates a new e-mail message in the document window and sends the document as the
body of the e-mail.

Spread sheet packages and features:-

A Computer application program that stores and processes numerical data

in the form of a table is called spreadsheet software (program). Spreadsheet software has several
methods for analyzing the data stored in it. Data may also be presented in graphical form in a
spreadsheet program. A spreadsheet program uses worksheets and workbooks. A worksheet
consists of a number of columns and rows. The columns are labeled with letters like A, B, C, D,
E ….. The rows are labeled with numbers like 1, 2, 3, 4 …..). Spreadsheet programs are used for
business applications, scientific and engineering applications. Modern Spreadsheet programs
have multiple intermingle sheets to display numerical and text data in graphical form. Microsoft
Excel is a modern spreadsheet computer application program or software that is most popular
today. MS Excel is developed and manufactured by Microsoft.

Spreadsheet programs are basically used to process numerical data. These

programs are widely used for processing the numerical data. Spreadsheet programs provide easy
methods for analyzing data and presenting high quality graphics output. The effect of any change
in the input data is immediately shown in the output.

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Basic Features of Spreadsheet Programs:-

There are many spreadsheet programs / software available in market. These

programs provide similar functions and features. The basic features of a spreadsheet program are
given below:

Grids, Rows & Columns:-

A spreadsheet consists of a grid of columns and rows. The columns are

labeled with letters (A, B, C, D…. so on). The rows are labeled with numbers (1, 2, 3…. so on).
Intersection of a column and a row is called cell. Each cell may contain numeric or text data.
Values or data are entered in cells.

Functions:-

Functions are used in the Spreadsheet software to evaluate values and

perform different kinds of operations.

Formulas:-

Formulas are used in the spreadsheets to express the relationship of two or

more cells.

Commands:-

Spreadsheet programs provide several types of commands for value

manipulations.

Text Manipulation:-

Spreadsheet programs also provide commands for text manipulations.

Printing:-

Printing feature is use to obtain a hard-copy of prepared spreadsheets.

User Interface of a Spreadsheet:-

When a spreadsheet program starts, the window that is displayed is known as

interface of the program.

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Working with presentation package:-

PowerPoint is a computer program that allows you to create and show slides to support a
presentation. You can combine text, graphics and multi-media content to create professional
presentations. As a presentation tool PowerPoint can be used to:

 organise and structure your presentation;

 create a professional and consistent format;
 provide an illustrative backdrop for the content of your presentation;
 animate your slides to give them greater visual impact.

PowerPoint has become enormously popular and you are likely to have seen it used by your
lecturers and fellow students or in a presentation outside of the University. Learning to present
with PowerPoint will increase your employability as it is the world’s most popular presentational
software. Used well, PowerPoint can improve the clarity of your presentations and help you to
illustrate your message and engage your audience. The strategies contained in this study guide
will help you to use PowerPoint effectively in any type of presentation.

Design:-

The design features of PowerPoint allow you to customize the appearance and format of the
slides. PowerPoint typically comes with a set of preloaded themes for you to choose from. These
can range from simple color changes to complete format layouts with accompanying font text.
Themes can be applied through the whole presentation or a single slide. Using the page setup
allows you to optimize the presentation for the display size; for instance, you should use a larger
screen ratio when displaying on a projector compared to a computer screen.

Animation:-

PowerPoint animation is divided between slide transitions and element animation. Using slide
transition adds an effect when switching slides during a slide show. You can edit the transition
effect and timing, as well as opt for an on-click or automatic transition between slides. Element
animation adds movement and sounds to the objects within the slide. For example, if you're
constructing a photo gallery as a slide show, you can choose which pictures enter the slide first,
how they enter and add a sound as they enter

Presentation:-

The presentation function of PowerPoint is largely designed to accommodate public speaking.

