Networking Notes

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1
6hapter 1 Network Env|ronment

1.1 Network 6omponents
1.1.1 6||ent
A corpuler sysler or process lral requesls a serv|ce ol arolrer corpuler sysler
or process (a server) us|rg sore ||rd ol proloco| ard accepls lre server's
resporses. A c||erl |s parl ol a c||erl-server sollWare arcr|leclure. For exarp|e, a
Wor|slal|or requesl|rg lre corlerls ol a l||e lror a l||e server |s a c||erl ol lre l||e
server.

1.1.2 8erver
A prograr Wr|cr prov|des sore serv|ce lo olrer (c||erl) progrars. Tre correcl|or
oelWeer c||erl ard server |s rorra||y oy rears ol ressage pass|rg, oller over a
relWor|, ard uses sore proloco| lo ercode lre c||erl's requesls ard lre server's
resporses. Tre server ray rur corl|ruous|y, Wa|l|rg lor requesls lo arr|ve or |l ray
oe |rvo|ed oy sore r|grer |eve| daeror Wr|cr corlro|s a ruroer ol spec|l|c servers
6ompar|ng 8ervers
F||e 3erver-ollers serv|ces lral a||oW users lo srare l||es lrc|udes slor|rg, relr|ev|rg,
ard rov|rg dala.
Pr|rl 3ervers-Tre pr|rl server corlro|s lre queue or spoo|er, Wr|cr ro|d joos l|||
ready.
App||cal|or 3ervers- A||oWs c||erl lo access ard use exlra corpul|rg poWer ard
exlers|ve sollWare app||cal|ors lral res|de or a srared corpuler 30L
8ac| erd does a|| process|rg
1.1.3 6||ent-server
A corror lorr ol d|slr|ouled sysler |r Wr|cr sollWare |s sp||l oelWeer server las|s
ard c||erl las|s. A c||erl serds requesls lo a server, accord|rg lo sore proloco|,
as||rg lor |rlorral|or or acl|or, ard lre server respords. Tr|s |s ara|ogous lo a
cuslorer (c||erl) Wro serds ar order (requesl) or ar order lorr lo a supp||er
(server) Wro despalcres lre goods ard ar |rvo|ce (resporse). Tre order lorr ard
|rvo|ce are parl ol lre proloco| used lo corrur|cale |r lr|s case. Trere ray oe
e|lrer ore cerlra||sed server or severa| d|slr|ouled ores. Tr|s rode| a||oWs c||erls
ard servers lo oe p|aced |rdeperderl|y or rodes |r a relWor|, poss|o|y or d|llererl
rardWare ard operal|rg syslers appropr|ale lo lre|r lurcl|or, e.g. lasl server/creap
c||erl. Exarp|es are lre rare-server/rare-reso|ver re|al|orsr|p |r 0N3, lre l||e-
server/l||e-c||erl re|al|orsr|p |r NF3 ard lre screer server/c||erl app||cal|or sp||l |r
lre X w|rdoW 3ysler.

1.1.4 web server
A server process rurr|rg al a Weo s|le Wr|cr serds oul Weo pages |r resporse lo
lTTP requesls lror rerole oroWsers. ll ore s|le rurs rore lrar ore server lrey
rusl use d|llererl porl ruroers. A|lerral|ve|y, severa| roslrares ray oe rapped
lo lre sare corpuler |r Wr|cr case lrey are |roWr as v|rlua| servers. Apacre ard
NC3A lTTPd are lWo popu|ar Weo servers. Trere are rary olrers |rc|ud|rg sore
lor pracl|ca||y every p|allorr. 3ervers d|ller rosl|y |r lre server-s|de lealures lrey
oller sucr as server-s|de |rc|ude, ard |r lre|r aulrerl|cal|or ard access corlro|
recrar|srs. A|| decerl servers supporl C0l ard rosl rave sore o|rary APl as
We||.

1.1.5 workstat|on
A gerera|-purpose corpuler des|gred lo oe used oy ore persor al a
l|re ard Wr|cr ollers r|grer perlorrarce lrar rorra||y lourd |r a
persora| corpuler, espec|a||y W|lr respecl lo grapr|cs, process|rg
poWer ard lre ao|||ly lo carry oul severa| las|s al lre sare l|re. A
lyp|ca| Wor|slal|or |s a corpuler lral |s corl|gured W|lr a relWor|
|rlerlace card, relWor||rg sollWare, ard lre appropr|ale cao|es.
wor|slal|ors do rol recessar||y reed l|oppy d|s| dr|ves oecause l||es
car oe saved or lre l||e server. A|rosl ary corpuler car serve as a
relWor| Wor|slal|or.

1.1. Network node
Ar addressao|e dev|ce allacred lo a corpuler relWor|. ll lre rode |s a corpuler |l
|s rore oller ca||ed a rosl.

1.1.7 Address|ng mode
0re ol a sel ol relrods lor spec|ly|rg lre operard(s) lor a racr|re code |rslrucl|or.
0|llererl processors vary greal|y |r lre ruroer ol address|rg rodes lrey prov|de.
Tre rore corp|ex rodes descr|oed oe|oW car usua||y oe rep|aced W|lr a srorl
sequerce ol |rslrucl|ors us|rg or|y s|rp|er rodes. Tre rosl corror rodes are
reg|sler - lre operard |s slored |r a spec|l|ed reg|sler; aoso|ule - lre operard |s
slored al a spec|l|ed rerory address; ard |rred|ale - lre operard |s corla|red
W|lr|r lre |rslrucl|or. Vosl processors a|so rave |rd|recl address|rg rodes, e.g.
reg|sler |rd|recl, rerory |rd|recl Wrere lre spec|l|ed reg|sler or rerory |ocal|or
does rol corla|r lre operard oul corla|rs |ls address, |roWr as lre ellecl|ve
address. For ar aoso|ule address|rg rode, lre ellecl|ve address |s corla|red
W|lr|r lre |rslrucl|or.

1.1.8 F||e 8ervers
A l||e server slards al lre rearl ol rosl relWor|s. ll |s a very lasl
corpuler W|lr a |arge arourl ol RAV ard slorage space, a|org W|lr a
lasl relWor| |rlerlace card. Tre relWor| operal|rg sysler sollWare
res|des or lr|s corpuler, a|org W|lr ary sollWare app||cal|ors ard dala
l||es lral reed lo oe srared. Tre l||e server corlro|s lre corrur|cal|or
ol |rlorral|or oelWeer lre rodes or a relWor|. For exarp|e, |l ray oe
as|ed lo serd a Word processor prograr lo ore Wor|slal|or, rece|ve a
dalaoase l||e lror arolrer Wor|slal|or, ard slore ar e-ra|| ressage
dur|rg lre sare l|re per|od. Tr|s requ|res a corpuler lral car slore a
|ol ol |rlorral|or ard srare |l very qu|c||y. F||e servers srou|d rave al
|easl lre lo||oW|rg craracler|sl|cs:
800 regarerlz or lasler r|croprocessor (Perl|ur 3 or 1, 01 or 05)
A lasl rard dr|ve W|lr al |easl 120 g|gaoyles ol slorage
A RAl0 (Redurdarl Array ol lrexpers|ve 0|s|s) lo preserve dala aller a
d|s| casua|ly
A lape oac|-up ur|l (|.e. 0AT, JAZ, Z|p, or C0-Rw dr|ve)
Nurerous expars|or s|ols
Fasl relWor| |rlerlace card
Al |easl ol 512 V8 ol RAV

1.1.9 Network |nterface cards, Network |nterface contro||er
NlC or relWor| |rlerlace card Ar adapler c|rcu|l ooard |rsla||ed |r a corpuler lo
prov|de a prys|ca| correcl|or lo a relWor|.

Features to be cons|dered when buy|ng a network card
8peed: 10, 100 or 1000Vpos
Access Hethod: C3VA/C0, C3VA/CA, To|er R|rg, Elrerrel, w|re|ess
us: PCl, l3A or |rlegraled lo rolrerooard
Hanufacturer: lrle|, 3C0V or Nelgear
6onnector: 8NC, RJ15, W|re|ess or 3T/3C F|oer 0pl|c
1.1.10 6ab|es
or
Coax|a| 108ase2 or uTP Calegory 5/5e Cao|es
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1.1.11 hubs or a sw|tch to connect our computers
or
Phys|ca| 6ab|e Hed|a
Tw|sted Pa|r
uTP cosl |s |oW usua||y slar relWor|s
3TP cosl |s expers|ve l8V lo|er r|rg

Each tw|sted pa|r cab|es have a category rat|ng
CAT1 Te|eprore ||res
CAT3 10Vops
CAT1 1-1Vops rosl|y used or To|er R|rg relWor|s
CAT5 10/100Vops
CAT5e 10/100/1000Vops
CAT 10/100/1000 ard lrer sore Vops

6oax|a|
Tr|rrel or 108ase2 cosl |s creap
Tr|c|rel or 108ase5 roderale cosls

F|ber 0pt|c cab|es
Vosl expers|ve usua||y use as oac|oore F00l correcl|ors oelWeer ou||d|rg or
W|r|rg c|osels

1.1.12 w|re|ess Hed|a
Nol a|| relWor|s are correcled W|lr cao||rg; sore relWor|s are
W|re|ess. w|re|ess LANs use r|gr lrequercy rad|o s|gra|s, |rlrared ||grl
oears, or |asers lo corrur|cale oelWeer lre Wor|slal|ors ard lre l||e
server or ruos. Eacr Wor|slal|or ard l||e server or a W|re|ess relWor|
ras sore sorl ol lrarsce|ver/arlerra lo serd ard rece|ve lre dala.
lrlorral|or |s re|ayed oelWeer lrarsce|vers as |l lrey Were prys|ca||y
correcled. For |orger d|slarce, W|re|ess corrur|cal|ors car a|so la|e
p|ace lrrougr ce||u|ar le|eprore lecrro|ogy, r|croWave lrarsr|ss|or, or
oy sale|||le.

w|re|ess relWor|s are greal lor a||oW|rg |aplop corpulers or rerole
corpulers lo correcl lo lre LAN. w|re|ess relWor|s are a|so oerel|c|a|
|r o|der ou||d|rgs Wrere |l ray oe d|ll|cu|l or |rposs|o|e lo |rsla|| cao|es.
Tre lWo rosl corror lypes ol |rlrared corrur|cal|ors used |r
scroo|s are ||re-ol-s|grl ard scallered oroadcasl. L|re-ol-s|grl
corrur|cal|or rears lral lrere rusl oe ar uro|oc|ed d|recl ||re
oelWeer lre Wor|slal|or ard lre lrarsce|ver. ll a persor Wa||s W|lr|r
lre ||re-ol-s|grl Wr||e lrere |s a lrarsr|ss|or, lre |rlorral|or Wou|d
reed lo oe serl aga|r. Tr|s ||rd ol ooslrucl|or car s|oW doWr lre
W|re|ess relWor|.

1.2 Network Uses

0|scuss the fo||ow|ng
1.2.1 F||e ard Pr|rl 3erv|ces
1.2.2 Va|| 3erv|ces
1.2.3 lrlerrel 3rv|ces
1.2.1 Varagererl 3erv|ces

1.3 Network 0perat|ng 8ystems
1.3.1 Funct|ons and Features
1.3.1.1 Peer-to-peer network operat|ng systems
A peer-lo-peer relWor| |s a ruroer (rore lrar ore) ol corpulers lral rave oeer
correcled logelrer so lral lre|r resources car oe srared. Tre corpulers or lr|s
lype ol relWor| rave equa| slalus (lrey are a|| 'peers') ard car a|| oe used as
Wor|slal|ors; ary ol lrer, al lre sare l|re, cou|d a|so rarage lre pr|rl|rg (acl as a
pr|rl server) or |oo| aller srar|rg l||es (acl as a l||e server) or cacre Weo pages or
|oo| aller era||. Trese ||rds ol relWor|s are very s|rp|e corpared lo 'c||erl-server'
relWor|s.
For exarp|e, |l you rave w|rdoWs 95 or aoove or a ruroer ol corpulers al rore,
|l |s a very slra|grllorWard joo lo correcl lrer up lo arolrer racr|re (a|lrougr |l |s
a ||ll|e eas|er W|lr '98 lrar '95). w|rdoWs cores W|lr a s|rp|e NelWor| 0peral|rg
3ysler lral you car usel 0rce you rave correcled a|| your corpulers logelrer,
you car corl|gure lre relWor| ard lrer aWay you gol Tre relWor| |s very s|rp|e. ll
W||| corlro| lre corrur|cal|or oelWeer Wor|slal|ors ard a||oW you lo corlro|:
Tre lrarsler ol l||es lror ore racr|re lo arolrer.
Pr|rl|rg.
us|rg Wor|slal|ors or lre lrlerrel al lre sare l|re W|lr or|y ore
roder
ll you Warl lo rave a go al creal|rg your oWr peer-lo-peer relWor|, lrer you r|grl
|||e lo |rvesl |r '3|rp|e NelWor||rg W|lr w|rdoWs 98' oy J|r 0aleroy, l38N 0 85931
19 X, pr|ce arourd 10 Euros. ll's Worlr do|rg lr|s rol or|y lor educal|ora| reasors
oul oecause you car p|ay sore greal |rleracl|ve gares aga|rsl eacr olrerl

1.3.1.2 6||ent-server network operat|ng systems
A c||erl-server relWor| |s rade up ol corpulers ard servers. Tre corpulers are
|roWr as 'c||erls'. Trese are correcled up lo eacr olrer as oelore oul al |easl ore
ol lre corpulers acls or|y as a resource rarager. Tre corpulers or lre relWor|
lrer ra|e use ol lre resources ava||ao|e al ary ol lre resource raragers. Tre
resource raragers are rore proper|y |roWr as 'servers'. You car rave a rarge ol
d|llererl ||rds ol servers or a lyp|ca| c||erl-server relWor|. Trese r|grl |rc|ude a l||e
server, a pr|rl server, a Weo server ard ar era|| server, lor exarp|e.
C||erl-server relWor|s are rore corp||caled lrar peer-lo-peer relWor|s ard reed
lo rave a NelWor| 0peral|rg 3ysler (N03). Tr|s |s a p|ece ol sollWare lral
'rarages' a relWor|. A NelWor| 0peral|rg 3ysler lyp|ca||y:
Corlro|s corrur|cal|or oelWeer Wor|slal|ors lrerse|ves ard oelWeer
Wor|slal|ors ard servers.
A||oWs ard rarages l||e srar|rg.
A||oWs ard rarages pr|rl|rg ard olrer resources.
Corlro|s lrlerrel access arorgsl slal|ors.
Varages user accourls.
Varages secur|ly.
Varages auloraled sysler oac|-ups.
Varages ard reporls or lre use ol lre sysler's resources, sucr as
eacr user's rard d|s| a||ocal|or ard roW rary pr|rls lrey are a||oWed
lo do.
1.3.2 what |s a Network 0perat|ng 8ystem?
ur|||e operal|rg syslers, sucr as 003 ard w|rdoWs, lral are
des|gred lor s|rg|e users lo corlro| ore corpuler, relWor| operal|rg
syslers (N03) coord|rale lre acl|v|l|es ol ru|l|p|e corpulers across a
relWor|. Tre relWor| operal|rg sysler acls as a d|reclor lo |eep lre
3
relWor| rurr|rg sroolr|y. Tre lWo rajor lypes ol relWor| operal|rg
syslers are: Peer-lo-Peer ard C||erl/3erver

1.3.2.1 Peer-to-Peer
Peer-lo-peer relWor| operal|rg syslers a||oW users lo srare resources
ard l||es |ocaled or lre|r corpulers ard lo access srared resources
lourd or olrer corpulers. loWever, lrey do rol rave a l||e server or a
cerlra||zed raragererl source lr a peer-lo-peer relWor|, a||
corpulers are cors|dered equa|; lrey a|| rave lre sare ao|||l|es lo use
lre resources ava||ao|e or lre relWor|. Peer-lo-peer relWor|s are
des|gred pr|rar||y lor sra|| lo red|ur |oca| area relWor|s. App|e3rare
ard w|rdoWs lor wor|groups are exarp|es ol progrars lral car
lurcl|or as peer-lo-peer relWor| operal|rg syslers.

Peer-lo-peer relWor|

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:
Less |r|l|a| experse - No reed lor a ded|caled server.
3elup - Ar operal|rg sysler (sucr as w|rdoWs XP) a|ready |r p|ace
ray or|y reed lo oe recorl|gured lor peer-lo-peer operal|ors.

0|sadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:
0ecerlra||zed - No cerlra| repos|lory lor l||es ard app||cal|ors.
3ecur|ly - 0oes rol prov|de lre secur|ly ava||ao|e or a c||erl/server
relWor|.

1.3.2.26||ent|8erver
C||erl/server relWor| operal|rg syslers a||oW lre relWor| lo cerlra||ze
lurcl|ors ard app||cal|ors |r ore or rore ded|caled l||e. Tre l||e servers
oecore lre rearl ol lre sysler, prov|d|rg access lo resources ard
prov|d|rg secur|ly. lrd|v|dua| Wor|slal|ors (c||erls) rave access lo lre
resources ava||ao|e or lre l||e servers. Tre relWor| operal|rg sysler
prov|des lre recrar|sr lo |rlegrale a|| lre corporerls ol lre relWor|
ard a||oW ru|l|p|e users lo s|ru|lareous|y srare lre sare resources
|rrespecl|ve ol prys|ca| |ocal|or. Nove|| NelWare ard w|rdoWs 2000
3erver are exarp|es ol c||erl/server relWor| operal|rg syslers.

Advantages of a c||ent|server network:
Cerlra||zed - Resources ard dala secur|ly are corlro||ed lrrougr lre
server.
3ca|ao|||ly - Ary or a|| e|ererls car oe rep|aced |rd|v|dua||y as reeds
|rcrease.
F|ex|o|||ly - NeW lecrro|ogy car oe eas||y |rlegraled |rlo sysler.
lrleroperao|||ly - A|| corporerls (c||erl/relWor|/server) Wor| logelrer.
Access|o|||ly - 3erver car oe accessed rerole|y ard across
ru|l|p|e p|allorrs.

Above: 6||ent|server network

0|sadvantages of a c||ent|server network:
Experse - Requ|res |r|l|a| |rveslrerl |r ded|caled server.
Va|rlerarce - Large relWor|s W||| requ|re a slall lo ersure ell|c|erl
operal|or.
0eperderce - wrer server goes doWr, operal|ors W||| cease across lre
relWor|.

Examp|es of network operat|ng systems
Tre lo||oW|rg ||sl |rc|udes sore ol lre rore popu|ar peer-
lo-peer ard c||erl/server relWor| operal|rg syslers.

App|e8hare : App|e3rare |s App|e Corpuler's relWor||rg
so|ul|or. ll |rc|udes oolr server ard Wor|slal|or sollWare.
3|rce |l supporls lre ru|l|las||rg lealures ol 3ysler Z,
serv|ces ard app||cal|ors car rur corcurrerl|y.
H|crosoft w|ndows 8erver : Ar errarced vers|or ol
w|rdoWs 2000 lral prov|des a poWerlu| c||erl/server
relWor| operal|rg sysler. ll corla|rs a|| ol lre lealures ol
w|rdoWs 2000 |rc|ud|rg capao|||l|es as ar app||cal|or
server ard ru|l|las||rg.
Nove|| Netware : Vosl popu|ar c||erl/server relWor|
operal|rg prograr ava||ao|e or lre rar|el al lr|s l|re. las
l||e oy l||e corpress|or Wr|cr a||oWs sysler l||es lo ro|d
rore or||re dala oy corpress|rg l||es lral are |rlrequerl|y
accessed or used. 0|s| 0up|ex|rg ard 0|s| V|rror|rg are
lealures lral prolecl dala lror la||ures |r lre rardWare oy
Wr|l|rg lre |rlorral|or |r lWo d|llererl dr|ves or lre relWor|.
Tecrr|ca| supporl |s good. NelWare car rard|e a|rosl ary
s|ze relWor|.
N08 - A 0ef|n|t|on
Tre lerr N03 slards lor relWor| operal|rg sysler. A N03 corla|rs
proloco| slac|s as We|| as dev|ce dr|vers lor relWor| rardWare... .
w|ndows Network|ng
Esserl|a| relWor||rg lop|cs lor lre V|crosoll w|rdoWs lar||y ol
operal|rg syslers sucr as d|a|-up relWor||rg, rerole access, ard
correcl|or srar|rg.
L|nux Network|ng
3aroa, l|reWa|| secur|ly, weo serv|rg, ard re|aled lealures ol lre oper-
source L|rux operal|rg sysler.
Hac|ntosh Network|ng
NelWor||rg capao|||l|es ol Vac|rlosr corpulers |rc|ud|rg correcl|v|ly |r
w|rdoWs erv|rorrerls.
Netware Network|ng
Nove|| Nelware ras oeer used lor oas|c l||e/pr|rl serv|rg lor rary
years; Nelware loday a|so |rc|udes weo-oased relWor||rg capao|||l|es.
08|2 Network|ng
Tre 03/2 relWor| operal|rg sysler supporls TCP/lP, peer-lo-peer,
l|reWa|||rg, ard olrer corverl|ora| LAN lecrro|og|es.

4
1.3.3 6ons|derat|ons for Network 0perat|ng 8ystem 8e|ect|on
A relWor| operal|rg sysler sucr as w|rdoWs or 03/2corlro|s lre oas|c lurcl|ors ol
lre server corpuler jusl as does ar operal|rg sysler or a regu|ar slard-a|ore
corpuler. ur|||e regu|ar operal|rg syslers, N03 (NelWor| 0peral|rg 3yslers)
prov|de relWor| serv|ces sucr as l||e ard pr|rl srar|rg ard user accourl
raragererl. Tre N03 a|so corlro|s access lo l||es or lre server: |l g|ves
perr|ss|or lor c||erls lo use spec|l|c l||es, ard prolecls lre dala roused or lre
server. ll a|so prov|des |rlorral|or or roW lre sysler |s lurcl|or|rg lral car oe
used lo rarage lre relWor|.

Advantages of Network 0perat|ng 8ystem
Tre rajor advarlage ol a relWor| operal|rg sysler |s |ls ao|||ly lo srare resources
ard corlro| user access. NelWor| resources sucr as pr|rlers are corlro||ed oy lre
N03. Tre sysler queues pr|rl joos Wr||e |l perlorrs olrer las|s (lr|s |s ca||ed ru|l|-
las||rg). users or lre relWor| car oe g|ver - or der|ed - access lo lre resources,
l||es or progrars. For exarp|e, a ||orary you ray rave lerr|ra|s ded|caled lo lre
0r||re Cala|ogue Wrere users car |oo| up, ard perraps pr|rl, oul rol a|ler
|rlorral|or lerr|ra|s. Tre N03 corlro|s lr|s ||rd ol access.

0|sadvantages of Network 0perat|ng 8ystem
Tre d|sadvarlage ol a relWor| operal|rg sysler |s |ls corp|ex|ly. users rave lo oe
added, perr|ss|ors rave lo oe sel lo l||es ard resources, ard lre relWor| ras lo oe
rade secure lror oolr |rs|de ard ouls|de allac|s. A|lrougr a relWor| operal|rg
sysler |||e w|rdoWs NT 3erver appears lo oe s|rp|e ard |rlu|l|ve al l|rsl g|arce, lre
dela||s ol |ls operal|or are corp|ex. You W||| |||e|y reed a lu|| l|re relWor|
adr|r|slralor Wro urderslards roW lo sel up users ard g|ve appropr|ale
perr|ss|ors, roW lo srare oul serv|ces sucr a lax ard lrlerrel serv|ces, ard a rosl
ol olrer dela||s.

Network 8oftware rands

Tre cro|ce ol lre relWor| operal|rg sysler requ|res |rpul lror your relWor|
adr|r|slralor. Tre operal|rg syslers ava||ao|e |rc|ude:
ur|x L|rux
w|rdoWs NT1 8aryar v|res
Nove|| NelWare Vac|rlosr

hardware Requ|rements of 0|fferent 0perat|ng 8ystems
0perat|ng system Processor RAH, H hard d|sk, H
w|ndows:
V3-003/w|rdoWs 3.11 '38 2 (8) 50
w|rdoWs 95 '18 1 (21) 150
w|rdoWs 98/VE '18 21(1) 500
w|rdoWs 2000 Pl/133 (Pll/300) 128 (25) 1,021
w|rdoWs XP Pll/300 (Plll/500) 128 (25) 1,581
Cnu|L|nux:
0eo|ar 3.0 L|rux ('woody') '38 12 (1) 250 (850)
L|rux-Vardra|e Z.1 '38 21 (1) 100 (800)
L|rux-Vardra|e 9.1 P-l 1 (128) 100 (1021)
3|ac|Ware L|rux 9.0 '38 1 (1) 100 (500)
Red lal .2 '38 1 (18) 200 (Z50)
Red lal 9.0 P-l (P-ll) 1 (128) 850 (1100)
3u3E L|rux .1 '38 32 (1) 100 (Z50)
3u3E L|rux 8.2 P-l 1 (128) 00 (1800)

5
6hapter 2 Network|ng hardware
2.1.1 Transm|ss|on Hed|a
Trarsr|ss|or red|a car oe calegor|zed |rlo lre rears oy Wr|cr lre dala W||| lrave|:
0u|ded
urgu|ded (Rad|aled)

|. Cu|ded
0ala/vo|ce lrall|c |s lrarsr|lled W|lr|r a prys|ca| red|ur. Arorg lre red|a lral are
popu|ar loday are:
copper W|re
g|ass l|oers
(lrere's a|so 'oper W|re, Wr|cr |s lre W|re lral's slrurg a|org le|eprore
po|es; ro sr|e|d|rg or prolecl|or lror |rlerlererce |s used - so |s
suscepl|o|e lo a |arge degree ol ro|se ard |rlerlererce; gerera||y rol
acceplao|e lor dala lrarsr|ss|or excepl lor d|slarces urder 20 leel.
||. Ungu|ded
0ala/vo|ce lrarsr|ss|ors are rade lrrougr lre a|rWaves. Trey are gerera||y
c|ass|l|ed accord|rg lo lre lype ol Wave propagal|or. Arorg lre red|a lral are |r
use are:
Rad|o
V|croWave
3ale|||le
o 0eosyrcrrorous 3ale|||les (0E0)
o LoW Earlr 0ro|l 3ale|||les (LE0)
o LoW Earlr 0ro|l 3ale|||le Arrays
lrlrared
L|grl lror a Laser

2.1.1.1 Types of F|bre 0pt|c
Trere are two types ol l|ore opl|c cao|es:
Hono (or 8|ng|e} mode : lr lr|s lype lre l|ore |s des|gred lo carry ore
Wave|erglr ol ||grl ard |s very lr|r, lyp|ca||y 8 - 9 r|cror||||reler |r
d|areler.
Hu|t| mode : lr lr|s lype lre l|ore cors|sls ol a W|der core surrourded
oy arolrer l|ore s|eeve W|lr a d|llererl rel|ecl|ve |rdex, ard car oe
rade lo carry lWo or lrree d|llererl ||grl sources, eacr al d|llererl
lrequerc|es.

8olr cao|e lypes car supporl e|lrer LE0 (L|grl Er|ll|rg 0|ode) or lL0 ||grl sources.
LE0s are rucr creaper lrar lre |aser dev|ces, oy a laclor ol up lo 5 l|res, oul are
rucr |oWer poWered ard lerd lo spread lre oear oul rore qu|c||y. Trey are,
lrerelore, su|lao|e lor srorl d|slarces, say up lo a leW |||orelres, al dala rales ol
200 Vo|ls/sec. 0r lre olrer rard lL0s lrarsr|l ||grl al a r|grer lrequercy ard are
requ|red lor r|grer speeds, grealer lrar 1000 Vo|ls/sec ard |orger d|slarces.

wrer rurr|rg cao|e, |l |s oesl lo lo||oW a leW s|rp|e ru|es:
A|Ways use rore cao|e lrar you reed. Leave p|erly ol s|ac|.
Tesl every parl ol a relWor| as you |rsla|| |l. Ever |l |l |s orard reW, |l
ray rave proo|ers lral W||| oe d|ll|cu|l lo |so|ale |aler.
3lay al |easl 3 leel aWay lror l|uorescerl ||grl ooxes ard olrer sources
ol e|eclr|ca| |rlerlererce.
ll |l |s recessary lo rur cao|e across lre l|oor, cover lre cao|e W|lr cao|e
proleclors.
Laoe| oolr erds ol eacr cao|e.
use cao|e l|es (rol lape) lo |eep cao|es |r lre sare |ocal|or logelrer.

C|ass F|bers
0pl|ca| l|oer uses ||grl lo lrarsporl dala. A r|r|alure g|ass l|oer |s ercased |r a
p|asl|c jac|el Wr|cr a||oWs lre l|oer lo oerd W|lroul orea||rg (car'l oe oerl r|grl
arg|e, oul car oe lorred |rlo c|rc|e ol |ess lrar 2 |rcres |r d|areler). A lrarsr|ller
al ore erd ol a l|oer uses a ||grl er|ll|rg d|ode (LE0) or a |aser lo serd pu|ses ol
||grl doWr lre l|oer. A rece|ver al lre olrer erd uses a ||grl sers|l|ve lrars|slor lo
delecl pu|ses.

A F|bre 0pt|c 6ab|e cors|sls ol a very th|n, f|ex|b|e, g|ass (or p|ast|c} strand,
doWr Wr|cr ||ght car oe transm|tted by ref|ect|on oll lre luoe's |rlerra| Wa||s. Tr|s
lype ol cao|e car operale W|lr much greater speeds and d|stances lrar coax|a|
cao|e. ll a|so ras lre advarlage ol rav|rg lre |owest error rate, ard |s |mmune lo
lre sorls ol e|ectr|ca| |nterference Wr|cr car d|srupl ord|rary cao|es. Tre rajor
d|sadvantage W|lr l|ore opl|c cao|e |s |ls cost.

|ts Features are:
l|gr qua||ly ard r|gr oardW|dlr dala lrarsr|ss|or app||cal|ors.
use ||grl |rslead ol e|eclr|c pu|ses lor ressage lrarsr|ss|or.
very r|gr lrequercy rarges (20,000 Vrz).
3|rg|e l|oer car supporl over 30,000 le|eprore ||res.
0ala lrarsr|ss|or rales ol 100 Vo|ls/s ard rore.
8ecor|rg very popu|ar lor VAN ard LAN, a|so used lor |rlercorl|rerla|
||r|s.
l|gr s|gra| lo ro|se ral|o, d|ll|cu|ly |r lapp|rg (secur|ly).
Cosl |s lre s|rg|e o|ggesl draWoac| (currerl|y).

Advantages over w|re:
0or'l cause e|eclr|ca| |rlerlererces |r olrer cao|es; rol suscepl|o|e lo
e|eclr|ca| |rlerlererce (oecause use ||grl lo lrarsr|l dala)
Car carry a pu|se ol ||grl rucr larlrer lrar a copper W|re car carry a
s|gra|
Car carry rore |rlorral|or lral a W|re (||grl car ercode rore
|rlorral|or lrar e|eclr|ca| s|gra|s)
L|grl car lrave| lror ore corpuler lo arolrer over a s|rg|e l|oer
(e|eclr|c|ly a|Ways requ|res a pa|r ol W|res correcled |rlo a corp|ele
c|rcu|l - oul Wral aooul coax???)

0|sadvantages:
lrsla||al|or requ|res spec|a| equ|prerl lo po||sr lre erds lo a||oW ||grl lo
pass
ll l|oer orea|s |rs|de lre p|asl|c jac|el (|l gol oerl al a r|grl arg|e),
l|rd|rg |ocal|or ol proo|er |s d|ll|cu|l
Repa|r|rg oro|er l|oer |s d|ll|cu|l - reed spec|a| equ|prerl lo jo|r 2
l|oers so lral ||grl car pass lrrougr lre jo|rl
Tre lo||oW|rg lao|e corpares lre usao|e oardW|dlr ol lre d|llererl gu|ded
lrarsr|ss|or red|a.
Cao|e Type 8ardW|dlr
0per Cao|e 0 - 5 Vlz
TW|sled Pa|r 0 - 100 Vlz
Coax|a| Cao|e 0 - 00 Vlz
0pl|ca| F|oer 0 - 1 0lz

2.1.1.2 Tw|sted Pa|r

Tw|sted Pa|r 6ab|e
Tre rosl corror lrarsr|ss|or red|ur |s lW|sled pa|r cao|e. Eacr c|rcu|l requ|res
lWo |rsu|aled W|res, Wr|cr are usua||y rade ol copper ard are lW|sled |r a re||ca|
pallerr. Vu|l|p|e pa|rs are ourd|ed logelrer |rlo ore cao|e. Tre |rd|v|dua| pa|rs are
lW|sled so as lo reduce lre|r suscepl|o|||ly lo |rlerlererce lror adjacerl pa|rs ard lre
erv|rorrerl. 3r|e|d|rg lurlrer reduces |rlerlererce. 0|llererl TP cao|es car rave
d|llererl e|eclr|ca| properl|es caused oy d|llererces |r W|re, |rsu|al|or, ard pa|r
lW|sl|rg.
6
A lW|sled pa|r cao|e car oe sr|e|ded or ursr|e|ded. Vodu|ar RJ-11 (2-pa|r) or RJ-15
(1-pa|r) le|eprore correclors are corror|y used, (ard ru|l|-p|r R3-232 arsd R3-
119 correclors car a|so oe used) W|lr lW|sled pa|r cao|es

Tre lecrr|que ol sr|e|d|rg |s used lo lurlrer reduce |rlerlererce. Tr|s |s lre
Wrapp|rg ol a prolecl|ve srealr ol slrorg raler|a|, usua||y a rela| ora|d, arourd lre
lW|sled pa|r cao|e, Wr|cr car |rprove lre res|slarce lo |rlerlererce oy a laclor ol
1000 or rore. 3r|e|d|rg |s espec|a||y |rporlarl lor dala lrarsr|ss|or al r|grer
speeds, as lre suscepl|o|||ly lo |rlerlererce |rcreases exporerl|a||y W|lr lre
lrequercy ol lre s|gra|. ll erao|es lasl dala rales lo oe lrarsr|lled lurlrer W|lroul
regereral|or, a|lrougr lre d|slarces poss|o|e are srorler lrar W|lr rosl olrer
red|a.

Advantages:
Tecrro|ogy ard slardards are ralure ard slao|e lor vo|ce
corrur|cal|ors.
Te|eprore syslers, Wr|cr use lW|sled pa|r W|r|rg, are preserl |r rosl
ou||d|rgs, ard unused pa|rs usua||y are ava||ab|e lor relWor|
correcl|ors.
Car oe |nsta||ed re|al|ve|y eas||y.
ls re|al|ve|y |nexpens|ve.
0|sadvantages:
3ers|l|ve lo EVl ard eavesdropp|rg, espec|a||y ursr|e|ded.
ursu|lao|e lor very r|gr-speed dala lrarsr|ss|or.
3ore dala relWor||rg slardards lor TP are reW ard rol erl|re|y slao|e.
Exlers|ve|y used |r le|eprore c|rcu|ls, Wrere severa| W|res are |rsu|aled
ard pul logelrer.

|ts Features are:
8ardW|dlr :250 Krz.
LoW s|gra| lo ro|se ral|o (cross la||) -> LoW dala rale.
0ood lor srorl-d|slarce corrur|cal|ors.
used |r LAN (uTP or 10oaseT).

2.1.1.2.1 Unsh|e|ded Tw|sted Pa|r (UTP} 6ab|e
TW|sled pa|r cao||rg cores |r lWo var|el|es: sr|e|ded ard ursr|e|ded.
ursr|e|ded lW|sled pa|r (uTP) |s lre rosl popu|ar ard |s gerera||y lre
oesl opl|or lor scroo| relWor|s.

Tre qua||ly ol uTP ray vary lror le|eprore-grade W|re lo exlrere|y
r|gr-speed cao|e. Tre cao|e ras lour pa|rs ol W|res |rs|de lre jac|el.
Eacr pa|r |s lW|sled W|lr a d|llererl ruroer ol lW|sls per |rcr lo re|p
e||r|rale |rlerlererce lror adjacerl pa|rs ard olrer e|eclr|ca| dev|ces.
Tre l|grler lre lW|sl|rg, lre r|grer lre supporled lrarsr|ss|or rale ard
lre grealer lre cosl per lool.

6ategor|es of Unsh|e|ded Tw|sted Pa|r
Type Use
Calegory 1 vo|ce 0r|y (Te|eprore w|re)
Calegory 2 0ala lo 1 Vops (Loca|Ta||)
Calegory 3 0ala lo 10 Vops (Elrerrel)
Calegory 1 0ala lo 20 Vops (1 Vops To|er R|rg)
Calegory 5 0ala lo 100 Vops (Fasl Elrerrel)

2.1.1.2.2 Unsh|e|ded Tw|sted Pa|r 6onnector
Tre slardard correclor lor ursr|e|ded lW|sled pa|r cao||rg |s ar RJ-15
correclor. Tr|s |s a p|asl|c correclor lral |oo|s |||e a |arge le|eprore-
sly|e correclor. A s|ol a||oWs lre RJ-15 lo oe |rserled or|y ore Way. RJ
slards lor Reg|slered Jac|, |rp|y|rg lral lre correclor lo||oWs a
slardard oorroWed lror lre le|eprore |rduslry. Tr|s slardard
des|grales Wr|cr W|re goes W|lr eacr p|r |rs|de lre correclor.

2.1.1.2.3 8h|e|ded Tw|sted Pa|r (8TP} 6ab|e
A d|sadvarlage ol uTP |s lral |l ray oe suscepl|o|e lo rad|o ard e|eclr|ca| lrequercy
|rlerlererce. 3r|e|ded lW|sled pa|r (3TP) |s su|lao|e lor erv|rorrerls W|lr e|eclr|ca|
|rlerlererce; roWever, lre exlra sr|e|d|rg car ra|e lre cao|es qu|le ou||y. 3r|e|ded
lW|sled pa|r |s oller used or relWor|s us|rg To|er R|rg lopo|ogy.

2.1.1.3 6oax|a| 6ab|e

Coax|a| cao|e |s prooao|y lre rosl versal||e LAN red|ur oller|rg r|gr speeds over
roderale d|slarces al roderale pr|ces. L||e lW|sled pa|r |l a|so corpr|ses ol lWo
W|res (corduclors) lral srare lre sare ax|s, rerce lre rare co, ax|s. A s|rg|e
|rrer corduclor ard a ro||oW ouler corduclor. Al lre cerlre ol lre cao|e |s a
re|al|ve|y sl|ll copper W|re ercased |r |rsu|al|rg p|asl|c loar. Tre loar |s surrourded
oy oy lre secord corduclor, a W|re resr luoe WWr|cr a|so serves as sr|e|d|rg. A
lougr, |rsu|al|rg p|asl|c luoe lorrs lre cover ol lre cao|e. Tre lWo corduclors are
separaled oy ar |rsu|al|rg raler|a| so as lo erao|e |l lo rave r|grer oardW|dlr ard
Wor| al r|grer dala rales lrar lW|sled pa|r.

Advantages:
Tecrro|ogy ard slardards are ralure, Wr|cr proroles corpal|o|||ly
ard |rler-operao|||ly ol d|llererl verdor's equ|prerl.
Res|sls EVl oeller lrar lW|sled pa|r.
3upporls r|grer oardW|dlrs lrar lW|sled pa|r.
leav|er coax cao|e |s re|al|ve|y slurdy ard res|sls rougr lrealrerl.

0|sadvantages:
Coax cao|e. |||e TP, |s suscepl|o|e lo EVl ard eavesdropp|rg.
3ore coax cao|es are reavy, ou||y, or expers|ve.
used exlers|ve|y |r LANs.

Features:
3|rg|e cerlra| corduclor surrourded oy a c|rcu|ar |rsu|al|or |ayer ard a
corducl|ve sr|e|d.
l|gr oardW|dlr : uplo 100 Vrz.
l|gr qua||ly ol dala lrarsr|ss|or.
Vax. used dala rales : 100 Vo|ls/s.
Proo|ers : s|gra| |oss al r|gr lrequerc|es.

2.1.1.4 w|re|ess Hed|a
Tre aoove d|scussed lecrro|og|es requ|re prys|ca| correcl|ors |r order lo lrarsr|l
s|gra|s. w|re|ess lrarsr|ss|or rears serd|rg ard rece|v|rg s|gra|s W|lroul W|res.
Exarp|es |rc|ude rad|o, r|croWave, ard sale||le. Today We use a|| ol lrese lorrs lo
lrarsr|l dala.
7

Tre process oy Wr|cr rad|o Waves are propagaled lrrougr lre a|r, lre arourl ol
dala carr|ed, |rrur|ly lo |rlerlererce lror |rlerra| ard exlerra| sources, ard a rosl
ol olrer craracler|sl|cs var|es lror lecrro|ogy lo lecrro|ogy.
w|re|ess lecrro|og|es are d|llererl|aled oy lre lo||oW|rg:
Protoco|ATV or lP
6onnect|on typePo|rl-lo-Po|rl (P2P) or ru|l|po|rl (P2VP)
correcl|ors
8pectrumL|cersed or ur||cersed

Features:
For wANs sale|||les prov|de g|ooa| corrur|cal|or over lre Wor|d,
rece|v|rg s|gra|s lror lrarsr|llers ard re|ay|rg lrer oac| lo lre
rece|vers.
w|lr geoslal|orary sale|||les serders ard rece|vers a|Ways po|rls lre
sare d|recl|or.
l|gr corrur|cal|or capac|ly. 8|g |alercy : 0.25 secs.
For VANs r|croWave rad|o lecrro|ogy |s W|de|y used (2 lo 21 Vo|l/s).
For LANs 3pread 3peclrur rad|o lecrro|ogy |s oecor|rg very popu|ar
(up lo 2 Vo|l/s).
lrlrared : L|re ol s|grl ||r|lal|or.

2.1.1.4.1 H|crowave
V|croWave lrarsr|ss|or |s ||re ol s|grl lrarsr|ss|or. Tre lrarsr|l slal|or rusl oe |r
v|s|o|e corlacl W|lr lre rece|ve slal|or. Tr|s sels a ||r|l or lre d|slarce oelWeer
slal|ors deperd|rg or lre |oca| geograpry. Typ|ca||y lre ||re ol s|grl due lo lre
Earlr's curvalure |s or|y 50 |r lo lre ror|zorl Repealer slal|ors rusl oe p|aced so
lre dala s|gra| car rop, s||p ard jurp across lre courlry.
V|croWaves operale al r|gr operal|rg lrequerc|es ol 3 lo 10 0lz. Tr|s a||oWs lrer
lo carry |arge quarl|l|es ol dala due lo lre|r |arge oardW|dlr.
Advantages
Trey requ|re ro r|grl ol Way acqu|s|l|or oelWeer loWers.
Trey car carry r|gr quarl|l|es ol |rlorral|or due lo lre|r r|gr operal|rg
lrequerc|es.
LoW cosl |ard purcrase: eacr loWer occup|es or|y a sra|| area.
l|gr lrequercy/srorl Wave|erglr s|gra|s requ|re sra|| arlerrae.
0|sadvantages
Allerual|or oy so||d oojecls: o|rds, ra|r, sroW ard log.
Rel|ecled lror l|al surlaces |||e Waler ard rela|.
0|llracled (sp||l) arourd so||d oojecls.
Relracled oy alrosprere, lrus caus|rg oear lo oe projecled aWay lror
rece|ver.

2.1.1.4.2 Rad|o
Trere are 3 lypes ol rad|o lrequercy (RF) propagal|or:
Cround wave - lo||oWs curvalure ol lre earlr; rave carr|er lrequerc|es up lo 2 Vlz
(exarp|e: AV rad|o)

|onosphere - oources oll ol lre Earlr's |orosprer|c |ayer |r lre upper alrosprere.
3orel|res ca||ed douo|e rop propagal|or. ll operales |r lre lrequercy rarge ol 30 -
85 Vlz. 8ecause |l deperds or lre Earlr's |orosprere, |l crarges W|lr lre Wealrer
ard l|re ol day. Tre s|gra| oources oll ol lre |orosprere ard oac| lo earlr.
(Exarp|e:rar rad|os)

L|ne of 8|ght (L08} - lrarsr|ls exacl|y |r lre ||re ol s|grl. Rece|v|rg slal|or rusl
oe |r lre v|eW ol lre lrarsr|ll|rg slal|or. 3orel|res ca||ed space Waves or
lroposprer|c propagal|or. L|r|led oy lre curvalure ol lre Earlr lor grourd-oased
slal|ors (100 |r, lror ror|zor lo ror|zor). Rel|ecled Waves car cause proo|ers.
(Exarp|es: FV rad|o, r|croWave ard sale|||le)

Rad|o lrequerc|es are |r lre rarge ol 300 |lz lo 10 0lz. Tre reWesl rad|o
lrequercy lype lecrro|ogy |s W|re|ess LANs. 3ore use rad|o lrequerc|es lo correcl
lre Wor|slal|ors logelrer, sore use |rlrared lecrro|ogy.

2.1.1.4.3 8ate|||te
3ale|||les are lrarsporders (ur|ls lral rece|ve or ore lrequercy ard relrarsr|l or
arolrer) lral are sel |r geoslal|orary/geosyrcrrorous oro|ls d|recl|y over lre
equalor. Trese geoslal|orary oro|ls are 3,000 |r lror lre Earlr's surlace. Al lr|s
po|rl, lre grav|lal|ora| pu|| ol lre Earlr ard lre cerlr|luga| lorce ol Earlr's rolal|or
are oa|arced ard carce| eacr olrer oul. Cerlr|luga| lorce |s lre rolal|ora| lorce
p|aced or lre sale|||le lral Warls lo l||rg |l oul |rlo space.

8

Tre up||r| |s lre lrarsr|ller ol dala lo lre sale|||le. Tre doWr||r| |s lre rece|ver ol
dala. up||r|s ard doWr||r|s are a|so ca||ed Earlr slal|ors oecause lrey are |ocaled
or lre Earlr. Tre loolpr|rl |s lre sradoW lral lre sale|||le car lrarsr|l lo, lre
sradoW oe|rg lre area lral car rece|ve lre sale|||le's lrarsr|lled s|gra|.

2.1.1.4.4 |r|d|um Te|ecom 8ystem
A reW lype ol lrarsr|ss|or sysler lral |s or-aga|r, oll-aga|r lor var|ous reasors
over lre pasl severa| years |s |r|d|ur. Tre lr|d|ur Te|ecor 3ysler |s a reW sale|||le
sysler lral W||| oe lre |argesl pr|vale aerospace projecl. ll |s a roo||e le|ecor
sysler |rlerded lo corpele W|lr ce||u|ar prores. ll re||es or sale|||les |r |oWer Earlr
oro|l (LE0). Tre sale|||les W||| oro|l al ar a|l|lude ol 900 - 10,000 |r |r a po|ar, ror-
slal|orary oro|l. 3|xly-s|x sale|||les are p|arred. Tre user's rardsel W||| requ|re |ess
poWer ard W||| oe creaper lrar ce||u|ar prores. Trere W||| oe 100 coverage ol lre
Earlr.

6hoos|ng a med|um
Copper W|re |s ralure lecrro|ogy, rugged ard |rexpers|ve; rax|rur
lrarsr|ss|or speed |s ||r|led
0|ass l|oer:
o l|grer speed
o Vore res|slarl lo e|eclro-ragrel|c |rlerlererce
o 3pars |orger d|slarces
o Requ|res or|y s|rg|e l|oer
o Vore expers|ve; |ess rugged
Rad|o ard r|croWave dor'l requ|re prys|ca| correcl|or
Rad|o ard |rlrared car oe used lor roo||e correcl|ors
Laser a|so does rol reed prys|ca| correcl|or ard supporls r|grer
speeds

Ru|es 0f The Road
Tre oas|c ou||d|rg o|oc| lor lre Fasl Elrerrel LAN |s lre Fasl Elrerrel repealer. Tre
lWo lypes ol Fasl Elrerrel repealers ollered or lre rar|el loday are:
1. C|ass l Repealer: Tre C|ass 1 repealer operales oy lrars|al|rg ||re
s|gra|s or lre |rcor|rg porl lo a d|g|la| s|gra|. Tr|s a||oWs lre
lrars|al|or oelWeer d|llererl lypes ol Fasl Elrerrel |||e 1008A3E-TX
ard 1008A3E-FX. A C|ass l repealer |rlroduces de|ays Wrer
perlorr|rg lr|s corvers|or sucr lral or|y ore repealer car oe pul |r a
s|rg|e Fasl Elrerrel LAN segrerl.
2. C|ass ll Repealer: Tre C|ass ll repealer |rred|ale|y repeals lre s|gra|
or ar |rcor|rg porl lo a|| lre porls or lre repealer. Typ|ca||y C|ass ll
repealers, |||e lre Larlror|x LFR8, rave a|| porls ol lre sare Fasl
Elrerrel lype (1008A3E-TX). very ||ll|e de|ay |s |rlroduced oy lr|s qu|c|
rovererl ol dala across lre repealer; lrus lWo C|ass ll repealers are
a||oWed per Fasl Elrerrel segrerl.
2.1.2 Transm|ss|on Hed|a 6haracter|st|cs
Trrougrpul: Tre rale al Wr|cr a processor car Wor| expressed |r |rslrucl|ors per
secord or joos per rour or sore olrer ur|l ol perlorrarce.

0ala lrarsler rale: Tre arourl ol data lrarslerred |r ore d|recl|or over a ||r|
d|v|ded oy lre l|re la|er lo lrarsler |l, usua||y expressed |r o|ls or oyles per secord.
wrere dala lrarsler |s rol corl|ruous lrrougroul lre g|ver l|re |rlerva|, lre dala
lrarsler rale |s lrus ar average rale lral W||| oe |oWer lrar lre pea| rale.

andw|dth: Tre capac|ly ol a lrarsr|ss|or sysler lo carry |rlorral|or. 0erera||y,
lre sare |rlorral|or (sourd or |rage) requ|res |ess oardW|dlr |l lrarsr|lled |r
d|g|la| lorr lrar |r ara|ogue lorr. 8ardW|dlr |s re|aled lo lre arourl ol lre e|eclro-
ragrel|c speclrur lral |s used or requ|red. Te|ev|s|or requ|res a rucr grealer
oardW|dlr lrar rad|o oecause lrere |s rore |rlorral|or lo corvey. Tola| oardW|dlr
|s u|l|rale|y ||r|led oy lre e|eclro-ragrel|c speclrur.

2.2 hardware 8pec|f|cat|ons

2.2.1 6onnect|ng 0ev|ces
2.2.1.1 hubs
A ruo |s a repeater, Wr|cr |s a 08| mode| dev|ce, lre s|rp|esl poss|o|e. A ruo
la|es lre dala lral cores |rlo a porl ard serds |l oul a|| lre olrer porls |r lre ruo. ll
doesr'l perlorr ary l||ler|rg or red|recl|or ol dala. A|lrougr |l's aclua||y a ||ll|e rore
corp||caled, you car lr|r| ol a ruo |||e a p|ece ol W|re. A oeller ara|ogy r|grl oe
lral ol ar lrlerrel Cral roor. Everylr|rg lral everyore Wro jo|rs a parl|cu|ar cral |s
seer oy everyore e|se. ll lrere are loo rary peop|e lry|rg lo cral, lr|rgs gel
oogged doWr.

A corror correcl|or po|rl lor dev|ces |r a relWor|. luos are corror|y used lo
correcl segrerls ol a LAN. A ruo corla|rs ru|l|p|e porls. wrer a pac|el arr|ves al
ore porl, |l |s cop|ed lo lre olrer porls so lral a|| segrerls ol lre LAN car see a||
pac|els.

A pass|ve ruo serves s|rp|y as a cordu|l lor lre dala, erao||rg |l lo go lror ore
dev|ce (or segrerl) lo arolrer. 3o-ca||ed |rle|||gerl ruos |rc|ude add|l|ora| lealures
lral erao|e ar adr|r|slralor lo ror|lor lre lrall|c pass|rg lrrougr lre ruo ard lo
corl|gure eacr porl |r lre ruo. lrle|||gerl ruos are a|so ca||ed rarageao|e ruos.
A lr|rd lype ol ruo, ca||ed a sW|lcr|rg ruo, aclua||y reads lre desl|ral|or address ol
eacr pac|el ard lrer lorWards lre pac|el lo lre correcl porl.

2.2.1.2 8w|T6h
3W|lcres are lre sare lr|rg as 8r|dges, oul usua||y rave ru|l|p|e porls W|lr lre
sare l|avor correcl|or (Exarp|e: 10/1008aseT).
3W|lcres car oe used |r reav||y |oaded relWor|s lo |so|ale dala l|oW ard |rprove
perlorrarce. lr a sW|lcr, dala oelWeer lWo ||grl|y used corpulers W||| oe |so|aled
lror dala |rlerded lor a reav||y used server, lor exarp|e. 0r |r lre oppos|le case,
|r aulo sers|rg sW|lcres lral a||oW r|x|rg ol 10 ard 100Vops correcl|ors, lre
s|oWer 10Vops lrarsler Wor'l s|oW doWr lre lasler 100Vops l|oW.

A|lrougr sW|lcr pr|ces are dropp|rg so lral lrere |s very ||ll|e d|llererce lror ruo
pr|ces, rosl rore users gel very ||ll|e, |l ary, advarlage lror sW|lcres, ever Wrer
srar|rg oroadoard lrlerrel correcl|ors. 8roadoard correcl|ors lor rosl users
are |r lre 1-2Vops rarge, lar oe|oW ever 10Vops speeds. 3|rce you snare lral
oardW|dlr, you car see lral your speedy 1008aseT correcl|or |sr'l ever orea||rg
a sWeal Wrer you're us|rg lre lrlerrel.

2.2.1.3 R0UTER
Roulers lorWard dala pac|els lror ore p|ace lo arolrer, lool loWever roulers are
03l rode| Layer 3 dev|ces, ard lorWard dala deperd|rg or lre Network address,
not lre lardWare (VAC) address. For TCP/lP relWor|s, lr|s rears lre lP address
ol lre relWor| |rlerlace. Roulers |so|ale eacr LAN |rlo a separate subnet, so eacr
relWor| adapler's lP address W||| rave a d|llererl lr|rd oclel (Exarp|e: 192.18.1.1
ard 192.18.2.1 are |r d|llererl suorels.). Trey are recessary |r |arge relWor|s
oecause lre TCP/lP address|rg screre a||oWs or|y 251 addresses per (C|ass C)
relWor| segrerl.

9
Roulers, |||e or|dges, prov|de oardW|dlr corlro| oy |eep|rg dala oul ol suorels
Wrere |l doesr'l oe|org. loWever, roulers reed lo oe sel up oelore lrey car gel
go|rg, a|lrougr orce sel up, lrey car corrur|cale W|lr olrer roulers ard |earr lre
Way lo parls ol a relWor| lral are added aller a rouler |s |r|l|a||y corl|gured.