PowerPoint comes with a built-in notes function; when printing out presentation slides, you can
add presenter notes beside each slide as accompanying content. This is useful to clarify points in
the slide without sacrificing the slide's readability. As of the 2007 version of PowerPoint, you
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can pre-record narration for a presentation. PowerPoint also has a rehearsal function as well,
allowing you or your team to practice your timing and monitor the length of your presentation.

Integration:-

PowerPoint is compatible with all other software in the Microsoft Office suite; you can export
slides into Word documents or use Excel charts within your presentation. In addition to image
and audio support, PowerPoint 2007 also has video-integration functionality; you can embed
videos within a presentation for easy playback without exiting the program. You can also export
presentation files to an online interface for multi-user remote editing and presentation practice.

Viewing Presentations:-

PowerPoint presentations can be viewed on a computer on which PowerPoint software is

installed. Alternatively, Power Point Viewer is available for free download from Microsoft's
website for individual use. PowerPoint presentations can be viewed using Power PointViewer,
but cannot be created or edited.

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Unit - V

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Computer Communications

Computer to computer communication through networking:-

Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data

between two or more computers and a computer network or data network is a
telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection
between networked computing devices is established using either cable media or wireless media.
The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Introduction to computer networks and networks software:-

A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other through

a transmission medium such as wires, cables etc. These devices can be computers, printers,
scanners, Fax machines etc. The purpose of having computer network is to send and receive data
stored in other devices over the network. These devices are often referred as nodes.

There are basic components of a computer network:-

Message: It is the data or information which needs to be transferred from one device to another
device over a computer network.

Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the data to other device
connected to the network.

Receiver: A receiver is the device which is expecting the data from other device on the network.
Transmission media: In order to transfer data from one device to another device we need a
transmission media such as wires, cables, radio waves etc.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by both sender and receiver, without a
protocol two devices can be connected to each other but they cannot communicate. In order to
establish a reliable communication or data sharing between two different devices we need set of
rules that are called protocol. For example, http and https are the two protocols used by web
browsers to get and post the data to internet, similarly SMTP protocol is used by email services
connected to the internet.

Software:-
Networking software is a foundational element for any network. It helps administrators deploy,
manage and monitor a network. Traditional networks are made up of specialized hardware, such
as routers and switches, that bundle the networking software into the solution. Software-defined
networking (SDN) separates that software from the hardware, making it easier to innovate and
adapt the network to quickly meet changing network demands.
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Types of networks:-

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables

the computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and
applications. A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is
mainly of four types:

 LAN(Local Area Network)

 MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network):-

 Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such
as building, office.
 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and ethernet cables.
 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network):-

 A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
 In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
 The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
 It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

WAN(Wide Area Network):-

 A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
 A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

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Internet:-

The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of

computer networks -- a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they
have permission, get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users
at other computers). It was conceived by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the
U.S. government in 1969 and was first known as the ARPANet. The original aim was to create a
network that would allow users of a research computer at one university to "talk to" research
computers at other universities. A side benefit of ARPANet's design was that, because messages
could be routed or rerouted in more than one direction, the network could continue to function
even if parts of it were destroyed in the event of a military attack or other disaster.

Intranet:-

An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as

Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an organization
which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main aim of the
intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization employees. An intranet
provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

Electronic Mail (E-mail):-

Short for electronic mail, e-mail or email is information stored on a computer

that is exchanged between two users over telecommunications. More plainly, e-mail is a message
that may contain text, files, images, or other attachments sent through a network to a specified
individual or group of individuals.

The first e-mail was sent by Ray Tomlinson in 1971. Tomlinson sent the e-mail
to himself as a test e-mail message, containing the text "something like QWERTYUIOP."
However, despite sending the e-mail to himself, the e-mail message was still transmitted through
ARPANET.

The first portion of all e-mail addresses, the part before the @ symbol, contains
the alias, user, group, or department of a company. Next, the @ (at sign) is a divider in the e-
mail address; it's required for all SMTP e-mail addresses since the first message was sent by Ray
Tomlinson.