2.2.1.1 R|0CE
8r|dges (sorel|res ca||ed Trarsparerl or|dges) Wor| al 03l rode| Layer 2. Tr|s
rears lrey dor'l |roW arylr|rg aooul proloco|s, oul jusl lorWard dala deperd|rg or
lre desl|ral|or address |r lre dala packet. Tr|s address |s rol lre lP address, oul
lre VAC (Ved|a Access Corlro|) address lral |s ur|que lo eacr relWor| adapler
card.
w|lr a 8r|dge, a|| your corpulers are |r lre sare relWor| subnet, so you dor'l
rave lo Worry aooul rol oe|rg ao|e lo corrur|cale oelWeer corpulers or srare ar
lrlerrel correcl|or. 0lCP servers W||| Wor| l|re across 8r|dges, or |l you ass|gr
your oWr lP addresses, you'|| use lre sare l|rsl 3 oclels ol lre lP address
(Exarp|e: '92.'68.0.X).
loWever, lre or|y dala lral |s a||oWed lo cross lre or|dge |s dala lral |s oe|rg serl lo
a va||d address on the other s|de of the br|dge. No va||d address, ro dala across
lre or|dge. 8r|dges dor'l requ|re prograrr|rg. Trey |earr lre addresses ol lre
corpulers correcled lo lrer oy ||sler|rg lo lre dala l|oW|rg lrrougr lrer.
8r|dges are very uselu| lor jo|r|rg relWor|s rade ol d|llererl red|a lypes logelrer
|rlo |arger relWor|s, ard |eep|rg relWor| segrerls lree ol dala lral doesr'l oe|org
|r a parl|cu|ar segrerl.

2.2.1.5 REPEATER
A relWor| dev|ce used lo regererale or rep||cale a s|gra|. Repealers are used |r
lrarsr|ss|or syslers lo regererale ara|og or d|g|la| s|gra|s d|slorled oy rarsr|ss|or
|oss. Ara|og repealers lrequerl|y car or|y arp||ly lre s|gra| Wr||e d|g|la| repealers
car recorslrucl a s|gra| lo rear |ls or|g|ra| qua||ly. lr a dala relWor|, a repealer car
re|ay ressages oelWeer suo relWor|s lral use d|llererl proloco|s or cao|e lypes.
luos car operale as repealers oy re|ay|rg ressages lo a|| correcled corpulers. A
repealer carrol do lre |rle|||gerl roul|rg perlorred oy or|dges ard roulers.

2.2.1. R0UTER
3rorl lor or|dge rouler, ard prorourced orau-ler, a dev|ce lral lurcl|ors as oolr a
rouler ard a or|dge. A orouler urderslards roW lo roule spec|l|c lypes ol pac|els,
sucr as TCP/lP pac|els. Ary olrer pac|els |l rece|ves are s|rp|y lorWarded lo olrer
relWor|(s) correcled lo lre dev|ce (lr|s |s lre or|dge lurcl|or).

2.2.1.7 HAU
VAu |s srorl lor Vu|l|slal|or Access ur|l (a|so aoorev|aled as V3Au), a lo|er-r|rg
relWor| dev|ce lral prys|ca||y correcls relWor| corpulers |r a slar lopo|ogy Wr||e
rela|r|rg lre |og|ca| r|rg slruclure. 0re ol lre proo|ers W|lr lre lo|er-r|rg lopo|ogy
|s lral a s|rg|e ror-operal|rg rode car orea| lre r|rg. Tre VAu so|ves lr|s proo|er
oecause |l ras lre ao|||ly lo srorl oul ror-operal|rg rodes ard ra|rla|r lre r|rg
slruclure. A VAu |s a spec|a| lype ol ruo.

2.2.1.8 68U|08U
C3u/03u 3rorl lor Crarre| 3erv|ce ur|l/0ala 3erv|ce ur|l. Tre C3u |s a dev|ce
lral perlorrs prolecl|ve ard d|agrosl|c lurcl|ors lor a le|ecorrur|cal|ors ||re. Tre
03u |s a dev|ce lral correcls a lerr|ra| lo a d|g|la| ||re. Typ|ca||y, lre lWo dev|ces
are pac|aged as a s|rg|e ur|l. You car lr|r| ol |l as a very r|gr-poWered ard
expers|ve roder. 3ucr a dev|ce |s requ|red lor oolr erds ol a T-1 or T-3
correcl|or, ard lre ur|ls al oolr erds rusl oe sel lo lre sare corrur|cal|ors
slardard.

2.2.1.9 modem
(Vodu|alor/derodu|alor) Ar e|eclror|c dev|ce lor corverl|rg oelWeer ser|a| dala
(lyp|ca||y ElA-232) lror a corpuler ard ar aud|o s|gra| su|lao|e lor lrarsr|ss|or
over a le|eprore ||re correcled lo arolrer roder. lr ore screre lre aud|o s|gra|
|s corposed ol s||erce (ro dala) or ore ol lWo lrequerc|es represerl|rg zero ard
ore.

Voders are d|sl|rgu|sred pr|rar||y oy lre rax|rur dala rale lrey supporl. 0ala
rales car rarge lror Z5 o|ls per secord up lo 5000 ard oeyord. 0ala lror lre
user (|.e. l|oW|rg lror lre |oca| lerr|ra| or corpuler v|a lre roder lo lre le|eprore
||re) |s sorel|res al a |oWer rale lrar lre olrer d|recl|or, or lre assurpl|or lral lre
user carrol lype rore lrar a leW craraclers per secord.

var|ous dala corpress|or ard error correcl|or a|gor|lrrs are requ|red lo supporl lre
r|gresl speeds. 0lrer opl|ora| lealures are aulo-d|a| (aulo-ca||) ard aulo-arsWer
Wr|cr a||oW lre corpuler lo |r|l|ale ard accepl ca||s W|lroul rurar |rlerverl|or.
Vosl roderr roders supporl a ruroer ol d|llererl proloco|s, ard lWo roders,
Wrer l|rsl correcled, W||| auloral|ca||y regol|ale lo l|rd a corror proloco| (lr|s
process ray oe aud|o|e lrrougr lre roder or corpuler's |oudspea|ers). 3ore
roder proloco|s a||oW lre lWo roders lo reregol|ale (relra|r) |l lre |r|l|a| cro|ce
ol dala rale |s loo r|gr ard g|ves loo rary lrarsr|ss|or errors.

A roder ray e|lrer oe |rlerra| (correcled lo lre corpuler's ous) or exlerra|
(slard-a|ore, correcled lo ore ol lre corpuler's ser|a| porls). Tre aclua| speed ol
10
lrarsr|ss|or |r craraclers per secord deperds rol jusl lre roder-lo-roder dala
rale, oul a|so or lre speed W|lr Wr|cr lre processor car lrarsler dala lo ard lror
lre roder, lre ||rd ol corpress|or used ard Wrelrer lre dala |s corpressed oy
lre processor or lre roder, lre arourl ol ro|se or lre le|eprore ||re (Wr|cr
causes relrarsr|ss|ors), lre ser|a| craracler lorral (lyp|ca||y 8N1: ore slarl o|l,
e|grl dala o|ls, ro par|ly, ore slop o|l).

6ompar|son of 6onnect|ng 0ev|ces
0ev|ce Exp|anat|on
hub Corror correcl|or po|rl lor dev|ces |r a relWor|
used lo segrerl LAN
Corla|rs ru|l|p|e porls
0r rece|v|rg a pac|el |l |s cop|ed lo a|| porls, a|| segrerl W||| see lre pac|el
A ruo a||oWs eacr rode lo corrur|cale W|lr a|| olrer correcled rodes
Vosl ruos are p|ug ard p|ay; ro sollWare |s recessary lo |rsla||.
luos car a|so oe correcled logelrer oy a or|dge
TWo or rore ruos car oe correcled lo erao|e relWor| expars|or eas||y ard
|rexpers|ve|y

8w|tch ll l||lers ard lorWards pac|els oelWeer LAN segrerls
0perale al lre dala ||r| |ayer ard sorel|res lre relWor| |ayer
3upporl ary pac|el proloco|
used |r reav||y |oaded relWor|s lo |so|ale dala l|oW ard |rprove perlorrarce
lso|ales ||grl|y used corpulers lror reav||y used corpulers or dev|ces
Add|rg a sW|lcr oller |rproves lre speed ol a relWor| lral ras oecore oogged
doWr ard overused, ard re|ps e||r|rales relWor| errors
A sW|lcr a|so erao|es a relWor| lrarsr|ss|or lo oe d|recled lo a spec|l|c rode or
lre relWor| |rslead ol oe|rg lrarsr|lled lo a|| users

Rouler ll correcls a ruroer ol LANs
use readers ard lao|es lo delerr|re Wrere pac|els go.
use lCVP lo corrur|cale W|lr eacr olrer & corl|gure oesl roule oelWeer ary
lWo rosl
Roulers are sel up oelore lrey are used
Keep dala oul ol suorels Wrere |l does rol oe|org.

8r|dge Correcl lWo LANs ol lWo segrerls ol lre sare LAN (e|lrer a|||e or rol a|||e)
Trey are proloco| |rdeperderl, s|rp|y lorWards pac|els W|lroul ara|ys|rg ard
re-roul|rg ressages.
Trey are lasler lrar roulers
0ala lral or|y crosses lre or|dge |s lral oe|rg serd lo a va||d address or lre
olrer s|de ol lre or|dge
No va||d address, ro dala across lre or|dge.
0o rol requ|re prograrr|rg
used lo jo|r relWor|s.

8rouler ll lurcl|ors as oolr a or|dge or rouler
urderslards roW lo roule spec|l|c lypes ol pac|els sucr as TCP/lP pac|els

VAu Vu|l|slal|or Access ur|l, To|er r|rg relWor| dev|ce
Correcls relWor| corpulers |r a slar relWor| Wr||e rela|r|rg lre |og|c r|rg
slruclure.
ll so|ves lo|er r|rg orea|s oy srorl|rg oul ror-operal|rg rodes ard ra|rla|rs lre
r|rg slruclure ard rodes corrur|cal|rg.

C3u ls a dev|ce lral perlorrs prolecl|ve ard d|agrosl|c lurcl|ors lor a
le|ecorrur|cal|ors ||re
Correcls a lerr|ra| lo a d|g|la| ||re

Voder Ar e|eclror|c dev|ce lor corverl|rg oelWeer ser|a| dala lror a
corpuler ard ar aud|o s|gra| su|lao|e lor lrarsr|ss|or over a
le|eprore ||re correcled lo arolrer roder
Vosl roderr roders supporl a ruroer ol d|llererl proloco|s, ard
lWo roders, Wrer l|rsl correcled, W||| auloral|ca||y regol|ale lo l|rd
a corror proloco|
A roder ray e|lrer oe |rlerra| (correcled lo lre corpuler's ous) or
exlerra| (slard-a|ore, correcled lo ore ol lre corpuler's ser|a|
porls).

Repealer A relWor| dev|ce used lo regererale or rep||cale a s|gra|.
Regererale ara|og or d|g|la| s|gra|s d|slorled oy lrarsr|ss|or |oss.
Ara|og repealers lrequerl|y car or|y arp||ly lre s|gra| Wr||e d|g|la|
repealers car recorslrucl a s|gra| lo rear |ls or|g|ra| qua||ly.
lr a dala relWor|, a repealer car re|ay ressages oelWeer suo
relWor|s lral use d|llererl proloco|s or cao|e lypes.

2.2.1.10 Rad|o
w|re|ess lrarsr|ss|or ol e|eclr|c s|gra|s oy Way ol e|eclroragrel|c Waves, |rc|ud|rg
lre use ol e|eclroragrel|c Waves lo lrarsr|l e|eclr|c |rpu|ses lral carry corverled
sourd s|gra|s.

2.2.1.10.1 Cenera| packet rad|o serv|ce (0PR3).
A g|ooa| sysler lor roo||e corrur|cal|ors (03V) crarre| aggregal|or sysler lral
|rcreases per-crarre| speeds lror 9,00 lo 11,100 o|ls per secord (ops), add|rg
dala corpress|or. w|lr 0PR3, roo||e dala lrarsr|ss|ors car oe as lasl as 115,000
ops us|rg lre ex|sl|rg 03V oase slal|or |rlraslruclure. 0PR3 lecrro|ogy Wor|s We||
W|lr serv|ces sucr as W|re|ess lrlerrel, W|re|ess |rlrarel, ard ru|l|red|a.

2.2.1.10.2 Rad|o frequency
(RF). E|eclroragrel|c lrequerc|es |r lre rarge exlerd|rg lror oe|oW 3 |||orerz lo
300 g|garerlz, Wr|cr |rc|udes rad|o ard le|ev|s|or lrarsr|ss|or.Trese lrequerc|es
are aoove aud|o s|gra|s ard oe|oW lre lrequerc|es ol v|s|o|e ||grl.

2.2.1.10.3 Rad|ote|ephone
A dev|ce lral serds le|eprore s|gra|s W|lroul W|res, oy rears ol rad|o Waves.

2.2.1.10.4 Rad|o Frequency |nterference
(RFl) E|eclroragrel|c rad|al|or Wr|cr |s er|lled oy e|eclr|ca| c|rcu|ls carry|rg rap|d|y
crarg|rg s|gra|s, as a oy-producl ol lre|r rorra| operal|or, ard Wr|cr causes
urWarled s|gra|s (|rlerlererce or ro|se) lo oe |rduced |r olrer c|rcu|ls. Tre rosl
|rporlarl rears ol reduc|rg RFl are: use ol oypass or decoup||rg capac|lors or
eacr acl|ve dev|ce , r|sel|re corlro| ol r|gr speed s|gra|s us|rg ser|es res|slors ard
vCC l||ler|rg. 3r|e|d|rg |s usua||y a |asl resorl aller olrer lecrr|ques rave la||ed
oecause ol lre added experse ol RF gas|els ard lre |||e. Tre ell|c|ercy ol lre
rad|al|or |s deperdarl or lre re|grl aoove lre grourd or poWer p|are ard lre
|erglr ol lre corduclor |r re|al|orsr|p lo lre Wave|erglr ol lre s|gra| corporerl.

Al |oWer lrequerc|es, sucr as 133 Vlz, rad|al|or |s a|rosl exc|us|ve|y v|a l/0
cao|es; RF ro|se gels orlo lre poWer p|ares ard |s coup|ed lo lre ||re dr|vers v|a
lre vCC ard grourd p|rs. Tre Rl |s lrer coup|ed lo lre cao|e lrrougr lre ||re dr|ver
as corror rode ro|se. 3|rce lre ro|se |s corror rode, sr|e|d|rg ras very ||ll|e
ellecl, ever W|lr d|llererl|a| pa|rs. Tre RF erergy |s capac|l|ve|y coup|ed lror lre
s|gra| pa|r lo lre sr|e|d ard lre sr|e|d |lse|l does lre rad|al|rg.

Al r|grer lrequerc|es, usua||y aoove 500 Vrz, lraces gel e|eclr|ca||y |orger ard
r|grer aoove lre p|are. TWo lecrr|ques are used al lrese lrequerc|es: Wave
srap|rg W|lr ser|es res|slors ard eroedd|rg lre lraces oelWeer lre lWo p|ares. ll
a|| lrese reasures sl||| |eave loo rucr RFl, sre||d|rg sucr as RF gas|els ard
copper lape car oe used. Vosl d|g|la| equ|prerl |s des|gred W|lr rela|, or coaled
p|asl|c, cases. 3W|lcr|rg poWer supp||es car oe a source ol RFl, oul rave oecore
|ess ol a proo|er as des|gr lecrr|ques rave |rproved. Vosl courlr|es rave |ega|
requ|rererls lral e|eclror|c ard e|eclr|ca| rardWare rusl sl||| Wor| correcl|y Wrer
suojecled lo cerla|r arourls ol RFl, ard srou|d rol er|l RFl Wr|cr cou|d |rlerlere
W|lr olrer equ|prerl (sucr as rad|os).

2.2.1.11 6|sco Techno|ogy
2.2.1.11 6|sco Techno|ogy
|ntroduct|on - Ethernet
Elrerrel |s lre rosl popu|ar prys|ca| |ayer LAN lecrro|ogy |r use loday. 0lrer LAN
lypes |rc|ude To|er R|rg, Fasl Elrerrel, F|oer 0|slr|ouled 0ala lrlerlace (F00l),
Asyrcrrorous Trarsler Vode (ATV) ard Loca|Ta||. Elrerrel |s popu|ar oecause |l
slr||es a good oa|arce oelWeer speed, cosl ard ease ol |rsla||al|or. Trese oerel|ls,
coro|red W|lr W|de acceplarce |r lre corpuler rar|elp|ace ard lre ao|||ly lo
supporl v|rlua||y a|| popu|ar relWor| proloco|s, ra|e Elrerrel ar |dea| relWor||rg
lecrro|ogy lor rosl corpuler users loday. Tre lrsl|lule lor E|eclr|ca| ard E|eclror|c
Erg|reers (lEEE) del|res lre Elrerrel slardard as lEEE 3lardard 802.3. Tr|s
slardard del|res ru|es lor corl|gur|rg ar Elrerrel relWor| as We|| as spec|ly|rg roW
e|ererls |r ar Elrerrel relWor| |rleracl W|lr ore arolrer. 8y adrer|rg lo lre lEEE
slardard, relWor| equ|prerl ard relWor| proloco|s car corrur|cale ell|c|erl|y.

2.2.1.11.1 A r|ef h|story
Tre or|g|ra| Elrerrel Was deve|oped as ar exper|rerla| coax|a| cao|e relWor| |r
lre 19Z0s oy Xerox Corporal|or lo operale W|lr a dala rale ol 3 Vops us|rg a carr|er
serse ru|l|p|e access co|||s|or delecl (C3VA/C0) proloco| lor LANs W|lr sporad|c
oul occas|ora||y reavy lrall|c requ|rererls. 3uccess W|lr lral projecl allracled ear|y
allerl|or ard |ed lo lre 1980 jo|rl deve|oprerl ol lre 10-Vops Elrerrel vers|or 1.0
11
spec|l|cal|or oy lre lrree-corpary corsorl|ur: 0|g|la| Equ|prerl Corporal|or, lrle|
Corporal|or, ard Xerox Corporal|or.

Tre or|g|ra| lEEE 802.3 slardard Was oased or, ard Was very s|r||ar lo, lre
Elrerrel vers|or 1.0 spec|l|cal|or. Tre drall slardard Was approved oy lre 802.3
Wor||rg group |r 1983 ard Was suosequerl|y puo||sred as ar oll|c|a| slardard |r
1985 (AN3l/lEEE 3ld. 802.3-1985). 3|rce lrer, a ruroer ol supp|ererls lo lre
slardard rave oeer del|red lo la|e advarlage ol |rprovererls |r lre lecrro|og|es
ard lo supporl add|l|ora| relWor| red|a ard r|grer dala rale capao|||l|es, p|us
severa| reW opl|ora| relWor| access corlro| lealures.

ackground
Tre lerr Ernerner relers lo lre lar||y ol |oca|-area relWor| (LAN) producls covered
oy lre lEEE 802.3 slardard lral del|res Wral |s corror|y |roWr as lre C3VA/C0
proloco|. Trree dala rales are currerl|y del|red lor operal|or over opl|ca| l|oer ard
lW|sled-pa|r cao|es:
10 Vops108ase-T Elrerrel
100 VopsFasl Elrerrel
1000 Vops0|gao|l Elrerrel

0lrer lecrro|og|es ard proloco|s rave oeer louled as |||e|y rep|acererls, oul lre
rar|el ras spo|er. Elrerrel ras surv|ved as lre rajor LAN lecrro|ogy (|l |s
currerl|y used lor approx|rale|y 85 percerl ol lre Wor|d's LAN-correcled PCs ard
Wor|slal|ors) oecause |ls proloco| ras lre lo||oW|rg craracler|sl|cs:
ls easy lo urderslard, |rp|ererl, rarage, ard ra|rla|r
A||oWs |oW-cosl relWor| |rp|ererlal|ors
Prov|des exlers|ve lopo|og|ca| l|ex|o|||ly lor relWor| |rsla||al|or
0uararlees successlu| |rlercorrecl|or ard operal|or ol slardards-
corp||arl producls, regard|ess ol rarulaclurer

2.2.1.11.2 |nvent|on of Ethernet
'lr |ale 19Z2, Velca|le ard r|s Xerox PARC co||eagues deve|oped lre l|rsl
exper|rerla| Elrerrel sysler lo |rlercorrecl lre Xerox A|lo, a persora| Wor|slal|or
W|lr a grapr|ca| user |rlerlace. Tre exper|rerla| Elrerrel Was used lo ||r| A|los lo
ore arolrer, ard lo servers ard |aser pr|rlers. Tre s|gra| c|oc| lor lre exper|rerla|
Elrerrel |rlerlace Was der|ved lror lre A|lo's sysler c|oc|, Wr|cr resu|led |r a dala
lrarsr|ss|or rale or lre exper|rerla| Elrerrel ol 2.91 Vops.

Velca|le's l|rsl exper|rerla| relWor| Was ca||ed lre A|lo A|ora NelWor|. lr 19Z3
Velca|le crarged lre rare lo Elrerrel, lo ra|e |l c|ear lral lre sysler cou|d
supporl ary corpuler--rol jusl A|los--ard lo po|rl oul lral r|s reW relWor|
recrar|srs rad evo|ved We|| oeyord lre A|ora sysler. le crose lo oase lre
rare or lre Word elrer as a Way ol descr|o|rg ar esserl|a| lealure ol lre sysler:
lre prys|ca| red|ur (|.e., a cao|e) carr|es o|ls lo a|| slal|ors, rucr lre sare Way
lral lre o|d |ur|r|lerous elrer Was orce lrougrl lo propagale e|eclroragrel|c
Waves lrrougr space. Trus, Elrerrel Was oorr.

2.2.1.11.3 Ethernet Network E|ements
Elrerrel LANs cors|sl ol relWor| rodes ard |rlercorrecl|rg red|a. Tre
relWor| rodes la|| |rlo lWo rajor c|asses:

0ata term|na| equ|pment (0TE}0ev|ces lral are e|lrer lre source or
lre desl|ral|or ol dala lrares. 0TEs are lyp|ca||y dev|ces sucr as PCs,
Wor|slal|ors, l||e servers, or pr|rl servers lral, as a group, are a|| oller
relerred lo as erd slal|ors.

0ata commun|cat|on equ|pment (06E}lrlerred|ale relWor|
dev|ces lral rece|ve ard lorWard lrares across lre relWor|. 0CEs ray
oe e|lrer slarda|ore dev|ces sucr as repealers, relWor| sW|lcres, ard
roulers, or corrur|cal|ors |rlerlace ur|ls sucr as |rlerlace cards ard
roders.

Tre currerl Elrerrel red|a opl|ors |rc|ude lWo gerera| lypes ol copper cao|e:
ursr|e|ded lW|sled-pa|r (uTP) ard sr|e|ded lW|sled-pa|r (3TP), p|us severa| lypes ol
opl|ca| l|oer cao|e.

2.2.1.11.4 Ethernet Network Topo|og|es and 8tructures
LANs la|e or rary lopo|og|ca| corl|gural|ors, oul regard|ess ol lre|r s|ze or
corp|ex|ly, a|| W||| oe a coro|ral|or ol or|y lrree oas|c |rlercorrecl|or slruclures or
relWor| ou||d|rg o|oc|s. Tre s|rp|esl slruclure |s lre po|rl-lo-po|rl |rlercorrecl|or.
0r|y lWo relWor| ur|ls are |rvo|ved, ard lre correcl|or ray oe 0TE-lo-0TE, 0TE-
lo-0CE, or 0CE-lo-0CE. Tre cao|e |r po|rl-lo-po|rl |rlercorrecl|ors |s |roWr as a
relWor| ||r|. Tre rax|rur a||oWao|e |erglr ol lre ||r| deperds or lre lype ol cao|e
ard lre lrarsr|ss|or relrod lral |s used.

Po|nt-to-Po|nt |nterconnect|on

Tre or|g|ra| Elrerrel relWor|s Were |rp|ererled W|lr a coax|a| ous slruclure.
3egrerl |erglrs Were ||r|led lo 500 relers, ard up lo 100 slal|ors cou|d oe
correcled lo a s|rg|e segrerl. lrd|v|dua| segrerls cou|d oe |rlercorrecled W|lr
repealers, as |org as ru|l|p|e palrs d|d rol ex|sl oelWeer ary lWo slal|ors or lre
relWor| ard lre ruroer ol 0TEs d|d rol exceed 1021. Tre lola| palr d|slarce
oelWeer lre rosl-d|slarl pa|r ol slal|ors Was a|so rol a||oWed lo exceed a rax|rur
prescr|oed va|ue.

6oax|a| us Topo|ogy

A|lrougr reW relWor|s are ro |orger correcled |r a ous corl|gural|or, sore o|der
ous-correcled relWor|s do sl||| ex|sl ard are sl||| uselu|.
3|rce lre ear|y 1990s, lre relWor| corl|gural|or ol cro|ce ras oeer lre slar-
correcled lopo|ogy, Tre cerlra| relWor| ur|l |s e|lrer a ru|l|porl repealer (a|so
|roWr as a ruo) or a relWor| sW|lcr. A|| correcl|ors |r a slar relWor| are po|rl-lo-
po|rl ||r|s |rp|ererled W|lr e|lrer lW|sled-pa|r or opl|ca| l|oer cao|e.

8tar-6onnected Topo|ogy

2.2.1.11.5 Fast Ethernet
For Elrerrel relWor|s lral reed r|grer lrarsr|ss|or speeds, lre Fasl Elrerrel
slardard (lEEE 802.3u) ras oeer eslao||sred. Tr|s slardard ra|ses lre Elrerrel
speed ||r|l lror 10 Vegao|ls per secord (Vops) lo 100 Vops W|lr or|y r|r|ra|
crarges lo lre ex|sl|rg cao|e slruclure. Trere are lrree lypes ol Fasl Elrerrel:
1008A3E-TX lor use W|lr |eve| 5 uTP cao|e, 1008A3E-FX lor use W|lr l|oer-opl|c
cao|e, ard 1008A3E-T1 Wr|cr ul|||zes ar exlra lWo W|res lor use W|lr |eve| 3 uTP
cao|e.

Tre 1008A3E-TX slardard ras oecore lre rosl popu|ar due lo |ls c|ose
corpal|o|||ly W|lr lre 108A3E-T Elrerrel slardard. For lre relWor| rarager, lre
|rcorporal|or ol Fasl Elrerrel |rlo ar ex|sl|rg corl|gural|or preserls a rosl ol
dec|s|ors. Varagers rusl delerr|re lre ruroer ol users |r eacr s|le or lre
relWor| lral reed lre r|grer lrrougrpul, dec|de Wr|cr segrerls ol lre oac|oore
reed lo oe recorl|gured spec|l|ca||y lor 1008A3E-T ard lrer croose lre recessary
rardWare lo correcl lre 1008A3E-T segrerls W|lr ex|sl|rg 108A3E-T segrerls.
0|gao|l Elrerrel |s a lulure lecrro|ogy lral pror|ses a r|gral|or palr oeyord Fasl
12
Elrerrel so lre rexl gereral|or ol relWor|s W||| supporl ever r|grer dala lrarsler
speeds.