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When writing an e-mail message, it should look something like the example window below. As
you can see, several fields are required when sending an e-mail:

 The To field is where you type the e-mail address of the person who is the recipient of
your message.
 The From field should contain your e-mail address.
 If you are replying to a message, the To: and From: fields are automatically filled out. If
it's a new message, you'll need to specify the recipients in the To: field, either by
selecting them from your contact list, or manually typing the full email addresses. If you
are manually specify more than one recipient (as in a group e-mail), the addresses should
be separated by a comma and a space, or by pressing the Tab key.
 The Subject should consist of a few words describing the e-mail's contents. The subject
lets the recipient see what the e-mail is about, without opening and reading the full e-
mail. This field is optional.
 The CC ("Carbon Copy") field allows you to specify recipients who are not direct
addressees (listed in the "To" field). For instance, you can address an e-mail to Jeff and
CC Linda and Steven. Although the e-mail is addressed to Jeff, Linda and Steven will
also receive a copy of the message, and their addresses will be visible to Jeff, and to each
other. This field is optional.
 The BCC ("blind carbon copy") field is similar to CC, except the recipients are secret.
Each BCC recipient will receive the e-mail, but will not see who else received a copy.
The addressees (anyone listed in the "To" field) remain visible to all recipients. This field
is optional.
 Finally, the Message Body is the location you type your main message. It often contains
your signature at the bottom; similar to a handwritten letter.

World Wide Web (WWW):-

World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites

or web pages stored in web servers and connected to local computers through the internet. These
websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc. Users can access the content of
these sites from any part of the world over the internet using their devices such as computers,
laptops, cell phones, etc. The WWW, along with internet, enables the retrieval and display of text
and media to your device. The building blocks of the Web are web pages which are formatted in
HTML and connected by links called "hypertext" or hyperlinks and accessed by HTTP. These
links are electronic connections that link related pieces of information so that users can access
the desired information quickly. Hypertext offers the advantage to select a word or phrase from
text and thus to access other pages that provide additional information related to that word or
phrase. A web page is given an online address called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A
particular collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is called a website, e.g.,
www.facebook.com, www.google.com, etc. So, the World Wide Web is like a huge electronic
book whose pages are stored on multiple servers across the world.
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The World Wide Web was invented by a British scientist, Tim Berners-
Lee in 1989. He was working at CERN at that time. Originally, it was developed by him to fulfill
the need of automated information sharing between scientists across the world, so that they could
easily share the data and results of their experiments and studies with each other. CERN, where
Tim Berners worked, is a community of more than 1700 scientists from more than 100 countries.
These scientists spend some time on CERN site, and rest of the time they work at their
universities and national laboratories in their home countries, so there was a need for reliable
communication tools so that they can exchange information. Internet and Hypertext were
available at this time, but no one thought how to use the internet to link or share one document to
another. Tim focused on three main technologies that could make computers understand each
other, HTML, URL, and HTTP. So, the objective behind the invention of WWW was to combine
recent computer technologies, data networks, and hypertext into a user-friendly and effective
global information system.

Uniform (Universal) Resource Locater (URL):-

Also known as a web address, a URL (Uniform Resource

Locator) is a form of URI and a standardized naming convention for addressing documents
accessible over the Internet and Intranet. An example of a URL is
https://www.computerhope.com, which is the URL for the Computer Hope website.

Below is additional information about each of the sections of the http URL for this page.

http:// or https://

The "http" stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It let's the browser to know which protocol it
is going to use to access the information specified in the domain. An "https" protocol is short for
"Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure" and indicates that information transmitted over HTTP is
encrypted and secure. After the http or https is the colon ( : ) and two forward slashes ( // ) that
separate the protocol from the remainder of the URL.

Web Browser:-

Short for web browser, a browser is a software application used to locate, retrieve and display
content on the World Wide Web, including webpages, images, video and other files. As a
client/server model, the browser is the client run on a computer or mobile device that contacts

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the Web server and requests information. The web server sends the information back to the
browser which displays the results on the Internet-enabled device that supports a browser.

 Google Chrome
 Mozilla Firefox
 Apple Safari
 Microsoft Internet Explorer
 Microsoft Edge
 Opera
 Maxthon

Search Engine:-

A search engine is software, usually accessed on the Internet, that searches a

database of information according to the user's query. The engine provides a list of results that
best match what the user is trying to find. Today, there are many different search engines
available on the Internet, each with their own abilities and features. The first search engine ever
developed is considered Archie, which was used to search for FTP files and the first text-based
search engine is considered Veronica. Currently, the most popular and well-known search engine
is Google. Other popular search engines include AOL, Ask.com, Baidu, Bing, and Yahoo.
For users, a search engine is accessed through a browser on their computer,
smart phone, tablet, or another device. Today, most new browsers use an omnibox, which is a
text box at the top of the browser. The omnibox allows users to type in a URL or a search query.
You can also visit one of the major search engines home page to perform a search.

Multimedia and virtual reality:-

A thousand years ago, information on everything from trade to religion travelled mostly by word
of mouth. One hundred years ago, virtually all knowledge was disseminated via the printed
word. In the last twenty years more has changed than perhaps in the last thousand. Publishing is
a rapidly changing business. No sooner has desktop publishing revolutionized printing than a
whole host of new media have arrived to threaten the dominance of the written word. On-line
information from computers all over the world contribute to the Internet. Children receive their
school lessons, and customers judge rival products, using multimedia CD ROM's rather than
brochures and books. Information is becoming more fun; fine if you work in education, but what
if you work in industry or commerce? Truth is, it's getting harder to make your mark against
other's more high-profile message delivery. It's becoming more complicated to engineer and
produce too. Remember how long it took for the office to embrace word-processors? Think of
the learning-curve for creating CD ROM's, creating virtual realities or writing pages for the
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World Wide Web. That's where this book comes in. It covers the skills you'll need to learn when
designing, writing and generating new-generation electronic media products, whether it's
designing a "brochure" on floppy disc, writing interactive CD ROM's or pages for the World
Wide Web, producing video and audio products or expanding into the territory of 3D sound and
video. A competent engineer in this new world will need to call on a backgrounds in both
television and sound-recording as well as in traditional paper publishing and newspapers. She'll
need to work to high standards and to tight deadlines. And to budget and that means not making
too many mistakes.

In many ways it is convenient to group the disciplines of multimedia and virtual reality together
because they have many common principles and components. However the ultimate ambitions of
multimedia and virtual reality are quite distinct. Consider the CD-ROM encyclopedia where text
is combined with sound, film clips and data navigation software. It demonstrates the four vital
components of multimedia, as it has come to be termed:

E-commerce:-

Ecommerce, also known as electronic commerce or internet commerce, refers

to the buying and selling of goods or services using the internet, and the transfer of money and
data to execute these transactions. Ecommerce is often used to refer to the sale of physical
products online, but it can also describe any kind of commercial transaction that is facilitated
through the internet. Whereas e-business refers to all aspects of operating an online business,
ecommerce refers specifically to the transaction of goods and services. The history of
ecommerce begins with the first ever online sale: on the August 11, 1994 a man sold a CD by the
band Sting to his friend through his website NetMarket, an American retail platform. This is the
first example of a consumer purchasing a product from a business through the World Wide
Web—or “ecommerce” as we commonly know it today. Since then, ecommerce has evolved to
make products easier to discover and purchase through online retailers and
marketplaces. Independent freelancers, small businesses, and large corporations have all
benefited from ecommerce, which enables them to sell their goods and services at a scale that
was not possible with traditional offline retail.