2.2.1.11. The Ethernet HA6 8ub|ayer
Tre VAC suo|ayer ras lWo pr|rary respors|o|||l|es:
0ala ercapsu|al|or, |rc|ud|rg lrare assero|y oelore lrarsr|ss|or, ard
lrare pars|rg/error delecl|or dur|rg ard aller recepl|or
Ved|a access corlro|, |rc|ud|rg |r|l|al|or ol lrare lrarsr|ss|or ard
recovery lror lrarsr|ss|or la||ure

2.2.1.11.7 The as|c Ethernet Frame Format
Tre lEEE 802.3 slardard del|res a oas|c dala lrare lorral lral |s requ|red lor a||
VAC |rp|ererlal|ors, p|us severa| add|l|ora| opl|ora| lorrals lral are used lo
exlerd lre proloco|'s oas|c capao|||ly. Tre oas|c dala lrare lorral corla|rs lre
sever l|e|ds
Preamb|e (PRE}Cors|sls ol Z oyles. Tre PRE |s ar a|lerral|rg
pallerr ol ores ard zeros lral le||s rece|v|rg slal|ors lral a lrare |s
cor|rg, ard lral prov|des a rears lo syrcrror|ze lre lrare-recepl|or
porl|ors ol rece|v|rg prys|ca| |ayers W|lr lre |rcor|rg o|l slrear.
8tart-of-frame de||m|ter (80F}Cors|sls ol 1 oyle. Tre 30F |s ar
a|lerral|rg pallerr ol ores ard zeros, erd|rg W|lr lWo corsecul|ve 1-o|ls
|rd|cal|rg lral lre rexl o|l |s lre |ell-rosl o|l |r lre |ell-rosl oyle ol lre
desl|ral|or address.
0est|nat|on address (0A}Cors|sls ol oyles. Tre 0A l|e|d |derl|l|es
Wr|cr slal|or(s) srou|d rece|ve lre lrare. Tre |ell-rosl o|l |r lre 0A
l|e|d |rd|cales Wrelrer lre address |s ar |rd|v|dua| address (|rd|caled oy
a 0) or a group address (|rd|caled oy a 1). Tre secord o|l lror lre |ell
|rd|cales Wrelrer lre 0A |s g|ooa||y adr|r|slered (|rd|caled oy a 0) or
|oca||y adr|r|slered (|rd|caled oy a 1). Tre rera|r|rg 1 o|ls are a
ur|que|y ass|gred va|ue lral |derl|l|es a s|rg|e slal|or, a del|red group
ol slal|ors, or a|| slal|ors or lre relWor|.
8ource addresses (8A}Cors|sls ol oyles. Tre 3A l|e|d |derl|l|es
lre serd|rg slal|or. Tre 3A |s a|Ways ar |rd|v|dua| address ard lre |ell-
rosl o|l |r lre 3A l|e|d |s a|Ways 0.
Length|TypeCors|sls ol 1 oyles. Tr|s l|e|d |rd|cales e|lrer lre
ruroer ol VAC-c||erl dala oyles lral are corla|red |r lre dala l|e|d ol
lre lrare, or lre lrare lype l0 |l lre lrare |s assero|ed us|rg ar
opl|ora| lorral. ll lre Lerglr/Type l|e|d va|ue |s |ess lrar or equa| lo
1500, lre ruroer ol LLC oyles |r lre 0ala l|e|d |s equa| lo lre
Lerglr/Type l|e|d va|ue. ll lre Lerglr/Type l|e|d va|ue |s grealer lrar
153, lre lrare |s ar opl|ora| lype lrare, ard lre Lerglr/Type l|e|d
va|ue |derl|l|es lre parl|cu|ar lype ol lrare oe|rg serl or rece|ved.
0atals a sequerce ol n oyles ol ary va|ue, Wrere n |s |ess lrar or
equa| lo 1500. ll lre |erglr ol lre 0ala l|e|d |s |ess lrar 1, lre 0ala
l|e|d rusl oe exlerded oy add|rg a l|||er (a pad) sull|c|erl lo or|rg lre
0ala l|e|d |erglr lo 1 oyles.
Frame check sequence (F68}Cors|sls ol 1 oyles. Tr|s sequerce
corla|rs a 32-o|l cyc||c redurdarcy crec| (CRC) va|ue, Wr|cr |s crealed
oy lre serd|rg VAC ard |s reca|cu|aled oy lre rece|v|rg VAC lo crec|
lor daraged lrares. Tre FC3 |s gereraled over lre 0A, 3A,
Lerglr/Type, ard 0ala l|e|ds.

2.2.1.11.8 Frame Transm|ss|on
wrerever ar erd slal|or VAC rece|ves a lrarsr|l-lrare requesl W|lr lre
accorpary|rg address ard dala |rlorral|or lror lre LLC suo|ayer, lre VAC oeg|rs
lre lrarsr|ss|or sequerce oy lrarslerr|rg lre LLC |rlorral|or |rlo lre VAC lrare
ouller.
Tre prearo|e ard slarl-ol-lrare de||r|ler are |rserled |r lre PRE ard
30F l|e|ds.
Tre desl|ral|or ard source addresses are |rserled |rlo lre address
l|e|ds.
Tre LLC dala oyles are courled, ard lre ruroer ol oyles |s |rserled
|rlo lre Lerglr/Type l|e|d.
Tre LLC dala oyles are |rserled |rlo lre 0ala l|e|d. ll lre ruroer ol LLC
dala oyles |s |ess lrar 1, a pad |s added lo or|rg lre 0ala l|e|d |erglr
up lo 1.
Ar FC3 va|ue |s gereraled over lre 0A, 3A, Lerglr/Type, ard 0ala
l|e|ds ard |s apperded lo lre erd ol lre 0ala l|e|d.

Aller lre lrare |s assero|ed, aclua| lrare lrarsr|ss|or W||| deperd or Wrelrer lre
VAC |s operal|rg |r ra|l-dup|ex or lu||-dup|ex rode.
Tre lEEE 802.3 slardard currerl|y requ|res lral a|| Elrerrel VACs supporl ra|l-
dup|ex operal|or, |r Wr|cr lre VAC car oe e|lrer lrarsr|ll|rg or rece|v|rg a lrare,
oul |l carrol oe do|rg oolr s|ru|lareous|y. Fu||-dup|ex operal|or |s ar opl|ora| VAC
capao|||ly lral a||oWs lre VAC lo lrarsr|l ard rece|ve lrares s|ru|lareous|y.

2.2.1.11.9 ha|f-0up|ex Transm|ss|on-The 68HA|60 Access Hethod
Tre C3VA/C0 proloco| Was or|g|ra||y deve|oped as a rears oy Wr|cr lWo or rore
slal|ors cou|d srare a corror red|a |r a sW|lcr-|ess erv|rorrerl Wrer lre
proloco| does rol requ|re cerlra| aro|lral|or, access lo|ers, or ass|gred l|re s|ols lo
|rd|cale Wrer a slal|or W||| oe a||oWed lo lrarsr|l. Eacr Elrerrel VAC delerr|res
lor |lse|l Wrer |l W||| oe a||oWed lo serd a lrare. Tre C3VA/C0 access ru|es are
surrar|zed oy lre proloco|'s acroryr:
6arr|er senseEacr slal|or corl|ruous|y ||slers lor lrall|c or lre
red|ur lo delerr|re Wrer gaps oelWeer lrare lrarsr|ss|ors occur.
Hu|t|p|e access3lal|ors ray oeg|r lrarsr|ll|rg ary l|re lrey delecl
lral lre relWor| |s qu|el (lrere |s ro lrall|c).
6o|||s|on detectll lWo or rore slal|ors |r lre sare C3VA/C0
relWor| (co|||s|or dora|r) oeg|r lrarsr|ll|rg al approx|rale|y lre sare
l|re, lre o|l slrears lror lre lrarsr|ll|rg slal|ors W||| |rlerlere (co|||de)
W|lr eacr olrer, ard oolr lrarsr|ss|ors W||| oe urreadao|e. ll lral
rappers, eacr lrarsr|ll|rg slal|or rusl oe capao|e ol delecl|rg lral a
co|||s|or ras occurred oelore |l ras l|r|sred serd|rg |ls lrare. Eacr
rusl slop lrarsr|ll|rg as soor as |l ras delecled lre co|||s|or ard lrer
rusl Wa|l a quas|rardor |erglr ol l|re (delerr|red oy a oac|-oll
a|gor|lrr) oelore allerpl|rg lo relrarsr|l lre lrare.

Tre Worsl-case s|lual|or occurs Wrer lre lWo rosl-d|slarl slal|ors or lre relWor|
oolr reed lo serd a lrare ard Wrer lre secord slal|or does rol oeg|r lrarsr|ll|rg
url|| jusl oelore lre lrare lror lre l|rsl slal|or arr|ves. Tre co|||s|or W||| oe delecled
a|rosl |rred|ale|y oy lre secord slal|or, oul |l W||| rol oe delecled oy lre l|rsl
slal|or url|| lre corrupled s|gra| ras propagaled a|| lre Way oac| lo lral slal|or. Tre
rax|rur l|re lral |s requ|red lo delecl a co|||s|or (lre co|||s|or W|rdoW, or s|ol
l|re) |s approx|rale|y equa| lo lW|ce lre s|gra| propagal|or l|re oelWeer lre lWo
rosl-d|slarl slal|ors or lre relWor|.

Tr|s rears lral oolr lre r|r|rur lrare |erglr ard lre rax|rur co|||s|or d|areler
are d|recl|y re|aled lo lre s|ol l|re. Lorger r|r|rur lrare |erglrs lrars|ale lo
|orger s|ol l|res ard |arger co|||s|or d|arelers; srorler r|r|rur lrare |erglrs
correspord lo srorler s|ol l|res ard sra||er co|||s|or d|arelers.

Tre lrade-oll Was oelWeer lre reed lo reduce lre |rpacl ol co|||s|or recovery ard
lre reed lor relWor| d|arelers lo oe |arge erougr lo accorrodale reasorao|e
relWor| s|zes. Tre corpror|se Was lo croose a rax|rur relWor| d|areler (aooul
2500 relers) ard lrer lo sel lre r|r|rur lrare |erglr |org erougr lo ersure
delecl|or ol a|| Worsl-case co|||s|ors. Tre corpror|se Wor|ed We|| lor 10 Vops, oul
|l Was a proo|er lor r|grer dala-rale Elrerrel deve|opers. Fasl Elrerrel Was
requ|red lo prov|de oac|Ward corpal|o|||ly W|lr ear||er Elrerrel relWor|s, |rc|ud|rg
lre ex|sl|rg lEEE 802.3 lrare lorral ard error-delecl|or procedures, p|us a||
app||cal|ors ard relWor||rg sollWare rurr|rg or lre 10-Vops relWor|s.

A|lrougr s|gra| propagal|or ve|oc|ly |s esserl|a||y corslarl lor a|| lrarsr|ss|or rales,
lre l|re requ|red lo lrarsr|l a lrare |s |rverse|y re|aled lo lre lrarsr|ss|or rale. Al
100 Vops, a r|r|rur-|erglr lrare car oe lrarsr|lled |r approx|rale|y ore-lerlr ol
lre del|red s|ol l|re, ard ary co|||s|or lral occurred dur|rg lre lrarsr|ss|or Wou|d
rol |||e|y oe delecled oy lre lrarsr|ll|rg slal|ors. Tr|s, |r lurr, rearl lral lre
rax|rur relWor| d|arelers spec|l|ed lor 10-Vops relWor|s cou|d rol oe used lor
100-Vops relWor|s. Tre so|ul|or lor Fasl Elrerrel Was lo reduce lre rax|rur
relWor| d|areler oy approx|rale|y a laclor ol 10 (lo a ||ll|e rore lrar 200 relers).

L|m|ts for ha|f-0up|ex
0perat|on Parameter
10 Vops 100 Vops 1000 Vops
V|r|rur lrare s|ze 1 oyles 1 oyles 520 oyles
Vax|rur co|||s|or
d|areler, 0TE lo 0TE
100
relers
uTP
100 relers
uTP
100 relers
uTP
31 relers l|oer
13
l|oer
Vax|rur co|||s|or
d|areler W|lr repealers
2500
relers
205 relers 200 relers
Vax|rur ruroer ol
repealers |r relWor| palr
5 2 1

2.2.1.11.10 Fu||-0up|ex Transm|ss|on-An 0pt|ona| Approach to h|gher Network
Eff|c|ency
Fu||-dup|ex operal|or |s ar opl|ora| VAC capao|||ly lral a||oWs s|ru|lareous lWo-
Way lrarsr|ss|or over po|rl-lo-po|rl ||r|s. Fu|| dup|ex lrarsr|ss|or |s lurcl|ora||y
rucr s|rp|er lrar ra|l-dup|ex lrarsr|ss|or oecause |l |rvo|ves ro red|a corlerl|or,
ro co|||s|ors, ro reed lo scredu|e relrarsr|ss|ors, ard ro reed lor exlers|or o|ls
or lre erd ol srorl lrares. Tre resu|l |s rol or|y rore l|re ava||ao|e lor
lrarsr|ss|or, oul a|so ar ellecl|ve douo||rg ol lre ||r| oardW|dlr oecause eacr ||r|
car roW supporl lu||-rale, s|ru|lareous, lWo-Way lrarsr|ss|or.

Trarsr|ss|or car usua||y oeg|r as soor as lrares are ready lo serd. Tre or|y
reslr|cl|or |s lral lrere rusl oe a r|r|rur-|erglr |rlerlrare gap oelWeer
success|ve lrares ard eacr lrare rusl corlorr lo Elrerrel lrare lorral
slardards.

Fu|| 0up|ex 0perat|on A||ows 8|mu|taneous Two-way Transm|ss|on on the
8ame L|nk

2.2.1.11.11 F|ow 6ontro|
Fu||-dup|ex operal|or requ|res corcurrerl |rp|ererlal|or ol lre opl|ora| l|oW-corlro|
capao|||ly lral a||oWs a rece|v|rg rode (sucr as a relWor| sW|lcr porl) lral |s
oecor|rg corgesled lo requesl lre serd|rg rode (sucr as a l||e server) lo slop
serd|rg lrares lor a se|ecled srorl per|od ol l|re. Corlro| |s VAC-lo-VAC lrrougr
lre use ol a pause lrare lral |s auloral|ca||y gereraled oy lre rece|v|rg VAC. ll lre
corgesl|or |s re||eved oelore lre requesled Wa|l ras exp|red, a secord pause lrare
W|lr a zero l|re-lo-Wa|l va|ue car oe serl lo requesl resurpl|or ol lrarsr|ss|or.

An 0verv|ew of the |EEE 802.3 F|ow 6ontro| 8equence

Tre lu||-dup|ex operal|or ard |ls corpar|or l|oW corlro| capao|||ly are oolr opl|ors
lor a|| Elrerrel VACs ard a|| lrarsr|ss|or rales. 8olr opl|ors are erao|ed or a ||r|-
oy-||r| oas|s, assur|rg lral lre assoc|aled prys|ca| |ayers are a|so capao|e ol
supporl|rg lu||-dup|ex operal|or. Pause lrares are |derl|l|ed as VAC corlro| lrares
oy ar exc|us|ve ass|gred (reserved) |erglr/lype va|ue. Trey are a|so ass|gred a
reserved desl|ral|or address va|ue lo ersure lral ar |rcor|rg pause lrare |s rever
lorWarded lo upper proloco| |ayers or lo olrer porls |r a sW|lcr.

2.2.1.11.12 Frame Recept|on
Frare recepl|or |s esserl|a||y lre sare lor oolr ra|l-dup|ex ard lu||-dup|ex
operal|ors, excepl lral lu||-dup|ex racs rusl rave separale lrare oullers ard
dala palrs lo a||oW lor s|ru|lareous lrare lrarsr|ss|or ard recepl|or. Frare
recepl|or |s lre reverse ol lrare lrarsr|ss|or. Tre desl|ral|or address ol lre
rece|ved lrare |s crec|ed ard ralcred aga|rsl lre slal|or's address ||sl (|ls rac
address, |ls group addresses, ard lre oroadcasl address) lo delerr|re Wrelrer
lre lrare |s desl|red lor lral slal|or. ll ar address ralcr |s lourd, lre lrare
|erglr |s crec|ed ard lre rece|ved lcs |s corpared lo lre lcs lral Was gereraled
dur|rg lrare recepl|or. ll lre lrare |erglr |s o|ay ard lrere |s ar lcs ralcr, lre
lrare lype |s delerr|red oy lre corlerls ol lre |erglr/lype l|e|d. Tre lrare |s lrer
parsed ard lorWarded lo lre appropr|ale upper |ayer.

2.2.1.11.13 The Ethernet Phys|ca| Layers
8ecause Elrerrel dev|ces |rp|ererl or|y lre oollor lWo |ayers ol lre 03l proloco|
slac|, lrey are lyp|ca||y |rp|ererled as relWor| |rlerlace cards (NlCs) lral p|ug |rlo
lre rosl dev|ce's rolrerooard. Tre d|llererl NlCs are |derl|l|ed oy a lrree-parl
producl rare lral |s oased or lre prys|ca| |ayer allr|oules.
Tre rar|rg corverl|or |s a corcaleral|or ol lrree lerrs |rd|cal|rg lre lrarsr|ss|or
rale, lre lrarsr|ss|or relrod, ard lre red|a lype/s|gra| ercod|rg. For exarp|e,
cors|der lr|s:
108ase-T = 10 Vops, oaseoard, over lWo lW|sled-pa|r cao|es
1008ase-T2 = 100 Vops, oaseoard, over lWo lW|sled-pa|r cao|es
1008ase-T1 = 100 Vops, oaseoard, over lour-lW|sled pa|r cao|es
10008ase-LX = 100 Vops, oaseoard, |org Wave|erglr over opl|ca| l|oer
cao|e

A quesl|or sorel|res ar|ses as lo Wry lre r|dd|e lerr a|Ways seers lo oe 8ase.
Ear|y vers|ors ol lre proloco| a|so a||oWed lor oroadoard lrarsr|ss|or (lor exarp|e,
108road), oul oroadoard |rp|ererlal|ors Were rol successlu| |r lre rar|elp|ace.
A|| currerl Elrerrel |rp|ererlal|ors use oaseoard lrarsr|ss|or.

2.2.1.11.14 Encod|ng for 8|gna| Transm|ss|on
lr oaseoard lrarsr|ss|or, lre lrare |rlorral|or |s d|recl|y |rpressed upor lre ||r|
as a sequerce ol pu|ses or dala syroo|s lral are lyp|ca||y allerualed (reduced |r
s|ze) ard d|slorled (crarged |r srape) oelore lrey reacr lre olrer erd ol lre ||r|.
Tre rece|ver's las| |s lo delecl eacr pu|se as |l arr|ves ard lrer lo exlracl |ls correcl
va|ue oelore lrarslerr|rg lre recorslrucled |rlorral|or lo lre rece|v|rg VAC.
F||lers ard pu|se-srap|rg c|rcu|ls car re|p reslore lre s|ze ard srape ol lre rece|ved
Wavelorrs, oul add|l|ora| reasures rusl oe la|er lo ersure lral lre rece|ved
s|gra|s are sarp|ed al lre correcl l|re |r lre pu|se per|od ard al sare rale as lre
lrarsr|l c|oc|:
Tre rece|ve c|oc| rusl oe recovered lror lre |rcor|rg dala slrear lo
a||oW lre rece|v|rg prys|ca| |ayer lo syrcrror|ze W|lr lre |rcor|rg
pu|ses.
Corpersal|rg reasures rusl oe la|er lor a lrarsr|ss|or ellecl |roWr
as oase||re Warder.

C|oc| recovery requ|res |eve| lrars|l|ors |r lre |rcor|rg s|gra| lo |derl|ly ard
syrcrror|ze or pu|se oourdar|es. Tre a|lerral|rg 1s ard 0s ol lre lrare prearo|e
Were des|gred oolr lo |rd|cale lral a lrare Was arr|v|rg ard lo a|d |r c|oc| recovery.
loWever, recovered c|oc|s car dr|ll ard poss|o|y |ose syrcrror|zal|or |l pu|se |eve|s
rera|r corslarl ard lrere are ro lrars|l|ors lo delecl (lor exarp|e, dur|rg |org
slr|rgs ol 0s).
8ase||re Warder resu|ls oecause Elrerrel ||r|s are AC-coup|ed lo lre lrarsce|vers
ard oecause AC coup||rg |s |rcapao|e ol ra|rla|r|rg vo|lage |eve|s lor rore lrar a
srorl l|re. As a resu|l, lrarsr|lled pu|ses are d|slorled oy a droop ellecl s|r||ar lo
lre exaggeraled. lr |org slr|rgs ol e|lrer 1s or 0s, lre droop car oecore so severe
lral lre vo|lage |eve| passes lrrougr lre dec|s|or lrresro|d, resu|l|rg |r erroreous
sarp|ed va|ues lor lre allecled pu|ses.

2.2.1.11.15 8ummary
a} 10-Hbps Ethernet-10ase-T
108ase-T prov|des Varcresler-ercoded 10-Vops o|l-ser|a| corrur|cal|or over lWo
ursr|e|ded lW|sled-pa|r cao|es. A|lrougr lre slardard Was des|gred lo supporl
lrarsr|ss|or over corror le|eprore cao|e, lre rore lyp|ca| ||r| corl|gural|or |s lo
use lWo pa|r ol a lour-pa|r Calegory 3 or 5 cao|e, lerr|raled al eacr NlC W|lr ar 8-
p|r RJ-15 correclor (lre V0l), 8ecause eacr acl|ve pa|r |s corl|gured as a s|rp|ex
14
||r| Wrere lrarsr|ss|or |s |r ore d|recl|or or|y, lre 108ase-T prys|ca| |ayers car
supporl e|lrer ra|l-dup|ex or lu||-dup|ex operal|or.

The Typ|ca| 10ase-T L|nk |s a Four-Pa|r UTP 6ab|e |n wh|ch Two Pa|rs
Are Not Used

A|lrougr 108ase-T ray oe cors|dered esserl|a||y ooso|ele |r sore c|rc|es, |l |s
|rc|uded rere oecause lrere are sl||| rary 108ase-T Elrerrel relWor|s, ard
oecause lu||-dup|ex operal|or ras g|ver 108aseT ar exlerded ||le. 108ase-T Was
a|so lre l|rsl Elrerrel vers|or lo |rc|ude a ||r| |rlegr|ly lesl lo delerr|re lre rea|lr ol
lre ||r|. lrred|ale|y aller poWerup, lre PVA lrarsr|ls a rorra| ||r| pu|se (NLP) lo
le|| lre NlC al lre olrer erd ol lre ||r| lral lr|s NlC Warls lo eslao||sr ar acl|ve ||r|
correcl|or:
ll lre NlC al lre olrer erd ol lre ||r| |s a|so poWered up, |l respords
W|lr |ls oWr NLP.
ll lre NlC al lre olrer erd ol lre ||r| |s rol poWered up, lr|s NlC
corl|rues serd|rg ar NLP aooul orce every 1 rs url|| |l rece|ves a
resporse.

b} 100 Hbps-Fast Ethernet
lrcreas|rg lre Elrerrel lrarsr|ss|or rale oy a laclor ol ler over 108ase-T Was rol a
s|rp|e las|, ard lre ellorl resu|led |r lre deve|oprerl ol lrree separale prys|ca|
|ayer slardards lor 100 Vops over uTP cao|e: 1008ase-TX ard 1008ase-T1 |r
1995, ard 1008ase-T2 |r 199Z. Eacr Was del|red W|lr d|llererl ercod|rg
requ|rererls ard a d|llererl sel ol red|a-deperderl suo|ayers, ever lrougr lrere |s
sore over|ap |r lre ||r| cao||rg. Tao|e Z-2 corpares lre prys|ca| |ayer
craracler|sl|cs ol 108ase-T lo lre var|ous 1008ase vers|ors.
8ummary
of
100ase-
T
Phys|ca|
Layer
Transm|t
8ymbo|
Rate
1

Encod|ng 6ab||ng Fu||-0up|ex
0perat|on
108ase-T 10 V8d Varcresle
r
TWo pa|rs ol
uTP Calegory
-3 or oeller
3upporled
1008ase-
TX

125 V8d 18/58 TWo pa|rs ol
uTP Calegory
-5 or Type 1
3TP
3upporled
1008ase-
T1
33 V8d 88/T Four pa|rs ol
uTP Calegory
-3 or oeller
Nol
supporled
1008ase- 25 V8d PAV5x5 TWo pa|rs ol 3upporled
T2 -3 or oeller

c} 100A8E-X
1008ase-X Was des|gred lo supporl lrarsr|ss|or over e|lrer lWo pa|rs ol Calegory 5
uTP copper W|re or lWo slrards ol opl|ca| l|ore. A|lrougr lre ercod|rg, decod|rg,
ard c|oc| recovery procedures are lre sare lor oolr red|a, lre s|gra| lrarsr|ss|or
|s d|llererle|eclr|ca| pu|ses |r copper ard ||grl pu|ses |r opl|ca| l|ore.

d} 100ase-t4
1008ase-T1 Was deve|oped lo a||oW 108aseT relWor|s lo oe upgraded lo 100-
Vops operal|or W|lroul requ|r|rg ex|sl|rg lour-pa|r Calegory 3 uTP cao|es lo oe
rep|aced W|lr lre reWer Calegory 5 cao|es. TWo ol lre lour pa|rs are corl|gured lor
ra|l-dup|ex operal|or ard car supporl lrarsr|ss|or |r e|lrer d|recl|or, oul or|y |r
ore d|recl|or al a l|re. Tre olrer lWo pa|rs are corl|gured as s|rp|ex pa|rs
ded|caled lo lrarsr|ss|or |r ore d|recl|or or|y. Frare lrarsr|ss|or uses oolr ra|l-
dup|ex pa|rs, p|us lre s|rp|ex pa|r lral |s appropr|ale lor lre lrarsr|ss|or d|recl|or.
Tre s|rp|ex pa|r lor lre oppos|le d|recl|or prov|des carr|er serse ard co|||s|or
delecl|or. Fu||-dup|ex operal|or carrol oe supporled or 1008ase-T1.

e} 100ase-T2
Tre 1008ase-T2 spec|l|cal|or Was deve|oped as a oeller a|lerral|ve lor upgrad|rg
relWor|s W|lr |rsla||ed Calegory 3 cao||rg lrar Was oe|rg prov|ded oy 1008ase-T1.
TWo |rporlarl reW goa|s Were del|red:
To prov|de corrur|cal|or over lWo pa|rs ol Calegory 3 or oeller cao|e
To supporl oolr ra|l-dup|ex ard lu||-dup|ex operal|or

1008ase-T2 uses a d|llererl s|gra| lrarsr|ss|or procedure lrar ary prev|ous
lW|sled-pa|r Elrerrel |rp|ererlal|ors. lrslead ol us|rg lWo s|rp|ex ||r|s lo lorr
ore lu||-dup|ex ||r|, lre 1008ase-T2 dua|-dup|ex oaseoard lrarsr|ss|or relrod
serds ercoded syroo|s s|ru|lareous|y |r oolr d|recl|ors or oolr W|re pa|rs.

f} 1000 Hbps-C|gab|t Ethernet
Tre 0|gao|l Elrerrel slardards deve|oprerl resu|led |r lWo pr|rary spec|l|cal|ors:
10008ase-T lor uTP copper cao|e ard 10008ase-X 3TP copper cao|e, as We|| as
s|rg|e ard ru|l|rode opl|ca| l|ore.