Types of Ecommerce Models:-

There are four main types of ecommerce models that can describe almost every transaction that
takes place between consumers and businesses.

1. Business to Consumer (B2C):

When a business sells a good or service to an individual consumer (e.g. You buy a pair of shoes
from an online retailer).

2. Business to Business (B2B):

When a business sells a good or service to another business (e.g. A business sells software-as-a-
service for other businesses to use)
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3. Consumer to Consumer (C2C):

When a consumer sells a good or service to another consumer (e.g. You sell your old furniture
on eBay to another consumer).

4. Consumer to Business (C2B):

When a consumer sells their own products or services to a business or organization (e.g. An
influencer offers exposure to their online audience in exchange for a fee, or a photographer
licenses their photo for a business to use).

Global Positioning System (GPS):-

Global Positioning System was developed by the United States' Department of Defense. It uses
between 24 and 32 Medium Earth Orbit satellites that transmit precise microwave signals. This
enables GPS receivers to determine their current location, time and velocity. The GPS satellites
are maintained by the United States Air Force.

Additional countries with there own satellite positioning systems are:

 • Russia - GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System)

 • European Union - Galileo (Global Navigation Satellite System)
 • China - BeiDou Navigation Satellite System
 • Japan - QZSS (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System)

GPS is often used by civilians as a navigation system. On the ground, any GPS receiver contains
a computer that "triangulates" its own position by getting bearings from at least three satellites.
The result is provided in the form of a geographic position - longitude and latitude - to, for most
receivers, within an accuracy of 10 to 100 meters. Software applications can then use those
coordinates to provide driving or walking instructions.

Getting a lock on by the GPS receivers on the ground usually takes some time especially where
the receiver is in a moving vehicle or in dense urban areas. The initial time needed for a GPS
lock is usually dependent on how the GPS receiver starts. There are three types of start - hot,
warm and cold.

The hot start is when the GPS device remembers its last calculated position and the satellites in
view, the almanac used (information about all the satellites in the constellation), the UTC Time
and makes an attempt to lock onto the same satellites and calculate a new position based upon
the previous information. This is the quickest GPS lock but it only works if you are generally in
the same location as you were when the GPS was last turned off.

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The warm start is when the GPS device remembers its last calculated position, almanac used,
and UTC Time, but not which satellites were in view. It then performs a reset and attempts to
obtain the satellite signals and calculates a new position.

The receiver has a general idea of which satellites to look for because it knows its last position
and the almanac data helps identify which satellites are visible in the sky. This takes longer than
a hot start but not as long as a cold start.

And finally – the cold start is when the GPS device dumps all the information, attempts to locate
satellites and then calculates a GPS lock. This takes the longest because there is no known
information.

The GPS receiver has to attempt to lock onto a satellite signal from any available satellites,
basically like polling, which takes a lot longer than knowing which satellites to look for. This
GPS lock takes the longest.

In an attempt to improve lock times, cellphone manufacturers and operators have introduced the
Assisted GPS technology, which downloads the current ephemeris for a few days ahead via the
wireless networks and helps triangulate the general user’s position with the cell towers thus
allowing the GPS receiver to get a faster lock at the expense of several (kilo)bytes.

Recent Developments in ICT:-

Stands for "Information and Communication Technologies." ICT refers to technologies that
provide access to information through telecommunications. It is similar to Information
Technology (IT), but focuses primarily on communication technologies. This includes the
Internet, wireless networks, cell phones, and other communication mediums.

In the past few decades, information and communication technologies have provided society
with a vast array of new communication capabilities. For example, people can communicate in
real-time with others in different countries using technologies such as instant messaging, voice
over IP (VoIP), and video-conferencing. Social networking websites like Facebook allow users
from all over the world to remain in contact and communicate on a regular basis.

Modern information and communication technologies have created a "global village," in which
people can communicate with others across the world as if they were living next door. For this
reason, ICT is often studied in the context of how modern communication technologies affect
society.

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