C|gab|t Ethernet Var|at|ons

g} 1000base-t
10008ase-T Elrerrel prov|des lu||-dup|ex lrarsr|ss|or over lour-pa|r Calegory 5 or
oeller uTP cao|e. 10008ase-T |s oased |arge|y or lre l|rd|rgs ard des|gr
approacres lral |ed lo lre deve|oprerl ol lre Fasl Elrerrel prys|ca| |ayer
|rp|ererlal|ors:
1008ase-TX proved lral o|rary syroo| slrears cou|d oe successlu||y
lrarsr|lled over Calegory 5 uTP cao|e al 125 V8d.
1008ase-T1 prov|ded a oas|c urderslard|rg ol lre proo|ers re|aled lo
serd|rg ru|l||eve| s|gra|s over lour W|re pa|rs.
1008ase-T2 proved lral PAV5 ercod|rg, coup|ed W|lr d|g|la| s|gra|
process|rg, cou|d rard|e oolr s|ru|lareous lWo-Way dala slrears ard
polerl|a| crossla|| proo|ers resu|l|rg lror a||er s|gra|s or adjacerl W|re
pa|rs.
15

10008ase-T scraro|es eacr oyle |r lre VAC lrare lo rardor|ze lre o|l sequerce
oelore |l |s ercoded us|rg a 1-0, 8-3lale Tre|||s ForWard Error Correcl|or (FEC)
cod|rg |r Wr|cr lour PAV5 syroo|s are serl al lre sare l|re over lour W|re pa|rs.
Four ol lre l|ve |eve|s |r eacr PAV5 syroo| represerl 2 o|ls |r lre dala oyle. Tre
l|llr |eve| |s used lor FEC cod|rg, Wr|cr errarces syroo| recovery |r lre preserce
ol ro|se ard crossla||. 3eparale scraro|ers lor lre rasler ard s|ave PlYs creale
esserl|a||y urcorre|aled dala slrears oelWeer lre lWo oppos|le-lrave|||rg syroo|
slrears or eacr W|re pa|r.

h} 1000ase-X
A|| lrree 10008ase-X vers|ors supporl lu||-dup|ex o|rary lrarsr|ss|or al 1250 Vops
over lWo slrards ol opl|ca| l|ore or lWo 3TP copper W|re-pa|rs. Trarsr|ss|or cod|rg
|s oased or lre AN3l F|ore Crarre| 88/108 ercod|rg screre. Eacr 8-o|l dala oyle
|s rapped |rlo a 10-o|l code-group lor o|l-ser|a| lrarsr|ss|or. L||e ear||er Elrerrel
vers|ors, eacr dala lrare |s ercapsu|aled al lre prys|ca| |ayer oelore lrarsr|ss|or,
ard ||r| syrcrror|zal|or |s ra|rla|red oy serd|rg a corl|ruous slrear ol l0LE
code-groups dur|rg |rlerlrare gaps. A|| 10008ase-X prys|ca| |ayers supporl oolr
ra|l-dup|ex ard lu||-dup|ex operal|or.

1000ase-X L|nk 6onf|gurat|on

|} Network 6ab||ng-L|nk 6rossover Requ|rements
L|r| corpal|o|||ly requ|res lral lre lrarsr|llers al eacr erd ol lre ||r| oe correcled
lo lre rece|vers al lre olrer erd ol lre ||r|. loWever, oecause cao|e correclors al
oolr erds ol lre ||r| are |eyed lre sare, lre corduclors rusl cross over al sore
po|rl lo ersure lral lrarsr|ller oulpuls are a|Ways correcled lo rece|ver |rpuls.

urlorlurale|y, Wrer lr|s requ|rererl l|rsl care up |r lre deve|oprerl ol 108ase-T,
lEEE 802.3 crose rol lo ra|e a rard ru|e as lo Wrelrer lre crossover srou|d oe
|rp|ererled |r lre cao|e or Wrelrer |l srou|d oe |rp|ererled |rlerra||y.
6rossover Requ|rement

lrslead, lEEE 802.3 del|red lWo ru|es ard rade lWo recorrerdal|ors:
Trere rusl oe ar odd ruroer ol crossovers |r a||-ru|l|corduclor ||r|s.
ll a PV0 |s equ|pped W|lr ar |rlerra| crossover, |ls V0l rusl oe c|ear|y
|aoe||ed W|lr lre grapr|ca| X syroo|.
lrp|ererlal|or ol ar |rlerra| crossover lurcl|or |s opl|ora|.
wrer a 0TE |s correcled lo a repealer or sW|lcr (0CE) porl, |l |s
recorrerded lral lre crossover oe |rp|ererled W|lr|r lre 0CE porl.

urlorlurale|y, lre de laclo ru|e does rol app|y lo a|| Elrerrel vers|ors lral rave
oeer deve|oped suosequerl lo 108ase-T. As lr|rgs roW slard, lre lo||oW|rg |s lrue:
A|| l|ore-oased syslers use cao|es lral rave lre crossover |rp|ererled
W|lr|r lre cao|e.
A|| 1008ase syslers us|rg lW|sled-pa|r ||r|s use lre sare ru|es ard
recorrerdal|ors as 108ase-T.
10008ase-T NlCs ray |rp|ererl a se|eclao|e |rlerra| crossover opl|or
lral car oe regol|aled ard erao|ed dur|rg aulo regol|al|or. wrer lre
se|eclao|e crossover opl|or |s rol |rp|ererled, 108ase-T ru|es ard
recorrerdal|ors app|y.

j} Token r|ng
To|er R|rg |s arolrer lorr ol relWor| corl|gural|or Wr|cr d|llers lror Elrerrel |r
lral a|| ressages are lrarslerred |r a ur|d|recl|ora| rarrer a|org lre r|rg al a||
l|res. 0ala |s lrarsr|lled |r lo|ers, Wr|cr are passed a|org lre r|rg ard v|eWed oy
eacr dev|ce. wrer a dev|ce sees a ressage addressed lo |l, lral dev|ce cop|es lre
ressage ard lrer rar|s lral ressage as oe|rg read. As lre ressage ra|es |ls
Way a|org lre r|rg, |l everlua||y gels oac| lo lre serder Wro roW roles lral lre
ressage Was rece|ved oy lre |rlerded dev|ce. Tre serder car lrer rerove lre
ressage ard lree lral lo|er lor use oy olrers.

k} Protoco|s
NelWor| proloco|s are slardards lral a||oW corpulers lo corrur|cale. A proloco|
del|res roW corpulers |derl|ly ore arolrer or a relWor|, lre lorr lral lre dala
srou|d la|e |r lrars|l, ard roW lr|s |rlorral|or |s processed orce |l reacres |ls l|ra|
desl|ral|or. Proloco|s a|so del|re procedures lor rard||rg |osl or daraged
lrarsr|ss|ors or pac|els. TCP/lP (lor uNlX, w|rdoWs NT, w|rdoWs 95 ard olrer
p|allorrs), lPX (lor Nove|| Nelware), 0ECrel (lor relWor||rg 0|g|la| Equ|prerl
Corp. corpulers), App|eTa|| (lor Vac|rlosr corpulers), ard Nel8l03/Nel8Eul (lor
LAN Varager ard w|rdoWs NT relWor|s) are lre ra|r lypes ol relWor| proloco|s |r
use loday.

A|lrougr eacr relWor| proloco| |s d|llererl, lrey a|| srare lre sare prys|ca| cao||rg.
Tr|s corror relrod ol access|rg lre prys|ca| relWor| a||oWs ru|l|p|e proloco|s lo
peacelu||y coex|sl over lre relWor| red|a, ard a||oWs lre ou||der ol a relWor| lo use
corror rardWare lor a var|ely ol proloco|s. Tr|s corcepl |s |roWr as proloco|
|rdeperderce, Wr|cr rears lral dev|ces lral are corpal|o|e al lre prys|ca| ard
dala ||r| |ayers a||oW lre user lo rur rary d|llererl proloco|s over lre sare
red|ur.

|} HE0|A
Ar |rporlarl parl ol des|gr|rg ard |rsla|||rg ar Elrerrel |s se|ecl|rg lre appropr|ale
Elrerrel red|ur. Trere are lour rajor lypes ol red|a |r use loday: Tr|c|W|re lor
108A3E5 relWor|s, lr|r coax lor 108A3E2 relWor|s, ursr|e|ded lW|sled pa|r (uTP)
lor 108A3E-T relWor|s ard l|ore opl|c lor 108A3E-FL or F|ore-0pl|c lrler-Repealer
L|r| (F0lRL) relWor|s. Tr|s W|de var|ely ol red|a rel|ecls lre evo|ul|or ol Elrerrel
ard a|so po|rls lo lre lecrro|ogy's l|ex|o|||ly. Tr|c|W|re Was ore ol lre l|rsl cao||rg
syslers used |r Elrerrel oul Was expers|ve ard d|ll|cu|l lo use. Tr|s evo|ved lo lr|r
coax, Wr|cr |s eas|er lo Wor| W|lr ard |ess expers|ve.

Tre rosl popu|ar W|r|rg screres are 108A3E-T ard 1008A3E-TX, Wr|cr use
ursr|e|ded lW|sled pa|r (uTP) cao|e. Tr|s |s s|r||ar lo le|eprore cao|e ard cores |r
a var|ely ol grades, W|lr eacr r|grer grade oller|rg oeller perlorrarce. Leve| 5
cao|e |s lre r|gresl, rosl expers|ve grade, oller|rg supporl lor lrarsr|ss|or rales ol
up lo 100 Vops. Leve| 1 ard |eve| 3 cao|e are |ess expers|ve, oul carrol supporl lre
sare dala lrrougrpul speeds; |eve| 1 cao|e car supporl speeds ol up lo 20 Vops;
|eve| 3 up lo 1 Vops. Tre 1008A3E-T1 slardard a||oWs lor supporl ol 100 Vops
Elrerrel over |eve| 3 cao|e, oul al lre experse ol add|rg arolrer pa|r ol W|res (1 pa|r
|rslead ol lre 2 pa|r used lor 108A3E-T); lor rosl users, lr|s |s ar aW|Ward screre
ard lrerelore 1008A3E-T1 ras seer ||ll|e popu|ar|ly. Leve| 2 ard |eve| 1 cao|es are
rol used |r lre des|gr ol 108A3E-T relWor|s.

n} Access and 6o|||s|ons
Elrerrel uses a proloco| ca||ed C3VAC0. Tr|s slards lor Carr|er 3erse, Vu|l|p|e
Access, Co|||s|or 0elecl. Tre Vu|l|p|e Access parl rears lral every slal|or |s
correcled lo a s|rg|e copper W|re (or a sel ol W|res lral are correcled logelrer lo
lorr a s|rg|e dala palr). Tre Carr|er 3erse parl says lral oelore lrarsr|ll|rg dala,
a slal|or crec|s lre W|re lo see |l ary olrer slal|or |s a|ready serd|rg sorelr|rg. ll
lre LAN appears lo oe |d|e, lrer lre slal|or car oeg|r lo serd dala. Ar Elrerrel
slal|or serds dala al a rale ol 10 regao|ls per secord. Tral o|l a||oWs 100
rarosecords per o|l. L|grl ard e|eclr|c|ly lrave| aooul ore lool |r a rarosecord.
Trerelore, aller lre e|eclr|c s|gra| lor lre l|rsl o|l ras lrave||ed aooul 100 leel doWr
lre W|re, lre slal|or ras oegur lo serd lre secord o|l. loWever, ar Elrerrel cao|e
car rur lor rurdreds ol leel. ll lWo slal|ors are |ocaled, say, 250 leel aparl or lre
sare cao|e, ard oolr oeg|r lrarsr|ll|rg al lre sare l|re, lrer lrey W||| oe |r lre
r|dd|e ol lre lr|rd o|l oelore lre s|gra| lror eacr reacres lre olrer slal|or.

Tr|s exp|a|rs lre reed lor lre Co|||s|or 0elecl parl. TWo slal|ors car oeg|r lo serd
dala al lre sare l|re, ard lre|r s|gra|s W||| co|||de rarosecords |aler. wrer sucr
16
a co|||s|or occurs, lre lWo slal|ors slop lrarsr|ll|rg, oac| oll, ard lry aga|r |aler
aller a rardor|y croser de|ay per|od. wr||e ar Elrerrel car oe ou||l us|rg ore
corror s|gra| W|re, sucr ar arrargererl |s rol l|ex|o|e erougr lo W|re rosl
ou||d|rgs. ur|||e ar ord|rary le|eprore c|rcu|l, Elrerrel W|re carrol oe jusl sp||ced
logelrer, correcl|rg ore copper W|re lo arolrer. Elrerrel requ|res a repealer. A
repealer |s a s|rp|e slal|or lral |s correcled lo lWo W|res. Ary dala lral |l rece|ves
or ore W|re |l repeals o|l-lor-o|l or lre olrer W|re. wrer co|||s|ors occur, |l repeals
lre co|||s|or as We||.

lr corror pracl|ce, repealers are used lo corverl lre Elrerrel s|gra| lror ore lype
ol W|re lo arolrer. lr parl|cu|ar, Wrer lre correcl|or lo lre des|lop uses ord|rary
le|eprore W|re, lre ruo oac| |r lre le|eprore c|osel corla|rs a repealer lor every
prore c|rcu|l. Ary dala cor|rg doWr ary prore ||re |s cop|ed orlo lre ra|r
Elrerrel coax cao|e, ard ary dala lror lre ra|r cao|e |s dup||caled ard lrarsr|lled
doWr every prore ||re. Tre repealers |r lre ruo e|eclr|ca||y |so|ale eacr prore
c|rcu|l, Wr|cr |s recessary |l a 10 regao|l s|gra| |s go|rg lo oe carr|ed 300 leel or
ord|rary W|re.

Every sel ol ru|es |s oesl urderslood oy craracler|z|rg |ls Worsl case. Tre Worsl case
lor Elrerrel slarls Wrer a PC al lre exlrere erd ol ore W|re oeg|rs serd|rg dala.
Tre e|eclr|c s|gra| passes doWr lre W|re lrrougr repealers, ard jusl oelore |l gels lo
lre |asl slal|or al lre olrer erd ol lre LAN, lral slal|or (rear|rg rolr|rg ard lr|r||rg
lral lre LAN |s |d|e) oeg|rs lo lrarsr|l |ls oWr dala. A co|||s|or occurs. Tre secord
slal|or recogr|zes lr|s |rred|ale|y, oul lre l|rsl slal|or W||| rol delecl |l url|| lre
co|||s|or s|gra| relraces lre l|rsl palr a|| lre Way oac| lrrougr lre LAN lo |ls slarl|rg
po|rl.

Ary sysler oased or co|||s|or delecl rusl corlro| lre l|re requ|red lor lre Worsl
rourd lr|p lrrougr lre LAN. As lre lerr Elrerrel |s corror|y del|red, lr|s rourd
lr|p |s ||r|led lo 50 r|crosecords (r||||orlrs ol a secord). Al a s|gra||rg speed ol 10
r||||or o|ls per secord, lr|s |s erougr l|re lo lrarsr|l 500 o|ls. Al 8 o|ls per oyle,
lr|s |s s||grl|y |ess lrar 1 oyles. To ra|e sure lral lre co|||s|or |s recogr|zed,
Elrerrel requ|res lral a slal|or rusl corl|rue lrarsr|ll|rg url|| lre 50 r|crosecord
per|od ras erded. ll lre slal|or ras |ess lrar 1 oyles ol dala lo serd, lrer |l rusl
pad lre dala oy add|rg zeros al lre erd.

lr s|rp|er days, Wrer Elrerrel Was dor|raled oy reavy duly coax cao|e, |l Was
poss|o|e lo lrars|ale lre 50 r||||secord ||r|l ard olrer e|eclr|ca| reslr|cl|ors |rlo ru|es
aooul cao|e |erglr, ruroer ol slal|ors, ard ruroer ol repealers. loWever, oy
add|rg reW red|a (sucr as F|oer 0pl|c cao|e) ard srarler e|eclror|cs, |l oecores
d|ll|cu|l lo slale prys|ca| d|slarce ||r|ls W|lr prec|s|or. loWever lrose ||r|ls Wor| oul,
lrey are u|l|rale|y rel|ecl|ors ol lre corslra|rl or lre Worsl case rourd lr|p.
ll Wou|d oe poss|o|e lo del|re sore olrer Elrerrel-|||e co|||s|or sysler W|lr a 10
r|crosecord or 0 r|crosecord per|od. Crarg|rg lre per|od, lre speed, ard lre
r|r|rur ressage s|ze s|rp|y requ|re a reW slardard ard sore a|lerrale
equ|prerl. AT&arp T, lor exarp|e, orce proroled a sysler ca||ed 3lar|ar lral
lrarsr|lled dala a 1 regao|l per secord over o|der prore W|re. Vary sucr syslers
are poss|o|e, oul lre lerr Elrerrel |s gerera||y reserved lor a sysler lral lrarsr|ls
10 regao|ls per secord W|lr a rourd lr|p de|ay ol 50 r|crosecords.

To exlerd lre LAN larlrer lrar lre 50 r|crosecord ||r|l W||| perr|l, ore reeds a
or|dge or rouler. Trese lerrs are oller corlused:
A repealer rece|ves ard lrer |rred|ale|y relrarsr|ls eacr o|l. ll ras ro
rerory ard does rol deperd or ary parl|cu|ar proloco|. ll dup||cales
everylr|rg, |rc|ud|rg lre co|||s|ors.
A or|dge rece|ves lre erl|re ressage |rlo rerory. ll lre ressage Was
daraged oy a co|||s|or or ro|se, lrer |l |s d|scarded. ll lre or|dge |roWs
lral lre ressage Was oe|rg serl oelWeer lWo slal|ors or lre sare
cao|e, lrer |l d|scards |l. 0lrerW|se, lre ressage |s queued up ard W|||
oe relrarsr|lled or arolrer Elrerrel cao|e. Tre or|dge ras ro address.
lls acl|ors are lrarsparerl lo lre c||erl ard server Wor|slal|ors.
A rouler acls as ar agerl lo rece|ve ard lorWard ressages. Tre rouler
ras ar address ard |s |roWr lo lre c||erl or server racr|res. Typ|ca||y,
racr|res d|recl|y serd ressages lo eacr olrer Wrer lrey are or lre
sare cao|e, ard lrey serd lre rouler ressages addressed lo arolrer
zore, deparlrerl, or suorelWor|. Roul|rg |s a lurcl|or spec|l|c lo eacr
proloco|. For lPX, lre Nove|| server car acl as a rouler. For 3NA, ar
APPN NelWor| Node does lre roul|rg. TCP/lP car oe rouled oy
ded|caled dev|ces, uNlX Wor|slal|ors, or 03/2 servers.

m} Transce|vers
Trarsce|vers are used lo correcl rodes lo lre var|ous Elrerrel red|a. Vosl
corpulers ard relWor| |rlerlace cards corla|r a ou||l-|r 108A3E-T or 108A3E2
lrarsce|ver, a||oW|rg lrer lo oe correcled d|recl|y lo Elrerrel W|lroul requ|r|rg ar
exlerra| lrarsce|ver. Vary Elrerrel dev|ces prov|de ar Aul correclor lo a||oW lre
user lo correcl lo ary red|a lype v|a ar exlerra| lrarsce|ver. Tre Aul correclor
cors|sls ol a 15-p|r 0-sre|| lype correclor, lera|e or lre corpuler s|de, ra|e or
lre lrarsce|ver s|de. Tr|c|W|re (108A3E5) cao|es a|so use lrarsce|vers lo a||oW
correcl|ors. For Fasl Elrerrel relWor|s, a reW |rlerlace ca||ed lre Vll (Ved|a
lrdeperderl lrlerlace) Was deve|oped lo oller a l|ex|o|e Way lo supporl 100 Vops
correcl|ors. Tre Vll |s a popu|ar Way lo correcl 1008A3E-FX ||r|s lo copper-
oased Fasl Elrerrel dev|ces.

p} Ethernet sw|tches
Elrerrel sW|lcres are ar expars|or ol lre corcepl |r Elrerrel or|dg|rg. LAN
sW|lcres car ||r| lour, s|x, ler or rore relWor|s logelrer, ard rave lWo oas|c
arcr|leclures: cul-lrrougr ard slore-ard-lorWard. lr lre pasl, cul-lrrougr sW|lcres
Were lasler oecause lrey exar|red lre pac|el desl|ral|or address or|y oelore
lorWard|rg |l or lo |ls desl|ral|or segrerl. A slore-ard-lorWard sW|lcr, or lre olrer
rard, accepls ard ara|yzes lre erl|re pac|el oelore lorWard|rg |l lo |ls desl|ral|or. ll
la|es rore l|re lo exar|re lre erl|re pac|el, oul |l a||oWs lre sW|lcr lo calcr cerla|r
pac|el errors ard |eep lrer lror propagal|rg lrrougr lre relWor|. Today, lre
speed ol slore-ard-lorWard sW|lcres ras caugrl up W|lr cul-lrrougr sW|lcres so lre
d|llererce oelWeer lre lWo |s r|r|ra|.

q} when Ethernets become too s|ow
As rore users are added lo a srared relWor| or as app||cal|ors requ|r|rg rore dala
are added, perlorrarce deler|orales. Tr|s |s oecause a|| users or a srared relWor|
are corpel|lors lor lre Elrerrel ous. 0r a roderale|y |oaded 10Vops Elrerrel
relWor| oe|rg srared oy 30-50 users, lral relWor| W||| or|y susla|r lrrougrpul |r lre
re|groorrood ol 2.5Vops aller accourl|rg lor pac|el overread, |rlerpac|el gaps
ard co|||s|ors. lrcreas|rg lre ruroer ol users (ard lrerelore pac|el lrarsr|ss|ors)
creales a r|grer co|||s|or polerl|a|. Co|||s|ors occur Wrer lWo or rore rodes allerpl
lo serd |rlorral|or al lre sare l|re - Wrer lrey rea||ze lral a co|||s|or ras
occurred, eacr rode sruls oll lor a rardor l|re oelore allerpl|rg arolrer
lrarsr|ss|or. w|lr srared Elrerrel, lre |||e||rood ol co|||s|or |rcreases as rore
rodes are added lo lre srared co|||s|or dora|r ol lre srared Elrerrel. 0re ol lre
sleps lo a||ev|ale lr|s proo|er |s lo segrerl lrall|c W|lr a or|dge or sW|lcr.

A sW|lcr car rep|ace a ruo ard |rprove relWor| perlorrarce. For exarp|e, ar
e|grl-porl sW|lcr car supporl e|grl Elrerrels, eacr rurr|rg al a lu|| 10 Vops.
Arolrer opl|or |s lo ded|cale ore or rore ol lrese sW|lcred porls lo a r|gr lrall|c
dev|ce sucr as a l||e server. Vu|l|red|a ard v|deo app||cal|ors derard as rucr as
1.5 Vops ol corl|ruous oardW|dlr - as We rave seer aoove, a s|rg|e sucr user car
rare|y oola|r lr|s oardW|dlr |l lrey srare ar average 10Vops relWor| W|lr 30-50
peop|e. Tre v|deo W||| a|so |oo| d|sjo|rled or c|ur|y |l lre dala rale |s rol susla|red.
0realer lrrougrpul |s requ|red, lrerelore, lo supporl lr|s app||cal|or. wrer added lo
17
lre relWor|, Elrerrel sW|lcres prov|de a ruroer ol errarcererls over srared
relWor|s. Forerosl |s lre ao|||ly lo d|v|de relWor|s |rlo sra||er ard lasler segrerls.
Elrerrel sW|lcres exar|re eacr pac|el, delerr|re Wrere lral pac|el |s desl|red
ard lrer lorWard lral pac|el lo or|y lrose porls lo Wr|cr lre pac|el reeds lo go.
Voderr sW|lcres are ao|e lo do a|| lrese las|s al W|respeed, lral |s, W|lroul de|ay.

As|de lror dec|d|rg Wrer lo lorWard or Wrer lo l||ler lre pac|el, Elrerrel sW|lcres
a|so corp|ele|y regererale lre Elrerrel pac|el. Tr|s regereral|or ard re-l|r|rg
a||oWs eacr porl or a sW|lcr lo oe lrealed as a corp|ele Elrerrel segrerl, capao|e
ol supporl|rg lre lu|| |erglr ol cao|e a|org W|lr a|| ol lre repealer reslr|cl|ors.
Add|l|ora||y, oad pac|els are |derl|l|ed oy Elrerrel sW|lcres ard |rred|ale|y
dropped lror ary lulure lrarsr|ss|or. Tr|s c|ears|rg acl|v|ly |eeps proo|ers
|so|aled lo a s|rg|e segrerl ard |eeps lrer lror d|srupl|rg olrer relWor| acl|v|ly.
Tr|s aspecl ol sW|lcr|rg |s exlrere|y |rporlarl |r a relWor| erv|rorrerl Wrere
rardWare la||ures are lo oe arl|c|paled. Fu|| dup|ex douo|es lre oardW|dlr or a ||r|,
prov|d|rg 20Vops lor Elrerrel ard 200Vops lor Fasl Elrerrel, ard |s arolrer
relrod used lo |rcrease oardW|dlr lo ded|caled Wor|slal|ors or servers.

To use lu|| dup|ex, spec|a| relWor| |rlerlace cards are |rsla||ed |r lre server or
Wor|slal|or, ard lre sW|lcr |s prograrred lo supporl lu|| dup|ex operal|or.
lrp|ererl|rg Fasl Elrerrel lo |rcrease perlorrarce |s lre rexl |og|ca| slep. l|grer
lrall|c dev|ces car oe correcled lo sW|lcres or eacr olrer v|a 100 Vops Fasl
Elrerrel, a greal |rcrease ol oardW|dlr. Vary sW|lcres are des|gred W|lr lr|s |r
r|rd, ard rave Fasl Elrerrel up||r|s ava||ao|e lor correcl|or lo a l||e server or
olrer sW|lcres. Everlua||y, Fasl Elrerrel car oe dep|oyed lo lre users' des|lops oy
equ|pp|rg a|| corpulers W|lr Fasl Elrerrel relWor| |rlerlace cards ard us|rg Fasl
Elrerrel sW|lcres ard repealers.
w|lr ar urderslard|rg ol lre urder|y|rg lecrro|og|es ard producls |r use |r
Elrerrel relWor|s, We car roW progress lo a d|scuss|or ol sore ol lre rosl
popu|ar rea| Wor|d app||cal|ors.

2.2.2 8ervers and c||ents
2.2.2.1 Types of 8ervers
1. 0ev|ce 8ervers
A dev|ce server |s del|red as a spec|a||zed, relWor|-oased rardWare dev|ce
des|gred lo perlorr a s|rg|e or spec|a||zed sel ol server lurcl|ors. ll |s craracler|zed
oy a r|r|ra| operal|rg arcr|leclure lral requ|res ro per seal relWor| operal|rg
sysler ||cerse, ard c||erl access lral |s |rdeperderl ol ary operal|rg sysler or
propr|elary proloco|. lr add|l|or lre dev|ce server |s a c|osed oox, de||ver|rg
exlrere ease ol |rsla||al|or, r|r|ra| ra|rlerarce, ard car oe raraged oy lre
c||erl rerole|y v|a a weo oroWser.

Pr|rl servers, lerr|ra| servers, rerole access servers ard relWor| l|re servers are
exarp|es ol dev|ce servers, Wr|cr are spec|a||zed lor parl|cu|ar lurcl|ors. Eacr ol
lrese lypes ol servers rave ur|que corl|gural|or allr|oules |r rardWare or sollWare
lral re|p lrer lo perlorr oesl |r lre|r parl|cu|ar arera.

a) Pr|nt 8ervers
Pr|rl servers a||oW pr|rlers lo oe srared oy olrer users or lre relWor|.
3upporl|rg e|lrer para||e| ard/or ser|a| |rlerlaces, a pr|rl server accepls
pr|rl joos lror ary persor or lre relWor| us|rg supporled proloco|s ard
rarages lrose joos or eacr appropr|ale pr|rler.

Tre ear||esl pr|rl servers Were exlerra| dev|ces, Wr|cr supporled
pr|rl|rg v|a para||e| or ser|a| porls or lre dev|ce. Typ|ca||y, or|y ore or
lWo proloco|s Were supporled. Tre |alesl gereral|or ol pr|rl servers
supporl ru|l|p|e proloco|s, rave ru|l|p|e para||e| ard ser|a| correcl|or
opl|ors ard, |r sore cases, are sra|| erougr lo l|l d|recl|y or lre
para||e| porl ol lre pr|rler |lse|l. 3ore pr|rlers rave eroedded or
|rlerra| pr|rl servers. Tr|s des|gr ras ar |rlegra| corrur|cal|or oerel|l
oelWeer pr|rler ard pr|rl server, oul |ac|s l|ex|o|||ly |l lre pr|rler ras
prys|ca| proo|ers.

Pr|rl servers gerera||y do rol corla|r a |arge arourl ol rerory;
pr|rlers s|rp|y slore |rlorral|or |r a queue. wrer lre des|red pr|rler
oecores ava||ao|e, lrey a||oW lre rosl lo lrarsr|l lre dala lo lre
appropr|ale pr|rler porl or lre server. Tre pr|rl server car lrer s|rp|y
queue ard pr|rl eacr joo |r lre order |r Wr|cr pr|rl requesls are
rece|ved, regard|ess ol proloco| used or lre s|ze ol lre joo.

b} Hu|t|port 0ev|ce 8ervers
Tre arceslor ol loday's ru|l|porl dev|ce server Was a Terr|ra| 3erver,
used lo erao|e lerr|ra|s lo lrarsr|l dala lo ard lror rosl corpulers
across LANs, W|lroul requ|r|rg eacr lerr|ra| lo rave |ls oWr d|recl
correcl|or. Ard Wr||e lre lerr|ra| server's ex|slerce |s sl||| jusl|l|ed oy
corver|erce ard cosl cors|deral|ors, |ls |rrererl |rle|||gerce prov|des
rary rore advarlages. Arorg lrese |s errarced rerole ror|lor|rg
ard corlro|. Vu|l|porl 0ev|ce 3ervers lral supporl proloco|s |||e 3NVP
ra|e relWor|s eas|er lo rarage.

0ev|ces lral are allacred lo a relWor| lrrougr a ru|l|porl dev|ce server
car oe srared oelWeer lerr|ra|s ard rosls al oolr lre |oca| s|le ard
lrrougroul lre relWor|. A s|rg|e lerr|ra| ray oe correcled lo severa|
rosls al lre sare l|re (|r ru|l|p|e corcurrerl sess|ors), ard car sW|lcr
oelWeer lrer. Vu|l|porl dev|ce servers are a|so used lo relWor|
dev|ces lral rave or|y ser|a| oulpuls. A correcl|or oelWeer ser|a| porls
or d|llererl servers |s opered, a||oW|rg dala lo rove oelWeer lre lWo
dev|ces.

2. Access 8ervers
wr||e Elrerrel |s ||r|led lo a geograpr|c area, rerole users sucr as
lrave||rg sa|es peop|e reed access lo relWor|-oased resources.
Rerole LAN access, or rerole access, |s a popu|ar Way lo prov|de lr|s
correcl|v|ly. Access servers use le|eprore serv|ces lo ||r| a user or
oll|ce W|lr ar oll|ce relWor|. 0|a|-up rerole access so|ul|ors sucr as
l30N or asyrcrrorous d|a| |rlroduce rore l|ex|o|||ly. 0|a|-up rerole
access ollers oolr lre rerole oll|ce ard lre rerole user lre ecorory
ard l|ex|o|||ly ol pay as you go le|eprore serv|ces.

l30N |s a spec|a| le|eprore serv|ce lral ollers lrree crarre|s, lWo 1
Kops 8 crarre|s lor user dala ard a 0 crarre| lor sell|rg up lre
correcl|or. w|lr l30N, lre 8 crarre|s car oe coro|red lor douo|e
oardW|dlr or separaled lor d|llererl app||cal|ors or users. w|lr
asyrcrrorous rerole access, regu|ar le|eprore ||res are coro|red W|lr
roders ard rerole access servers lo a||oW users ard relWor|s lo d|a|
aryWrere |r lre Wor|d ard rave dala access. Rerole access servers
prov|de correcl|or po|rls lor oolr d|a|-|r ard d|a|-oul app||cal|ors or
lre relWor| lo Wr|cr lrey are allacred.

Trese ryor|d dev|ces roule ard l||ler proloco|s ard oller olrer serv|ces
sucr as roder poo||rg ard lerr|ra|/pr|rler serv|ces. For lre rerole
PC user, ore car correcl lror ary ava||ao|e le|eprore jac| (RJ15),
|rc|ud|rg lrose |r a role| roors or or rosl a|rp|ares.

3. Announcement 8ervers
Arrourcererls servers are perlecl lor ore-Way corrur|cal|or sucr as
era|| reWs|ellers, ez|res ard era|| rar|el|rg carpa|grs. w|lr ar
arrourcererl ||sl servers, or|y ||slserve adr|r|slralors are a||oWed lo
posl era|| ressages lral are lrer d|slr|ouled lo a|| ||slserve reroers.
Vessages lral are rol serl oy a ||slserve adr|r|slralor are rol
d|slr|ouled.

4. 0|scuss|on and Hoderated 8ervers
0|scuss|or ||sl servers are perlecl lor or||re corrur|l|es, la|| ||sls ard
lop|ca| lorurs. w|lr a d|scuss|or ||sl servers, ary reroer ol lre
18
||slserve ray posl ressages lral are d|slr|ouled lo a|| ||slserve
reroers. w|lr a roderaled ||sl servers, ressages rusl oe approved
oy lre ||sleserve adr|r|slralor (roderalor) oelore lrey are d|slr|ouled lo
olrer ||slserve reroers. w|lr a d|scuss|or ||sl server, ||slserve reroers
ray croose Wrelrer lo rece|ve era|| ressages as lrey are posled or
lo rece|ve a da||y d|gesl Wr|cr corp||es a|| ressages posled lre
prev|ous day |rlo ore era|| ressage.

5. App||cat|on 8ervers
Ar app||cal|or server ||r|s dalaoase server W|lr lre c||erl prograr
(rurr|rg |r a weo oroWser). Tr|s rears |rlorral|or relr|eved lror a
dalaoase |s lrarslerred lo lre erd-user W|lr lre re|p ol ar app||cal|or
server. Fo||oW|rg are lre Ways |r Wr|cr app||cal|or servers de||ver
|rlorral|or l|oW perlorrarce:
- Reduced s|ze ard corp|ex|ly ol lre c||erl prograr
- 0ala l|oW cacred ard ellecl|ve|y corlro||ed
- 3ecur|ly de||vered lo oolr dala ard lre user lrall|c

. web 8erver Types
lrlerrel servers perlorr a var|ely ol las|s lral dr|ve or||re operal|ors lor
ous|resses ard |rd|v|dua| users. lere are 13 |ead|rg servers calegor|es
or|el|y d|scussed:

|. web 8ervers
weo severs accepl user requesls (v|a oroWsers) lor |rlorral|or ard
lrarsler oac| lelcred docurerl |r lre lorr ol lyper Texl Var|up
Larguage (lTTP). 0lrer lrar slardard lTVL pages, weo servers a|so
de||ver dyrar|c corlerl us|rg poWerlu| server-s|de lecrro|og|es sucr as
C0l scr|pls, 33L secur|ly, ard Acl|ve 3erver Pages (A3Ps).

||. Hu|t|med|a 8ervers
Aud|o ard v|deo servers de||ver ru|l|red|a capao|||l|es lo weo users |r
lre lorr ol slreared aud|o ard v|deo corlerl. Tre slrear|rg
lecrro|ogy |s a recerl deve|oprerl lral ras rade A/v servers a
recess|ly.

|||. Haster 0N8 (0oma|n Name 8ystem} 8ervers
0N3 3ervers erao|e users lo lype |r Words lor weo addresses |rslead
ol rurer|ca| slr|rgs. PoWerlu| 0N3 servers are oWred oy lrlerNlC ard
rajor le|ecorrur|cal|ors carr|ers lral prov|de a ruge dalaoase ol
dora|r rares ard lP (lrlerrel Proloco|) addresses.

|v. Croupware 8ervers
Tre 0roupWare sollWare co||aoorales users Wor|dW|de over lre lrlerrel,
|rlrarel ard exlrarel. Tre servers used lor groupWare aulrerl|cale
users or||re ard prov|de ar erv|rorrerl lo co||aoorale lrer v|rlua||y lo
deve|op/d|scuss projecls, lrarsler/srare l||es, syrcrror|ze ca|erdars,
scredu|e reel|rgs, ard arrarge or||re crals us|rg reWsgroups.

v. L|st 8ervers
A lyp|ca| slarda|ore ||sl server creales, rarages ard serves ra|||rg
||sls. A|lrougr |rlegraled so|ul|ors perlorr lre sare lurcl|ors, oul W|lr
|ess perlorrarce ard lurcl|ora||ly lrer lre|r slarda|ore courlerparls.
lrporlarl app||cal|ors lor ra|||rg ||sls ard ||sl severs |rc|ude d|slr|oul|or
ard de||very ol e-z|res, reWs|ellers, producl updales, orocrures,
d|scuss|or lorurs, elc.

v|. 6hat 8ervers
Tre lrree rolao|e corrur|cal|or server lypes are lrlerrel Re|ay Cral
(lRC), corlererc|rg, ard corrur|ly servers lral prov|de rea|-l|re
|rlorral|or lo a |arge ruroer ol |ls parl|c|parl users. Tre groW|rg lrerd
lor va|ue-added app||cal|ors |rc|ude le|ecorlererc|rg, pr|vale reel|rg
areas, supporl lorurs, elc. Today's poWerlu| so|ul|ors ava||ao|e a|so
exlerd dyrar|c vo|ce ard v|deo supporl.

v||. News 8ervers
Tre reWs server |s a source ol d|slr|oul|or ard de||very lor a |arge s|ze
ol puo||c reWs groups (lral are currerl|y access|o|e over lre u3ENET
reWs relWor|). ul|||z|rg lre NelWor| NeWs Trarsporl Proloco| (NNTP),
lre servers |rlerlace W|lr olrer u3ENET reWs servers, de||ver|rg reWs
lo ary rec|p|erl us|rg a slardard NNTP reWsreader (Agerl or 0ul|oo|
Express). weos|le ro|ders |rleresled |r serv|rg lre|r oWr reWs ard
d|scuss|or groups (v|a a |oca| relWor| or lre lrlerrel) car do so oy
erp|oy|rg reWs servers.

v|||. Fax 8ervers
0ue lo lre aulrerl|c|ly ol lax as ar oll|c|a| docurerl, lax servers are
popu|ar arorg ous|resses. Faxes |r lre lorr ol |rlorral|or excrarge
ard order corl|rral|or are |arge|y used |r lre corporale erv|rorrerl.

|x. FTP 8ervers
Tre F||e Trarsler Proloco| (FTP) |s erp|oyed lo rove ore or rary l||es
across lre lrlerrel, prov|d|rg appropr|ale secur|ly ard dala |rlegr|ly
corlro|s. Tre FTP server ersures l||e secur|ly, orgar|zal|or ard lrarsler
corlro|. Tre c||erl lral ray oe a ou||l-|r oroWser lealure or a spec|a||zed
prograr rece|ves l||es ard lrarslers lrer lo lre |oca| rard d|s|.

x. Ha|| 8ervers
A ra|| server acls as a cr|l|ca| sollWare s|rce |l roves ard slores era||,
lre rosl |rporlarl lealure ol lre lrlerrel. 3pec|a||zed ra|| servers lral
rarage ou|| ra||s (a|so ca||ed ||sl servers) are corror|y used |r lre
corporale Wor|d.

x|. Proxy 8ervers
Proxy servers acl as |rlerred|ary oelWeer users ard lre lrlerrel. Trey
lyp|ca||y cover lrree lo||oW|rg lealures:
- F|re Wa|||rg ard l||ler|rg (lo supporl secur|ly).
- Correcl|or srar|rg (lor cosl-ellecl|ve lrlerrel access).
- Cacr|rg ol weo Pages

x||. Te|net 8erver
w|lr Te|rel servers, users car |og or lo a rosl corpuler lo perlorr
las|s Wor||rg or lre rerole corpuler. users lror aryWrere |r lre
Wor|d car correcl lre rosl us|rg a le|rel c||erl.

0|scuss these servers
F||e ard Pr|rl 3erver
V|crosoll lrlerrel lrlorral|or 3erver
V|crosoll 30L 3erver
E-ra||
lrlerrel 3erver
8ac| up 3erver

19
6hapter 3 Network |nfrastructure
3.1 Hodes 0f 6ommun|cat|ons 0f 6omputer Equ|pment
Trere are three lecrr|ques lor |nterconnect|on ol corpuler equ|prerl
6entra||sed : Tr|s |s corrur|cal|or W|lr|r a sysler, ard |r lr|s case
lre sysler |s a se|l corla|red erl|ly capao|e ol aulororous operal|or.
Tre ur|ls ol corrur|cal|or |r sucr cases are Address ard 0ala 8|oc|s
ard Wor|s or Vasler 3|ave Re|al|orsr|p. A slard a|ore ra|rlrare |s a
pr|re exarp|e ol sucr a sysler.
0ecentra||sed : Tr|s |s corrur|cal|or oelWeer syslers. Tre ur|ls ol
corrur|cal|or |r lr|s case are 8yle ard 0ala 8|oc|s ard Wor|s or
Vasler 3|ave Re|al|orsr|p. A ra|rlrare corpuler W|lr Corcerlralor(s)
allacred lo |l la||s |r lr|s calegory.
0|str|buted : Tr|s |s relWor| corrur|cal|or arorg se|l corla|red
aulororous |rle|||gerl syslers. 3ucr a sysler Wor|s or a re|al|orsr|p
ol Co-operal|or ard rol Vasler-3|ave. A c|usler ol 3urs correcled lo a
c|usler ol vAXes |s a good exarp|e ol sucr a sysler.

LANs la|| |r lre calegory ol 0|slr|ouled 3yslers ard rave lre lo||oW|rg
craracler|sl|cs:
Hu|t|p||c|ty of Resources : Eacr sysler ras |ls oWr Prys|ca|
Resources, |||e processors, ard var|ous dev|ces lrus erao||rg |l lo
parl|c|pale |r lre d|slr|oul|or ol process|rg arorg var|ous syslers.
Phys|ca| 0|str|but|on : Tre prys|ca| d|slr|oul|or ol lre Prys|ca| ard
Log|ca| corporerls |s recessary |r a d|slr|ouled sysler. Trese
corporerls rusl oe correcled oolr al lre prys|ca| ard |og|ca| |eve|
ard |rlercorrur|cal|or oelWeer lrer |s acr|eved oy lrarsler ol
ressages or a cooperal|ve TWo-Way corrur|cal|ors (N0T Vasler-
3|ave) oas|s. Proloco|s are used lo corlro| lre lrarsler ol |rlorral|or
arorg lre var|ous corporerls.
h|gh Leve| 0perat|ng 8ystems : Eacr parl|c|pal|rg sysler ray rave
|ls oWr 0peral|rg 3ysler Wr|cr ur|l|es ard |rlegrales a|| lre d|slr|ouled
corporerls pal|c|pal|rg |r lral sysler.
8ystem Transparency : A good d|slr|ouled sysler, |l proper|y
|rp|ererled, rusl |oo| lrarsparerl lo lre user. lr olrer Words, lre
Wro|e sysler srou|d appear lo r|r as ore |arge ded|caled |oca| sysler
ard a|| lre rerole resources srou|d appear as |l lrey Were |oca| lo r|r.
l|s |rlerlace lo sucr a sysler srou|d oe very s|rp|e ard user lr|erd|y.
6o-operat|ve, Autonomous and Hutua||y 8usp|c|ous : A||
corporerls ard resources are ur|l|ed oy ar 0peral|rg 3ysler, ard are
capao|e ol la||rg |ndependent act|ons. ll rears ary resource car
refuse to serv|ce a requesl lror ary olrer corporerl.

Advantages of |nsta|||ng a Network
8peed. NelWor|s prov|de a very rap|d relrod lor srar|rg
ard lrarslerr|rg l||es. w|lroul a relWor|, copy|rg lrer lo
l|oppy d|s|s, lrer carry|rg or serd|rg lre d|s|s lror ore
corpuler lo arolrer srares l||es. Tr|s relrod ol
lrarslerr|rg l||es (relerred lo as srea|er-rel) |s very l|re-
corsur|rg.
6ost. NelWor|ao|e vers|ors ol rary popu|ar sollWare
progrars are ava||ao|e al cors|derao|e sav|rgs Wrer
corpared lo ouy|rg |rd|v|dua||y ||cersed cop|es. 8es|des
rorelary sav|rgs, srar|rg a prograr or a relWor| a||oWs
lor eas|er upgrad|rg ol lre prograr. Tre crarges rave lo
oe dore or|y orce, or lre l||e server, |rslead ol or a|| lre
|rd|v|dua| Wor|slal|ors.
8ecur|ty. F||es ard progrars or a relWor| car oe
des|graled as copy |rr|o|l, so lral you do rol rave lo
Worry aooul |||ega| copy|rg ol progrars. A|so, passWords
car oe eslao||sred lor spec|l|c d|reclor|es lo reslr|cl access
lo aulror|zed users.
6entra||zed 8oftware Hanagement. 0re ol lre grealesl
oerel|ls ol |rsla|||rg a relWor| al a scroo| |s lre lacl lral a||
ol lre sollWare car oe |oaded or ore corpuler (lre l||e
server). Tr|s e||r|rales lral reed lo sperd l|re ard erergy
|rsla|||rg updales ard lrac||rg l||es or |rdeperderl
corpulers lrrougroul lre ou||d|rg.
Resource 8har|ng. 3rar|rg resources |s arolrer area |r
Wr|cr a relWor| exceeds slard-a|ore corpulers. 3ore
orgar|sal|ors carrol allord erougr |aser pr|rlers, lax
racr|res, roders, scarrers, ard C0-R0V p|ayers lor
eacr corpuler. loWever, |l lrese or s|r||ar per|prera|s are
added lo a relWor|, lrey car oe srared oy rary users.
E|ectron|c Ha||. Tre preserce ol a relWor| prov|des lre
rardWare recessary lo |rsla|| ar e-ra|| sysler. E-ra|| a|ds
|r persora| ard proless|ora| corrur|cal|or lor a|| scroo|
persorre|, ard |l lac|||lales lre d|sser|ral|or ol gerera|
|rlorral|or lo lre erl|re scroo| slall. E|eclror|c ra|| or a
LAN car erao|e sluderls lo corrur|cale W|lr leacrers
ard peers al lre|r oWr scroo|. ll lre LAN |s correcled lo
lre lrlerrel, sluderls car corrur|cale W|lr olrers
lrrougroul lre Wor|d.
F|ex|b|e Access. NelWor|s a||oW dala & |rlorral|or access
lror ary corpuler |r lre carpus.
workgroup 6omput|ng. wor|group sollWare (sucr as
V|crosoll 8ac|0ll|ce) a||oWs rary users lo Wor| or a
docurerl or projecl corcurrerl|y. For exarp|e, educalors
|ocaled al var|ous scroo|s W|lr|r a courly cou|d
s|ru|lareous|y corlr|oule lre|r |deas aooul reW curr|cu|ur
slardards lo lre sare docurerl ard spreadsreels.

0|sadvantages of |nsta|||ng a Network
Expens|ve to |nsta||. A|lrougr a relWor| W||| gerera||y
save rorey over l|re, lre |r|l|a| cosls ol |rsla||al|or car oe
pror|o|l|ve. Cao|es, relWor| cards, ard sollWare are
expers|ve, ard lre |rsla||al|or ray requ|re lre serv|ces ol a
lecrr|c|ar.
Requ|res Adm|n|strat|ve T|me. Proper ra|rlerarce ol a
relWor| requ|res cors|derao|e l|re ard experl|se. Vary
orgar|sal|ors rave |rsla||ed a relWor|, or|y lo l|rd lral lrey
d|d rol oudgel lor lre recessary adr|r|slral|ve supporl.
F||e 8erver Hay Fa||. A|lrougr a l||e server |s ro rore
suscepl|o|e lo la||ure lrar ary olrer corpuler, Wrer lre
l||es server goes doWr, lre erl|re relWor| ray core lo a
ra|l. wrer lr|s rappers, lre erl|re scroo| ray |ose access
lo recessary progrars ard l||es.
6ab|es Hay reak. Tre Topo|ogy crapler preserls |rlorral|or aooul
lre var|ous corl|gural|ors ol cao|es. 3ore ol lre corl|gural|ors are
des|gred lo r|r|r|ze lre |rcorver|erce ol a oro|er cao|e; W|lr olrer
corl|gural|ors, ore oro|er cao|e car slop lre erl|re relWor|.

6ompar|ng Peer to Peer vs. 6||ent-8erver
C||erl - a Wor|slal|or used lo requesl serv|ces lror a ded|caled server
or arolrer c||erl
20
3erver- prov|des serv|ces lo requeslor a ded|caled server |s
recorrerded lor 10 c||erls or rore corpulers
Peer lo Peer- NelWor|ed Corpulers lral oolr requesls ard prov|des
relWor| serv|ces
Network Requ|rements
A relWor| |s ary co||ecl|or ol |rdeperderl corpulers lral corrur|cale W|lr ore
arolrer over a srared relWor| red|ur
Corpulers, wor|slal|ors, Per|prera|s, sucr as pr|rlers ard l|xed d|s|s, Cao||rg ard
assoc|aled corporerls, 3ollWare
3.1.1 Types of Networks

3. 1.1.1 what |s a LAN?
A LAN |s a r|gr-speed dala relWor| lral covers a re|al|ve|y sra|| geograpr|c area. ll
lyp|ca||y correcls Wor|slal|ors, persora| corpulers, pr|rlers, servers, ard olrer
dev|ces. LANs oller corpuler users rary advarlages, |rc|ud|rg srared access lo
dev|ces ard app||cal|ors, l||e excrarge oelWeer correcled users, ard
corrur|cal|or oelWeer users v|a e|eclror|c ra|| ard olrer app||cal|ors. Tre
deve|oprerl ol slardard relWor||rg proloco|s ard red|a ras resu|led |r Wor|dW|de
pro||leral|or ol LANs lrrougroul ous|ress ard educal|ora| orgar|zal|ors.
Typ|ca||y correcls corpuler |r a s|rg|e ou||d|rg or carpus.
0eve|oped |r 19Z0s.
Ved|ur : opl|ca| l|ores, coax|a| cao|es, lW|sled pa|r, W|re|ess.
LoW |alercy (excepl |r r|gr lrall|c per|ods).
l|gr speed relWor|s (0.2 lo 100 Vo/sec).
3peeds adequale lor rosl d|slr|ouled syslers
Proo|ers : Vu|l| red|a oased app||cal|ors
Typ|ca||y ouses or r|rgs.
Elrerrel, To|er R|rg
Three LAN |mp|ementat|ons Are Used Host 6ommon|y:

Popu|ar LAN Protoco|s Happed to the 08| Reference Hode|

3. 1.1.2 LAN Hed|a-Access Hethods
Ved|a corlerl|or occurs Wrer lWo or rore relWor| dev|ces rave dala lo serd al lre
sare l|re. 8ecause ru|l|p|e dev|ces carrol la|| or lre relWor| s|ru|lareous|y,
sore lype ol relrod rusl oe used lo a||oW ore dev|ce access lo lre relWor| red|a
al a l|re. Tr|s |s dore |r lWo ra|r Ways: carr|er serse ru|l|p|e access co|||s|or
delecl (C3VA/C0) ard lo|er pass|rg. lr relWor|s us|rg C3VA/C0 lecrro|ogy sucr
as Elrerrel, relWor| dev|ces corlerd lor lre relWor| red|a. wrer a dev|ce ras
dala lo serd, |l l|rsl ||slers lo see |l ary olrer dev|ce |s currerl|y us|rg lre relWor|. ll
rol, |l slarls serd|rg |ls dala. Aller l|r|sr|rg |ls lrarsr|ss|or, |l ||slers aga|r lo see |l
a co|||s|or occurred. A co|||s|or occurs Wrer lWo dev|ces serd dala s|ru|lareous|y.
wrer a co|||s|or rappers, eacr dev|ce Wa|ls a rardor |erglr ol l|re oelore
reserd|rg |ls dala. lr rosl cases, a co|||s|or W||| rol occur aga|r oelWeer lre lWo
dev|ces. 8ecause ol lr|s lype ol relWor| corlerl|or, lre ous|er a relWor| oecores,
lre rore co|||s|ors occur. Tr|s |s Wry perlorrarce ol Elrerrel degrades rap|d|y as
lre ruroer ol dev|ces or a s|rg|e relWor| |rcreases.

3. 1.1.3 LAN Transm|ss|on Hethods
LAN dala lrarsr|ss|ors la|| |rlo lrree c|ass|l|cal|ors: ur|casl, ru|l|casl, ard
oroadcasl. lr eacr lype ol lrarsr|ss|or, a s|rg|e pac|el |s serl lo ore or rore
rodes. lr a ur|casl lrarsr|ss|or, a s|rg|e pac|el |s serl lror lre source lo a
desl|ral|or or a relWor|. F|rsl, lre source rode addresses lre pac|el oy us|rg lre
address ol lre desl|ral|or rode. Tre pac|age |s lrer serl orlo lre relWor|, ard
l|ra||y, lre relWor| passes lre pac|el lo |ls desl|ral|or. A ru|l|casl lrarsr|ss|or
cors|sls ol a s|rg|e dala pac|el lral |s cop|ed ard serl lo a spec|l|c suosel ol rodes
or lre relWor|. F|rsl, lre source rode addresses lre pac|el oy us|rg a ru|l|casl
address. Tre pac|el |s lrer serl |rlo lre relWor|, Wr|cr ra|es cop|es ol lre pac|el
ard serds a copy lo eacr rode lral |s parl ol lre ru|l|casl address. A oroadcasl
lrarsr|ss|or cors|sls ol a s|rg|e dala pac|el lral |s cop|ed ard serl lo a|| rodes or
lre relWor|. lr lrese lypes ol lrarsr|ss|ors, lre source rode addresses lre pac|el
oy us|rg lre oroadcasl address. Tre pac|el |s lrer serl or lo lre relWor|, Wr|cr
ra|es cop|es ol lre pac|el ard serds a copy lo every rode or lre relWor|.

3. 1.1.4 LAN Topo|og|es
LAN lopo|og|es del|re lre rarrer |r Wr|cr relWor| dev|ces are orgar|zed. Four
corror LAN lopo|og|es ex|sl: ous, r|rg, slar, ard lree. Trese lopo|og|es are |og|ca|
arcr|leclures, oul lre aclua| dev|ces reed rol oe prys|ca||y orgar|zed |r lrese
corl|gural|ors. Log|ca| ous ard r|rg lopo|og|es, lor exarp|e, are corror|y
orgar|zed prys|ca||y as a slar. A ous lopo|ogy |s a ||rear LAN arcr|leclure |r Wr|cr
lrarsr|ss|ors lror relWor| slal|ors propagale lre |erglr ol lre red|ur ard are
rece|ved oy a|| olrer slal|ors. 0l lre lrree
rosl W|de|y used LAN |rp|ererlal|ors, Elrerrel/lEEE 802.3 relWor|s|rc|ud|rg
1008aseT|rp|ererl a ous lopo|ogy, Wr|cr |s |||uslraled |r F|gure 2-3.

8ome Networks |mp|ement a Loca| us Topo|ogy

A r|rg lopo|ogy |s a LAN arcr|leclure lral cors|sls ol a ser|es ol dev|ces correcled
lo ore arolrer oy ur|d|recl|ora| lrarsr|ss|or ||r|s lo lorr a s|rg|e c|osed |oop. 8olr
To|er R|rg/lEEE 802.5 ard F00l relWor|s |rp|ererl a r|rg lopo|ogy. F|gure 2-1
dep|cls a |og|ca| r|rg lopo|ogy.

21
3. 1.1.5 8ome Networks |mp|ement a Log|ca| R|ng Topo|ogy

A slar lopo|ogy |s a LAN arcr|leclure |r Wr|cr lre erdpo|rls or a relWor| are
correcled lo a corror cerlra| ruo, or sW|lcr, oy ded|caled ||r|s. Log|ca| ous ard
r|rg lopo|og|es are oller |rp|ererled prys|ca||y |r a slar lopo|ogy, Wr|cr |s
|||uslraled |r F|gure 2-5.
A lree lopo|ogy |s a LAN arcr|leclure lral |s |derl|ca| lo lre ous lopo|ogy, excepl lral
orarcres W|lr ru|l|p|e rodes are poss|o|e |r lr|s case. F|gure 2-5 |||uslrales a |og|ca|
lree lopo|ogy.

A Log|ca| Tree Topo|ogy 6an 6onta|n Hu|t|p|e Nodes

3. 1.1. LAN 0ev|ces
0ev|ces corror|y used |r LANs |rc|ude repealers, ruos, LAN exlerders, or|dges,
LAN sW|lcres, ard roulers.

A repealer |s a prys|ca| |ayer dev|ce used lo |rlercorrecl lre red|a segrerls ol ar
exlerded relWor|. A repealer esserl|a||y erao|es a ser|es ol cao|e segrerls lo oe
lrealed as a s|rg|e cao|e. Repealers rece|ve s|gra|s lror ore relWor| segrerl ard
arp||ly, rel|re, ard relrarsr|l lrose s|gra|s lo arolrer relWor| segrerl. Trese
acl|ors preverl s|gra| deler|oral|or caused oy |org cao|e |erglrs ard |arge ruroers
ol correcled dev|ces. Repealers are |rcapao|e ol perlorr|rg corp|ex l||ler|rg ard
olrer lrall|c process|rg. lr add|l|or, a|| e|eclr|ca| s|gra|s, |rc|ud|rg e|eclr|ca|
d|sluroarces ard olrer errors, are repealed ard arp||l|ed. Tre lola| ruroer ol
repealers ard relWor| segrerls lral car oe correcled |s ||r|led due lo l|r|rg ard
olrer |ssues. F|gure 2- |||uslrales a repealer correcl|rg lWo relWor| segrerls.

J. 1.1.7 A Repeater 6onnects Two Network 8egments

A ruo |s a prys|ca| |ayer dev|ce lral correcls ru|l|p|e user slal|ors, eacr v|a a
ded|caled cao|e. E|eclr|ca| |rlercorrecl|ors are eslao||sred |rs|de lre ruo. luos are
used lo creale a prys|ca| slar relWor| Wr||e ra|rla|r|rg lre |og|ca| ous or r|rg
corl|gural|or ol lre LAN. lr sore respecls, a ruo lurcl|ors as a ru|l|porl repealer.
A LAN exlerder |s a rerole-access ru|l||ayer sW|lcr lral correcls lo a rosl rouler.
LAN exlerders lorWard lrall|c lror a|| lre slardard relWor| |ayer proloco|s (sucr as
lP, lPX, ard App|eTa||) ard l||ler lrall|c oased or lre VAC address or relWor| |ayer
proloco| lype. LAN exlerders sca|e We|| oecause lre rosl rouler l||lers oul urWarled
oroadcasls ard ru|l|casls. loWever, LAN exlerders are rol capao|e ol segrerl|rg
lrall|c or creal|rg secur|ly l|reWa||s. F|gure 2-Z |||uslrales ru|l|p|e LAN exlerders
correcled lo lre rosl rouler lrrougr a wAN.

Hu|t|p|e LAN Extenders 6an 6onnect to the host Router Through a wAN

3. 1.1.8 LAN APPL|6AT|0N8
3ore ol lre lecrro|og|ca| laclors Wr|cr rave |ed lo lre rap|d groWlr ol Loca| Area
NelWor||rg |rc|udes, 0ll|ce Auloral|or, lrle|||gerl Prores, Proless|ora|
wor|slal|ors, Faxes, Te|ecorlererc|rg ard v|deocorlererc|rg, 3ale|||le
Tecrro|ogy, E|eclror|c Va||, vo|ce-0ala lrlegral|or, CA0/CAV 3yslers, Corpuler
Ass|sled Learr|rg, Cao|e Tv, elc. elc.

Tre corvergerce ol lrese lecrro|og|es |||uslrales |rcreas|rg r|croprocessor
capao|||ly; decreas|rg rardWare cosls ard ded|caled |rle|||gerl Wor|slal|ors. Tre
|rp||cal|or ol lrese lrerds |s lre rap|d pro||leral|or ol r|crocorpulers ard |rle|||gerl
Wor|slal|ors. Tr|s |r lurr ou||ds lre requ|rererl lor Loca| Area NelWor|s lo rove
dala ard excrarge |rlorral|or; lo a||oW resource srar|rg; lo ra|e app||cal|ors
rore re||ao|e ard lo ou||d syslers capao|e ol corl|rued groWlr.
LAN app||cat|ons la|| |rlo lre lo||oW|rg calegor|es:
0ala Process|rg
0ll|ce Auloral|or
Faclory Auloral|or
Erergy Varagererl
Process Corlro|
F||e & 3ecur|ly
Te|eprores
Te|ecorlererc|rg
Te|ev|s|or
E|eclror|c 0ala lrlercrarge
Trere are a|so a ruroer ol cr|l|ca| app||cal|ors Wr|cr rave prov|ded lre ecoror|c
|rpelus lor Loca| Area NelWor|s, |||e:
lrlercorrecl 0|llererl Varulaclurers' 3yslers
Tecrr|ca| lo losl Corrur|cal|or
0|slr|ouled Process|rg App||cal|ors
l|gr Re||ao|||ly App||cal|ors
losl lo losl Corrur|cal|or
E|eclror|c Va||
Te|ecorlererc|rg
ETC. ETC
Tre f|rst corporerls ol a LAN |s the 6ommun|cat|on 6hane|, a|so sore l|res
ca||ed lre transm|ss|on or the LAN red|ur, ard lyp|ca|||y srou|d rave lre
lo||oW|rg craracler|sl|cs:
l|gr 3peed ard 8ardW|dlr
LoW Cosl
3|rp||c|ly
F|ex|o|e ard Exlerd|o|e
Re||ao|e ard Va|rla|rao|e
A LAN red|ur del|res lre nature of the phys|c| path a|org Wr|cr lre data must
trave|, ard a||oWs a greal ruroer ard W|de var|ely ol rardWare dev|ces lo excrarge
|arge arourls ol |rlorral|or al r|gr speed over ||r|led d|slarces
3.1.1.2 wAN
wAN-A relWor| cors|sl|rg ol corpulers ol LAN's correcled across a d|slarce wAN
car cover sra|| lo |arge d|slarces, us|rg d|llererl lopo|og|es sucr as le|eprore
||res, l|oer opl|c cao||rg, sale|||le lrarsr|ss|ors ard r|croWave lrarsr|ss|ors. w|de
Area NelWor|s (wANs) correcl |arger geograpr|c areas, sucr as F|or|da, lre ur|led
3lales, or lre Wor|d. 0ed|caled lrarsocear|c cao||rg or sale|||le up||r|s ray oe used
22
lo correcl lr|s lype ol relWor|. us|rg a wAN, scroo|s |r F|or|da car corrur|cale
W|lr p|aces |||e To|yo |r a raller ol r|rules, W|lroul pay|rg erorrous prore o|||s.
A wAN |s corp||caled. ll uses ru|l|p|exers lo correcl |oca| ard relropo||lar
relWor|s lo g|ooa| corrur|cal|ors relWor|s |||e lre lrlerrel. To users, roWever, a
wAN W||| rol appear lo oe rucr d|llererl lrar a LAN or a VAN.
0eve|oped |r 190s.
0erera||y covers |arge d|slarces (slales, courlr|es, corl|rerls).
Ved|ur : corrur|cal|or c|rcu|ls correcled oy roulers.
Roulers lorWards pac|els lror ore lo arolrer lo||oW|rg a roule lror lre
serder lo lre rece|ver. $rore-ano-Foruaro
losls are lyp|ca||y correcled (or c|ose lo) lre roulers.
Typ|ca| |alerc|es : 100rs - 500rs.
Proo|ers W|lr de|ays |l us|rg sale|||les.
Typ|ca| speed : 20 - 2000 Ko|ls/s.
Nol (yel) su|lao|e lor d|slr|ouled corpul|rg.
NeW slardards are crarg|rg lre |ardscape.

wAN Techno|og|es 0perate at the Lowest Leve|s of the 08| Hode|

3.1.1.2.1 Po|nt-to-Po|nt L|nks
A po|rl-lo-po|rl ||r| prov|des a s|rg|e, pre-eslao||sred wAN corrur|cal|ors palr
lror lre cuslorer prer|ses lrrougr a carr|er relWor|, sucr as a le|eprore
corpary, lo a rerole relWor|. Po|rl-lo-po|rl ||res are usua||y |eased lror a carr|er
ard lrus are oller ca||ed |eased ||res. For a po|rl-lo-po|rl ||re, lre carr|er a||ocales
pa|rs ol W|re ard lac|||ly rardWare lo your ||re or|y. Trese c|rcu|ls are gerera||y
pr|ced oased or oardW|dlr requ|red ard d|slarce oelWeer lre lWo correcled
po|rls. Po|rl-lo-po|rl ||r|s are gerera||y rore expers|ve lrar srared serv|ces sucr
as Frare Re|ay. F|gure 3-2 |||uslrales a lyp|ca| po|rl-lo-po|rl ||r| lrrougr a wAN.

A Typ|ca| Po|nt-to-Po|nt L|nk 0perates Through a wAN to a Remote Network

3.1.1.2.2 6|rcu|t 8w|tch|ng
3W|lcred c|rcu|ls a||oW dala correcl|ors lral car oe |r|l|aled Wrer reeded ard
lerr|raled Wrer corrur|cal|or |s corp|ele. Tr|s Wor|s rucr |||e a rorra|
le|eprore ||re Wor|s lor vo|ce corrur|cal|or. lrlegraled 3erv|ces 0|g|la| NelWor|
(l30N) |s a good exarp|e ol c|rcu|l sW|lcr|rg. wrer a rouler ras dala lor a rerole
s|le, lre sW|lcred c|rcu|l |s |r|l|aled W|lr lre c|rcu|l ruroer ol lre rerole relWor|. lr
lre case ol l30N c|rcu|ls, lre dev|ce aclua||y p|aces a ca|| lo lre le|eprore ruroer
ol lre rerole l30N c|rcu|l. wrer lre lWo relWor|s are correcled ard aulrerl|caled,
lrey car lrarsler dala. wrer lre dala lrarsr|ss|or |s corp|ele, lre ca|| car oe
lerr|raled. F|gure 3-3 |||uslrales ar exarp|e ol lr|s lype ol c|rcu|l.

A 6|rcu|t-8w|tched wAN Undergoes a Process 8|m||ar to That Used for a
Te|ephone 6a||

3.1.1.2.3 Packet 8w|tch|ng
Pac|el sW|lcr|rg |s a wAN lecrro|ogy |r Wr|cr users srare corror carr|er
resources. 8ecause lr|s a||oWs lre carr|er lo ra|e rore ell|c|erl use ol |ls
|rlraslruclure, lre cosl lo lre cuslorer |s gerera||y rucr oeller lrar W|lr po|rl-lo-
po|rl ||res. lr a pac|el sW|lcr|rg selup, relWor|s rave correcl|ors |rlo lre carr|er's
relWor|, ard rary cuslorers srare lre carr|er's relWor|. Tre carr|er car lrer
creale v|rlua| c|rcu|ls oelWeer cuslorers' s|les oy Wr|cr pac|els ol dala are
de||vered lror ore lo lre olrer lrrougr lre relWor|. Tre secl|or ol lre carr|er's
relWor| lral |s srared |s oller relerred lo as a c|oud.
3ore exarp|es ol pac|el-sW|lcr|rg relWor|s |rc|ude Asyrcrrorous Trarsler Vode
(ATV), Frare Re|ay, 3W|lcred Vu|l|regao|l 0ala 3erv|ces (3V03), ard X.25.
F|gure
3-1 sroWs ar exarp|e pac|el-sW|lcred c|rcu|l. Tre v|rlua| correcl|ors oelWeer
cuslorer s|les are oller relerred lo as a v|rlua| c|rcu|l.

Packet 8w|tch|ng Transfers Packets Across a 6arr|er Network

3.1.1.2.4 wAN V|rtua| 6|rcu|ts
A v|rlua| c|rcu|l |s a |og|ca| c|rcu|l crealed W|lr|r a srared relWor| oelWeer lWo
relWor| dev|ces. TWo lypes ol v|rlua| c|rcu|ls ex|sl: sW|lcred v|rlua| c|rcu|ls (3vCs)
ard perrarerl v|rlua| c|rcu|ls (PvCs). 3vCs are v|rlua| c|rcu|ls lral are dyrar|ca||y
eslao||sred or derard ard lerr|raled Wrer lrarsr|ss|or |s corp|ele.
Corrur|cal|or over ar 3vC cors|sls ol lrree prases: c|rcu|l eslao||srrerl, dala
lrarsler, ard c|rcu|l lerr|ral|or. Tre eslao||srrerl prase |rvo|ves creal|rg lre
v|rlua| c|rcu|l oelWeer lre source ard desl|ral|or dev|ces. 0ala lrarsler |rvo|ves
lrarsr|ll|rg dala oelWeer lre dev|ces over lre v|rlua| c|rcu|l, ard lre c|rcu|l
lerr|ral|or prase |rvo|ves lear|rg doWr lre v|rlua| c|rcu|l oelWeer lre source ard
desl|ral|or dev|ces.

3.1.1.2.5 wAN 0|a|up 8erv|ces
0|a|up serv|ces oller cosl-ellecl|ve relrods lor correcl|v|ly across wANs. TWo
popu|ar d|a|up |rp|ererlal|ors are d|a|-or-derard roul|rg (00R) ard d|a| oac|up.
00R |s a lecrr|que Wrereoy a rouler car dyrar|ca||y |r|l|ale a ca|| or a sW|lcred
c|rcu|l Wrer |l reeds lo serd dala. lr a 00R selup, lre rouler |s corl|gured lo |r|l|ale
lre ca|| Wrer cerla|r cr|ler|a are rel, sucr as a parl|cu|ar lype ol relWor| lrall|c
reed|rg lo oe lrarsr|lled. wrer lre correcl|or |s rade, lrall|c passes over lre ||re.
Tre rouler corl|gural|or spec|l|es ar |d|e l|rer lral le||s lre rouler lo drop lre
correcl|or Wrer lre c|rcu|l ras rera|red |d|e lor a cerla|r per|od. 0|a| oac|up |s
arolrer Way ol corl|gur|rg 00R. loWever, |r d|a| oac|up, lre sW|lcred c|rcu|l |s
used lo prov|de oac|up serv|ce lor arolrer lype ol c|rcu|l, sucr as po|rl-lo-po|rl or
23
pac|el sW|lcr|rg. Tre rouler |s corl|gured so lral Wrer a la||ure |s delecled or lre
pr|rary c|rcu|l, lre d|a| oac|up ||re |s |r|l|aled. Tre d|a| oac|up ||re lrer supporls lre
wAN correcl|or url|| lre pr|rary c|rcu|l |s reslored. wrer lr|s occurs, lre d|a|
oac|up correcl|or |s lerr|raled.

3.1.1.2. wAN 0ev|ces
wANs use rurerous lypes ol dev|ces lral are spec|l|c lo wAN erv|rorrerls. wAN
sW|lcres, access servers, roders, C3u/03us, ard l30N lerr|ra| adaplers are
d|scussed |r lre lo||oW|rg secl|ors. 0lrer dev|ces lourd |r wAN erv|rorrerls lral
are used |r wAN |rp|ererlal|ors |rc|ude roulers, ATV sW|lcres, ard ru|l|p|exers.

3.1.1.2.7 wAN 8w|tch
A wAN sW|lcr |s a ru|l|porl |rlerrelWor||rg dev|ce used |r carr|er relWor|s. Trese
dev|ces lyp|ca||y sW|lcr sucr lrall|c as Frare Re|ay, X.25, ard 3V03, ard operale
al lre dala ||r| |ayer ol lre 03l relererce rode|. F|gure 3-5 |||uslrales lWo roulers al
rerole erds ol a wAN lral are correcled oy wAN sW|lcres.

Two Routers at Remote Ends of a wAN 6an e 6onnected by wAN 8w|tches

3.1.1.2.8 Access 8erver
Ar access server acls as a corcerlral|or po|rl lor d|a|-|r ard d|a|-oul correcl|ors.
F|gure 3- |||uslrales ar access server corcerlral|rg d|a|-oul correcl|ors |rlo a
wAN.

An Access 8erver 6oncentrates 0|a|-0ut 6onnect|ons |nto a wAN

3.1.1.2.9 Hodem
A roder |s a dev|ce lral |rlerprels d|g|la| ard ara|og s|gra|s, erao||rg dala lo oe
lrarsr|lled over vo|ce-grade le|eprore ||res. Al lre source, d|g|la| s|gra|s are
corverled lo a lorr su|lao|e lor lrarsr|ss|or over ara|og corrur|cal|or lac|||l|es. Al
lre desl|ral|or, lrese ara|og s|gra|s are relurred lo lre|r d|g|la| lorr. F|gure 3-Z
|||uslrales a s|rp|e roder-lo-roder correcl|or lrrougr a wAN.

A Hodem 6onnect|on Through a wAN hand|es Ana|og and 0|g|ta| 8|gna|s

68U|08U
A crarre| serv|ce ur|l/d|g|la| serv|ce ur|l (C3u/03u) |s a d|g|la|-|rlerlace dev|ce
used lo correcl a rouler lo a d|g|la| c|rcu|l |||e a T1. Tre C3u/03u a|so prov|des
s|gra| l|r|rg lor corrur|cal|or oelWeer lrese dev|ces. F|gure 3-8 |||uslrales lre
p|acererl ol lre C3u/03u |r a wAN |rp|ererlal|or.

The 68U|08U 8tands etween the 8w|tch and the Term|na|

3.1.1.2.10 HAN - Hetropo||tan Area Networks - A relWor| ol LAN's lral covers a
c|ly or |arge carpus erv|rorrerl

0erera||y covers loWrs ard c|l|es (50 |rs)
0eve|oped |r 1980s.
Ved|ur : opl|ca| l|ores, cao|es.
0ala rales adequale lor d|slr|ouled corpul|rg app||cal|ors.
A lyp|ca| slardard |s 0008 (0|slr|ouled 0ueue 0ua| 8us).
Typ|ca| |alerc|es : < 1 rsec.
Vessage roul|rg |s lasl.

3.1.1.3 PAN- Persona| Area Network
A persona| area network (PAN) |s a corpuler relWor| used lor corrur|cal|or
arorg corpuler dev|ces (|rc|ud|rg le|eprores ard persora| d|g|la| ass|slarls) c|ose
lo ore persor. Tre dev|ces ray or ray rol oe|org lo lre persor |r quesl|or. Tre
reacr ol a PAN |s lyp|ca||y a leW relers. PANs car oe used lor corrur|cal|or
arorg lre persora| dev|ces lrerse|ves (|rlrapersora| corrur|cal|or), or lor
correcl|rg lo a r|grer |eve| relWor| ard lre lrlerrel (ar up||r|).Persora| area
relWor|s ray oe W|red W|lr corpuler ouses sucr as u38 ard F|reW|re. w|re|ess
PANs car a|so oe rade poss|o|e W|lr relWor| lecrro|og|es sucr as lr0A ard
8|ueloolr.

A 8|ueloolr PAN |s a|so ca||ed a p|corel, ard |s corposed ol up lo 8 acl|ve dev|ces
|r a rasler-s|ave re|al|orsr|p (up lo 255 dev|ces car oe correcled |r 'par|ed'
rode). Tre l|rsl 8|ueloolr dev|ce |r lre p|corel |s lre rasler, ard a|| olrer dev|ces
are s|aves lral corrur|cale W|lr lre rasler. A p|corel lyp|ca||y ras a rarge ol 10
relers, a|lrougr rarges ol up lo 100 relers car oe reacred urder |dea|
c|rcurslarces.

3.1.1.4 V|rtua| Pr|vate Networks
v|rlua| pr|vale relWor|s (vPNs) are a la|r|y qu|xol|c suojecl; lrere |s ro
s|rg|e del|r|rg producl, ror ever rucr ol a corsersus arorg vPN
verdors as lo Wral corpr|ses a vPN. Corsequerl|y, everyore |roWs
Wral a vPN |s, oul eslao||sr|rg a s|rg|e del|r|l|or car oe rerar|ao|y
d|ll|cu|l. 3ore del|r|l|ors are sull|c|erl|y oroad as lo erao|e ore lo c|a|r
lral Frare Re|ay qua||l|es as a vPN Wrer, |r lacl, |l |s ar over|ay
relWor|. A|lrougr ar over|ay relWor| secures lrarsr|ss|ors lrrougr a
puo||c relWor|, |l does so pass|ve|y v|a |og|ca| separal|or ol lre dala
slrears.
vPNs prov|de a rore acl|ve lorr ol secur|ly oy e|lrer ercrypl|rg or ercapsu|al|rg
dala lor lrarsr|ss|or lrrougr ar ursecured relWor|. Trese lWo lypes ol secur|ly
ercrypl|or ard ercapsu|al|orlorr lre lourdal|or ol v|rlua| pr|vale relWor||rg.
loWever, oolr ercrypl|or ard ercapsu|al|or are gerer|c lerrs lral descr|oe a
lurcl|or lral car oe perlorred oy a ryr|ad ol spec|l|c lecrro|og|es. To add lo lre
corlus|or, lrese lWo sels ol lecrro|og|es car oe coro|red |r d|llererl
|rp|ererlal|or lopo|og|es. Tre lrlerrel coro|red W|lr lre exp|os|or ol allordao|e
oroadoard ard v|rlua| Pr|vale NelWor|s (vPNs) de||ver lre cosl-ellecl|ve
|rlraslruclure lo reel lre reW cra||erge ol loday's d|slr|ouled Wor|p|ace.
24

vPNs prov|de a secure relrod lor excrarg|rg corl|derl|a| dala ard relWor|
resources W|lr le|ecorrulers, orarcr oll|ces, cuslorers, supp||ers ard parlrers.
vPNs rol or|y erao|e rerole access v|a lre uo|qu|lous lrlerrel oul lrey a|so oller
corpe|||rg oerel|ls lor orgar|zal|ors lo Wor| srarler, reduce cosls, ard ga|r
corpel|l|ve advarlage.

3.1.1.4.1 how VPN works
A vPN |s ar urore||a lerr lral relers lo a|| lre lecrro|og|es erao||rg secure
corrur|cal|ors over lre puo||c lrlerrel. vPN uses lurre|s oelWeer lWo galeWays
lo prolecl pr|vale dala as |l lrave|s over lre lrlerrel. Turre||rg |s lre process ol
ercapsu|al|rg pr|vale lP pac|els |rlo a puo||c lP3ec pac|el. 0rce lre aulrerl|cal|or
ard aulror|zal|or oelWeer lre vPN galeWays |s eslao||sred, lre lurre| |s crealed
ard lre users car serd ard rece|ve dala across lre lrlerrel. A vPN lurre|
eslao||sres a secure correcl|or oelWeer lWo s|les over lre lrlerrel.

Types of VPN 6onnect|ons
vPNs car oe used lo supporl lre lo||oW|rg lypes ol correcl|ors:
C||erl lo LAN. used oy roo||e Wor|ers us|rg d|a|-up lrlerrel
correcl|ors. A s|rg|e vPN lurre| |s used lor eacr vPN c||erl.
LAN-lo-LAN. vPNs ||r| lWo LANs logelrer us|rg a s|rg|e lurre| lral
rard|es a|| lre secure dala lrall|c oelWeer lWo |ocal|ors.
lrlrarels. vPNs a||oW rerole oll|ces ard users lo secure|y access
|rlerra| TCP/lP app||cal|ors rurr|rg or lre corporale lrlrarel.
Exlrarels. vPNs erao|e secure access lo lre corporale Exlrarel lor
verdors, parlrers, ard cuslorers.

3.1.1.1.2 why VPN
v|rlua| Pr|vale NelWor|s (vPNs) rol or|y a||oW sra||, red|ur ard |arge erlerpr|ses
lo |rp|ererl rerole access v|a lre lrlerrel oul |l a|so de||vers corpe|||rg oerel|ls
lor orgar|zal|ors lo Wor| srarler, reduce cosls, ard ga|r corpel|l|ve advarlage.

vPN creales a pr|vale rears lor corrur|cal|or oelWeer geograpr|ca||y d|slr|ouled
|ocal|ors.

A corvergerce ol ous|ress, soc|a|, ard lecrro|ogy lrerds are dr|v|rg lre d|spers|or
ol loday's erlerpr|se |rlo a d|slr|ouled Wor|p|ace:
Rap|d pro||leral|or ol poWerlu|, allordao|e PCs ard olrer sra|| oll|ce
lecrro|og|es.
Erergerce ol lre lrlerrel as lre g|ooa| dala corrur|cal|ors relWor|
lor ||r||rg geograpr|ca||y d|spersed |ocal|ors.
0erard oy erp|oyees lor l|ex|o|e Wor| arrargererls |r resporse lo
groW|rg corrule l|res ard lar||y reeds.
0r|ve lor |rproved producl|v|ly ard reduced cosls oy corpar|es.
Need lor recru|l|rg ard rela|r|rg la|erl |ocaled ouls|de lre corl|res ol
lre |oca| geograpr|ca| area.
Exp|os|ve ava||ao|||ly ol allordao|e, oroadoard lrlerrel correcl|ors
(03L, cao|e ard W|re|ess).
3.1.1.4.3 .Layer 2 Tunne||ng Protoco|
Tre lrlerrel Erg|reer|rg Tas| Force (lETF) Was laced W|lr corpel|rg
proposa|s lror V|crosoll ard C|sco 3yslers lor a proloco| spec|l|cal|or
lral Wou|d secure lre lrarsr|ss|or ol lP dalagrars lrrougr
urcorlro||ed ard urlrusled relWor| dora|rs. V|crosoll's proposa| Was
ar allerpl lo slardard|ze lre Po|rl-lo-Po|rl Turre||rg Proloco| (PPTP),
Wr|cr |l rad crarp|ored. C|sco, loo, rad a proloco| des|gred lo
perlorr a s|r||ar lurcl|or. Tre lETF coro|red lre oesl e|ererls ol
eacr proposa| ard spec|l|ed lre oper slardard L2TP.
Tre s|rp|esl descr|pl|or ol L2TP's lurcl|ora||ly |s lral |l carr|es lre
Po|rl-lo-Po|rl Proloco| (PPP) lrrougr relWor|s lral arer'l po|rl-lo-po|rl.
PPP ras oecore lre rosl popu|ar corrur|cal|ors proloco| lor rerole
access us|rg c|rcu|l-sW|lcred lrarsr|ss|or lac|||l|es sucr as P0T3 ||res
or l30N lo creale a lerporary po|rl-lo-po|rl correcl|or oelWeer lre
ca|||rg dev|ce ard |ls desl|ral|or.
L2TP s|ru|ales a po|rl-lo-po|rl correcl|or oy ercapsu|al|rg PPP
dalagrars lor lrarsporlal|or lrrougr rouled relWor|s or |rlerrelWor|s.
upor arr|va| al lre|r |rlerded desl|ral|or, lre ercapsu|al|or |s reroved,
ard lre PPP dalagrars are reslored lo lre|r or|g|ra| lorral. Trus, a
po|rl-lo-po|rl corrur|cal|ors sess|or car oe supporled lrrougr
d|sparale relWor|s. Tr|s lecrr|que |s |roWr as lurre||rg.
3.1.1.4.4 0perat|ona| Hechan|cs
lr a lrad|l|ora| rerole access scerar|o, a rerole user (or c||erl)
accesses a relWor| oy d|recl|y correcl|rg a relWor| access server
(NA3). 0erera||y, lre NA3 prov|des severa| d|sl|rcl lurcl|ors: ll
lerr|rales lre po|rl-lo-po|rl corrur|cal|ors sess|or ol lre rerole
user, va||dales lre |derl|ly ol lral user, ard lrer serves lral user W|lr
access lo lre relWor|. A|lrougr rosl rerole access lecrro|og|es
ourd|e lrese lurcl|ors |rlo a s|rg|e dev|ce, L2TP separales lrer |rlo
lWo prys|ca||y separale dev|ces: lre L2TP Access 3erver (LA3) ard lre
L2TP NelWor| 3erver (LN3).
As |ls rares |rp|y, lre L2TP Access 3erver supporls aulrerl|cal|or,
ard |rgress. upor successlu| aulrerl|cal|or, lre rerole user's sess|or
|s lorWarded lo lre LN3, Wr|cr |els lral user |rlo lre relWor|. Tre|r
separal|or erao|es grealer l|ex|o|||ly lor |rp|ererlal|or lrar olrer
rerole access lecrro|og|es.
3.1.1.4.5 |mp|ementat|on Topo|og|es
L2TP car oe |rp|ererled |r lWo d|sl|rcl lopo|og|es:
3.1.1.4.5.1 6||ent-Aware Tunne||ng
Tre l|rsl |rp|ererlal|or lopo|ogy |s |roWr as c||erl-aWare lurre||rg. Tr|s rare |s
der|ved lror lre rerole c||erl |r|l|al|rg (rerce, oe|rg aWare ol) lre lurre|. lr lr|s
scerar|o, lre c||erl eslao||sres a |og|ca| correcl|or W|lr|r a prys|ca| correcl|or lo
lre LA3. Tre c||erl rera|rs aWare ol lre lurre|ed correcl|or a|| lre Way lrrougr lo
lre LN3, ard |l car ever delerr|re Wr|cr ol |ls lrall|c goes lrrougr lre lurre|.

3.1.1.4.5.2 6||ent-Transparent Tunne||ng
C||erl-lrarsparerl lurre||rg lealures L2TP access corcerlralors (LACs) d|slr|ouled
geograpr|ca||y c|ose lo lre rerole users. 3ucr geograpr|c d|spers|or |s |rlerded lo
reduce lre |org-d|slarce le|eprore crarges lral Wou|d olrerW|se oe |rcurred oy
rerole users d|a||rg |rlo a cerlra||y |ocaled LAC.

Tre rerole users reed rol supporl L2TP d|recl|y; lrey rere|y eslao||sr a po|rl-lo-
po|rl corrur|cal|or sess|or W|lr lre LAC us|rg PPP. 0slers|o|y, lre user W||| oe
ercapsu|al|rg lP dalagrars |r PPP lrares. Tre LAC excrarges PPP ressages
W|lr lre rerole user ard eslao||sres ar L2TP lurre| W|lr lre LN3 lrrougr Wr|cr lre
rerole user's PPP ressages are passed. Tre LN3 |s lre rerole user's galeWay lo
|ls rore relWor|. ll |s lre lerr|rus ol lre lurre|; |l slr|ps oll a|| L2TP ercapsu|al|or
ard serves up relWor| access lor lre rerole user.

3.1.1.4. Add|ng Hore 8ecur|ty
As uselu| as L2TP |s, |l |s |rporlarl lo recogr|ze lral |l |s rol a paracea. ll erao|es
l|ex|o|||ly |r de||ver|rg rerole access, oul |l does rol allord a r|gr degree ol secur|ly
lor dala |r lrars|l. Tr|s |s due |r |arge parl lo lre re|al|ve|y rorsecure ralure ol PPP.
lr la|rress, PPP Was des|gred exp||c|l|y lor po|rl-lo-po|rl corrur|cal|ors, so
secur|rg lre correcl|or srou|d rol rave oeer a r|gr pr|or|ly.
25
Ar add|l|ora| cause lor corcerr slers lror lre lacl lral L2TP's lurre|s are rol
cryplograpr|c. Tre|r dala pay|oads are lrarsr|lled |r lre c|ear, Wrapped or|y oy
L2TP ard PPP lrar|rg. loWever, add|l|ora| secur|ly ray oe allorded oy
|rp|ererl|rg lre lP3ec proloco|s |r corjurcl|or W|lr L2TP. Tre lP3ec proloco|s
supporl slrorg aulrerl|cal|or lecrro|og|es as We|| as ercrypl|or.
Nole

vPNs oller a corpe|||rg v|s|or ol correcl|v|ly lrrougr lore|gr relWor|s al greal|y
reduced operal|rg cosls. loWever, lre reduced cosls are accorpar|ed oy |rcreased
r|s|. L2TP ollers ar oper slardard approacr lor supporl|rg a rerole access vPN.
wrer augrerled oy lP3ec proloco|s, L2TP erao|es lre rea||zal|or ol lre pror|se ol
a vPN: ar oper slardard lecrro|ogy lor secur|rg rerole access |r a v|rlua||y pr|vale
relWor|.

3.1.1.5 |ntegrated 8erv|ces 0|g|ta| Network
lrlegraled 3erv|ces 0|g|la| NelWor| (l30N) |s corpr|sed ol d|g|la| le|eprory ard
dala-lrarsporl serv|ces ollered oy reg|ora| le|eprore carr|ers. l30N |rvo|ves lre
d|g|l|zal|or ol lre le|eprore relWor|, Wr|cr perr|ls vo|ce, dala, lexl, grapr|cs,
rus|c, v|deo, ard olrer source raler|a| lo oe lrarsr|lled over ex|sl|rg le|eprore
W|res. Tre erergerce ol l30N represerls ar ellorl lo slardard|ze suoscr|oer
serv|ces, user/relWor| |rlerlaces, ard relWor| ard |rlerrelWor| capao|||l|es. l30N
app||cal|ors |rc|ude r|gr-speed |rage app||cal|ors (sucr as 0roup lv lacs|r||e),
add|l|ora| le|eprore ||res |r rores lo serve lre le|ecorrul|rg |rduslry, r|gr-speed
l||e lrarsler, ard v|deocorlererc|rg. vo|ce serv|ce |s a|so ar app||cal|or lor l30N.
Tr|s crapler surrar|zes lre urder|y|rg lecrro|og|es ard serv|ces assoc|aled W|lr
l30N.

3.1.1.5.1 |80N 0ev|ces
l30N dev|ces |rc|ude lerr|ra|s, lerr|ra| adaplers (TAs), relWor|-lerr|ral|or
dev|ces, ||re-lerr|ral|or equ|prerl, ard excrarge-lerr|ral|or equ|prerl. l30N
lerr|ra|s core |r lWo lypes. 3pec|a||zed l30N lerr|ra|s are relerred lo as lerr|ra|
equ|prerl lype 1 (TE1). Nor-l30N lerr|ra|s, sucr as 0TE, lral predale lre l30N
slardards are relerred lo as lerr|ra| equ|prerl lype 2 (TE2). TE1s correcl lo lre
l30N relWor| lrrougr a lour-W|re, lW|sled-pa|r d|g|la| ||r|. TE2s correcl lo lre l30N
relWor| lrrougr a TA. Tre l30N TA car oe e|lrer a slarda|ore dev|ce or a ooard
|rs|de lre TE2. ll lre TE2 |s |rp|ererled as a slarda|ore dev|ce, |l correcls lo lre
TA v|a a slardard prys|ca|-|ayer |rlerlace. Exarp|es |rc|ude ElA/TlA-232-C
(lorrer|y R3-232-C), v.21, ard v.35.
8eyord lre TE1 ard TE2 dev|ces, lre rexl correcl|or po|rl |r lre l30N relWor| |s
lre relWor| lerr|ral|or lype 1 (NT1) or relWor| lerr|ral|or lype 2 (NT2) dev|ce.
Trese are relWor|-lerr|ral|or dev|ces lral correcl lre lour-W|re suoscr|oer W|r|rg
lo lre corverl|ora| lWo-W|re |oca| |oop. lr Norlr Arer|ca, lre NT1 |s a cuslorer
prer|ses equ|prerl (CPE) dev|ce. lr rosl olrer parls ol lre Wor|d, lre NT1 |s parl
ol lre relWor| prov|ded oy lre carr|er. Tre NT2 |s a rore corp||caled dev|ce lral
lyp|ca||y |s lourd |r d|g|la| pr|vale orarcr excrarges (P8Xs) ard lral perlorrs Layer
2 ard 3 proloco| lurcl|ors ard corcerlral|or serv|ces. Ar NT1/2 dev|ce a|so ex|sls
as a s|rg|e dev|ce lral coro|res lre lurcl|ors ol ar NT1 ard ar NT2.
l30N spec|l|es a ruroer ol relererce po|rls lral del|re |og|ca| |rlerlaces oelWeer
lurcl|ora| groups, sucr as TAs ard NT1s. l30N relererce po|rls |rc|ude lre
lo||oW|rg:
R-Tre relererce po|rl oelWeer ror-l30N equ|prerl ard a TA.
8-Tre relererce po|rl oelWeer user lerr|ra|s ard lre NT2.
T-Tre relererce po|rl oelWeer NT1 ard NT2 dev|ces.
U-Tre relererce po|rl oelWeer NT1 dev|ces ard ||re-lerr|ral|or
equ|prerl |r lre carr|er relWor|. Tre u relererce po|rl |s re|evarl or|y
|r Norlr Arer|ca, Wrere lre NT1 lurcl|or |s rol prov|ded oy lre carr|er
relWor|.
F|gure 12-1 |||uslrales a sarp|e l30N corl|gural|or ard sroWs lrree dev|ces
allacred lo ar l30N sW|lcr al lre cerlra| oll|ce. TWo ol lrese dev|ces are l30N-
corpal|o|e, so lrey car oe allacred lrrougr ar 3 relererce po|rl lo NT2 dev|ces.
Tre lr|rd dev|ce (a slardard, ror-l30N le|eprore) allacres lrrougr lre relererce
po|rl lo a TA. Ary ol lrese dev|ces a|so cou|d allacr lo ar NT1/2 dev|ce, Wr|cr
Wou|d rep|ace oolr lre NT1 ard lre NT2. lr add|l|or, a|lrougr lrey are rol sroWr,
s|r||ar user slal|ors are allacred lo lre lar-r|grl l30N sW|lcr.

8amp|e |80N 6onf|gurat|on |||ustrates Re|at|onsh|ps etween 0ev|ces and
Reference Po|nts

3.1.1.5.2 8erv|ces
Trere are lWo lypes ol serv|ces assoc|aled W|lr l30N:
3.1.1.5.2.1 |80N R| 8erv|ce
Tre l30N 8as|c Rale lrlerlace (8Rl) serv|ce ollers lWo 8 crarre|s ard ore 0
crarre| (280). 8Rl 8-crarre| serv|ce operales al 1 |ops ard |s rearl lo carry
user dala; 8Rl 0-crarre| serv|ce operales al 1 |ops ard |s rearl lo carry corlro|
ard s|gra||rg |rlorral|or, a|lrougr |l car supporl user dala lrarsr|ss|or urder
cerla|r c|rcurslarces. Tre 0 crarre| s|gra||rg proloco| corpr|ses Layers 1 lrrougr
3 ol lre 03l relererce rode|. 8Rl a|so prov|des lor lrar|rg corlro| ard olrer
overread, or|rg|rg |ls lola| o|l rale lo 192 |ops.
Tre 8Rl prys|ca| |ayer spec|l|cal|or |s lrlerral|ora| Te|ecorrur|cal|or ur|or-
Te|ecorrur|cal|ors 3lardards 3ecl|or (lTu-T) (lorrer|y lre Corsu|lal|ve
Corr|llee lor lrlerral|ora| Te|egrapr ard Te|eprore [CClTT|) l.130.
3.1.1.5.2.2 |80N PR| 8erv|ce
l30N Pr|rary Rale lrlerlace (PRl) serv|ce ollers 23 8 crarre|s ard 1 0 crarre| |r
Norlr Arer|ca ard Japar, y|e|d|rg a lola| o|l rale ol 1.511 Vops (lre PRl 0 crarre|
rurs al 1 |ops). l30N PRl |r Europe, Auslra||a, ard olrer parls ol lre Wor|d
prov|des 30 8 crarre|s p|us ore 1-|ops 0 crarre| ard a lola| |rlerlace rale ol
2.018 Vops. Tre PRl prys|ca| |ayer spec|l|cal|or |s lTu-T l.131.

3.1.1.5.2.3 |80N 8pec|f|cat|ons
Tr|s secl|or descr|oes lre var|ous l30N spec|l|cal|ors lor Layer 1, Layer 2, ard
Layer 3.
Layer 1
l30N prys|ca| |ayer (Layer 1) lrare lorrals d|ller deperd|rg or Wrelrer lre lrare
|s ouloourd (lror lerr|ra| lo relWor|) or |roourd (lror relWor| lo lerr|ra|). 8olr
prys|ca| |ayer |rlerlaces are sroWr |r F|gure 12-2.
Tre lrares are 18 o|ls |org, ol Wr|cr 3 o|ls represerl dala. Tre o|ls ol ar l30N
prys|ca| |ayer lrare are used as lo||oWs:
FProv|des syrcrror|zal|or
LAdjusls lre average o|l va|ue
E-Ersures corlerl|or reso|ul|or Wrer severa| lerr|ra|s or a
pass|ve ous corlerd lor a crarre|
A-Acl|vales dev|ces
8-ls urass|gred
1, 2, ard 0lard|e user dala
Vu|l|p|e l30N user dev|ces car oe prys|ca||y allacred lo ore c|rcu|l. lr lr|s
corl|gural|or, co|||s|ors car resu|l |l lWo lerr|ra|s lrarsr|l s|ru|lareous|y.
Trerelore, l30N prov|des lealures lo delerr|re ||r| corlerl|or. wrer ar NT
rece|ves a 0 o|l lror lre TE, |l ecroes oac| lre o|l |r lre rexl E-o|l pos|l|or. Tre TE
expecls lre rexl E o|l lo oe lre sare as |ls |asl lrarsr|lled 0 o|l.

Terr|ra|s carrol lrarsr|l |rlo lre 0 crarre| ur|ess lrey l|rsl delecl a spec|l|c
ruroer ol ores (|rd|cal|rg ro s|gra|) correspord|rg lo a pre-eslao||sred pr|or|ly. ll
lre TE delecls a o|l |r lre ecro (E) crarre| lral |s d|llererl lror |ls 0 o|ls, |l rusl
slop lrarsr|ll|rg |rred|ale|y. Tr|s s|rp|e lecrr|que ersures lral or|y ore lerr|ra|
car lrarsr|l |ls 0 ressage al ore l|re. Aller successlu| 0-ressage lrarsr|ss|or,
lre lerr|ra| ras |ls pr|or|ly reduced oy requ|r|rg |l lo delecl rore corl|ruous ores
oelore lrarsr|ll|rg. Terr|ra|s carrol ra|se lre|r pr|or|ly url|| a|| olrer dev|ces or lre
sare ||re rave rad ar opporlur|ly lo serd a 0 ressage. Te|eprore correcl|ors
rave r|grer pr|or|ly lrar a|| olrer serv|ces, ard s|gra||rg |rlorral|or ras a r|grer
pr|or|ly lrar rors|gra||rg |rlorral|or.
26
Layer 2
Layer 2 ol lre l30N s|gra||rg proloco| |s L|r| Access Procedure, 0 crarre| (LAP0).
LAP0 |s s|r||ar lo l|gr-Leve| 0ala L|r| Corlro| (l0LC) ard L|r| Access Procedure,
8a|arced (LAP8) (see Crapler 1, 3yrcrrorous 0ala L|r| Corlro| ard
0er|val|ves, ard Crapler 1Z, X.25, lor rore |rlorral|or or lrese proloco|s). As
lre expars|or ol lre LAP0 acroryr |rd|cales, lr|s |ayer |s used across lre 0
crarre| lo ersure lral corlro| ard s|gra||rg |rlorral|or l|oWs ard |s rece|ved
proper|y. Tre LAP0 lrare lorral (see F|gure 12-3) |s very s|r||ar lo lral ol l0LC;
|||e l0LC, LAP0 uses superv|sory, |rlorral|or, ard urruroered lrares.

Tre LAP0 F|ag ard Corlro| l|e|ds are |derl|ca| lo lrose ol l0LC. Tre LAP0
Address l|e|d car oe e|lrer 1 or 2 oyles |org. ll lre exlerded address o|l ol lre l|rsl
oyle |s sel, lre address |s 1 oyle; |l |l |s rol sel, lre address |s 2 oyles. Tre l|rsl
Address-l|e|d oyle corla|rs lre serv|ce access po|rl |derl|l|er (3APl), Wr|cr |derl|l|es
lre porla| al Wr|cr LAP0 serv|ces are prov|ded lo Layer 3. Tre C/R o|l |rd|cales
Wrelrer lre lrare corla|rs a corrard or a resporse. Tre Terr|ra| Erdpo|rl
lderl|l|er (TEl) l|e|d |derl|l|es e|lrer a s|rg|e lerr|ra| or ru|l|p|e lerr|ra|s. A TEl ol
a|| ores |rd|cales a oroadcasl.

Layer 3
TWo Layer 3 spec|l|cal|ors are used lor l30N s|gra||rg: lTu-T (lorrer|y CClTT)
l.150 (a|so |roWr as lTu-T 0.930) ard lTu-T l.151 (a|so |roWr as lTu-T 0.931).
Togelrer, lrese proloco|s supporl user-lo-user, c|rcu|l-sW|lcred, ard pac|el-
sW|lcred correcl|ors. A var|ely ol ca||-eslao||srrerl, ca||-lerr|ral|or, |rlorral|or,
ard r|sce||areous ressages are spec|l|ed, |rc|ud|rg 3ETuP, C0NNECT,
RELEA3E, u3ER lNF0RVATl0N, CANCEL, 3TATu3, ard 0l3C0NNECT. Trese
ressages are lurcl|ora||y s|r||ar lo lrose prov|ded oy lre X.25 proloco| (see
Crapler 1Z lor rore |rlorral|or). F|gure 12-1, lror lTu-T l.151, sroWs lre lyp|ca|
slages ol ar l30N c|rcu|l-sW|lcred ca||.

Note
l30N |s corpr|sed ol d|g|la| le|eprory ard dala-lrarsporl serv|ces ollered oy
reg|ora| le|eprore carr|ers. l30N |rvo|ves lre d|g|l|zal|or ol lre le|eprore relWor|
lo lrarsr|l vo|ce, dala, lexl, grapr|cs, rus|c, v|deo, ard olrer source raler|a| over
ex|sl|rg le|eprore W|res.
l30N dev|ces |rc|ude lre lo||oW|rg:
Terr|ra|s
Terr|ra| adaplers (TAs)
NelWor|-lerr|ral|or dev|ces
L|re-lerr|ral|or equ|prerl
Excrarge-lerr|ral|or equ|prerl
Tre l30N spec|l|cal|or relererces spec|l|c correcl|or po|rls lral del|re |og|ca|
|rlerlaces oelWeer dev|ces.
l30N uses lre lo||oW|rg lWo lypes ol serv|ces:
8as|c Rale lrlerlace (8Rl, Wr|cr ollers lWo 8 crarre|s ard ore 0
crarre| (280)
Pr|rary Rale lrlerlace (PRl), Wr|cr ollers 23 8 crarre|s ard 1 0
crarre| |r Norlr Arer|ca ard Japar, ard 30 8 crarre|s ard 1 0
crarre| |r Europe ard Auslra||a
l30N rurs or lre oollor lrree |ayers ol lre 03l relererce rode|, ard eacr |ayer
uses a d|llererl spec|l|cal|or lo lrarsr|l dala.

3.1.1.6 |NTERNET
Tre lrlerrel |s a sysler ol ||r|ed relWor|s lral are Wor|dW|de |r scope ard lac|||lale
dala corrur|cal|or serv|ces sucr as rerole |og|r, l||e lrarsler, e|eclror|c ra||, lre
wor|d w|de weo ard reWsgroups. w|lr lre releor|c r|se |r derard lor correcl|v|ly,
lre lrlerrel ras oecore a corrur|cal|ors r|grWay lor r||||ors ol users. Tre
lrlerrel Was |r|l|a||y reslr|cled lo r|||lary ard acader|c |rsl|lul|ors, oul roW |l |s a
lu||-l|edged cordu|l lor ary ard a|| lorrs ol |rlorral|or ard correrce. lrlerrel
Weos|les roW prov|de persora|, educal|ora|, po||l|ca| ard ecoror|c resources lo
every correr ol lre p|arel.

3.1.1.7 |NTRANET
w|lr lre advarcererls rade |r oroWser-oased sollWare lor lre lrlerrel, rary
pr|vale orgar|zal|ors are |rp|ererl|rg |rlrarels. Ar |rlrarel |s a pr|vale relWor|
ul|||z|rg lrlerrel-lype loo|s, oul ava||ao|e or|y W|lr|r lral orgar|zal|or. For |arge
orgar|zal|ors, ar |rlrarel prov|des ar easy access rode lo corporale |rlorral|or lor
erp|oyees.

3.1.1.8 Network Topo|ogy Terms

us-A|| corpulers correcled W|lr a s|rg|e cao|e W|lr a lerr|ralor or eacr erd. Ar
exarp|e |s ar Elrerrel relWor| correcled W|lr lW|sled-pa|r (108A3E2) cao|e.
8tar-A|| corpulers correcled lo a cerlra| dev|ce lyp|ca||y a ruo or a sW|lcr. Ar
exarp|e |s ar Elrerrel relWor| correcled W|lr lW|sled-pa|r (108A3ET) cao|e.
R|ng-A|| corpulers or relWor| dev|ces are allacred d|recl|y lo eacr olrer |r a r|rg
lasr|or. Ar exarp|e |s ar F00l (l|oer d|slr|ouled dala |rlerlace) relWor|, Wrere a||
lre ruos correcl lo eacr olrer |r a r|rg or a lo|er r|rg relWor|.
Hesh-Coro|ral|or ol d|llererl lopo|og|es exarp|e Wou|d oe lre lrlerrel
0|scuss advantages and 0|sadvantages of each of the above topo|og|es

3.1.2 Factors affect|ng Network 0es|gn
A |arge ruroer ol laclors rusl oe cors|dered dur|rg lre des|gr ol real recovery
relWor|s. 0es|gr|rg a relWor| |s rore lrar rere|y p|arr|rg lo use lre |alesl gadgel
|r lre rar|el. A good relWor| des|gr la|es |rlo cors|deral|or rary laclors:

Tre rosl |rporlarl are:
3.1.2.1 8|ze Hatters
Al lre erd ol lre day, s|ze does raller. 0es|gr|rg a LAN lor a sra|| oll|ce W|lr a
leW users |s d|llererl lror ou||d|rg ore lor a |arge corpary W|lr lWo lrousard
users. lr ou||d|rg a sra|| LAN, a l|al des|gr |s usua||y used, Wrere a|| correcl|rg
dev|ces ray oe correcled lo eacr olrer. For a |arge corpary, a r|eracr|ca|
approacr srou|d oe used.

3.1.2.2 Ceograph|es
Tre geograpr|ca| |ocal|ors ol lre s|les lral reed lo oe correcled are |rporlarl
|r a relWor| des|gr. Tre dec|s|or ra||rg process lor se|ecl|rg lre r|grl
lecrro|ogy ard equ|prerl lor rerole correcl|ors, espec|a||y lrose ol
cross-courlry ralure, |s d|llererl lror lral lor a LAN. Tre lar|lls, |oca| experl|se,
qua||ly ol serv|ce lror serv|ce prov|ders, are sore ol lre |rporlarl cr|ler|a.

3.1.2.3 Po||t|cs
Po||l|cs |r lre oll|ce u|l|rale|y dec|des roW a relWor| srou|d oe parl|l|ored.
0eparlrerl A ray rol Warl lo srare dala W|lr deparlrerl 8, Wr||e deparlrerl C
a||oWs or|y deparlrerl 0 lo access |ls dala. Al lre relWor| |eve|, requ|rererls
sucr as lrese are usua||y dore lrrougr l||ler|rg al lre rouler so as lo d|recl lrall|c
l|oW |r lre correcl rarrer. 8us|ress ard secur|ly reeds delerr|re roW
|rlorral|or l|oWs |r a relWor| ard lre r|grl loo| ras lo oe croser lo carry lr|s
oul.

3.1.2.4 Types of App||cat|on
Tre lypes ol app||cal|or dep|oyed delerr|res lre oardW|dlr requ|red. wr||e a
lexl-oased lrarsacl|or ray requ|re a leW |ops ol oardW|dlr, a ru|l|red|a re|p
Tre NelWor| lrlraslruclure 9 l||e W|lr v|deo exp|aral|ors ray requ|re 1.5 Vops ol
oardW|dlr. Tre perlorrarce
requ|rererl ra|r|y deperds or app||cal|or reed ard lre cra||erge ol a good
relWor| |s lo oe ao|e lo sal|sly d|llererl app||cal|or reeds.

27
3.1.2.5 Need For Fau|t To|erance
lr a r|ss|or-cr|l|ca| relWor|, perlorrarce ray rol oe a |ey cr|ler|a oul lau|l
lo|erarce |s. Tre relWor| |s expecled lo oe up every r|rule ard lre redurdarcy
requ|red |s oolr al lre rardWare |eve| ard al lre serv|ces |eve|. lr lr|s aspecl,
rary lealures rave lo oe dep|oyed, sucr as rardWare redurdarcy, re-roule
capao|||l|es, elc.

3.1.2. To 8w|tch or Not to 8w|tch
0re ol lre laclors lral |rl|uerces lre relWor| des|gr |s Wrelrer lo dep|oy
sW|lcr|rg lecrro|ogy. A|lrougr sW|lcr|rg seers lo oe erjoy|rg popu|ar|ly, |l ray
rol oe su|lao|e |r lerrs ol cosl lor a sra|| oll|ce ol lour users. lr a |arge relWor|
des|gr, sW|lcr|rg lo lre des|lop ray rol oe su|lao|e oecause |l Wou|d dr|ve up
lre erl|re projecl cosl. 0r lre olrer rard, a sra|| corpary lral des|grs
ru|l|red|a app||cal|ors lor |ls c||erl ray reed a sW|lcr|rg relWor| lo srare a||
lre v|deo ard vo|ce l||es. Tre dec|s|or a relWor| rarager ras lo ra|e |s Wrer lo
sW|lcr ard Wrere lo sW|lcr.

3.1.2.7 8trategy
0re |rporlarl laclor |s ol course a relWor||rg slralegy. w|lroul a relWor||rg
o|uepr|rl, ore ray erd up W|lr a ru|l|verdors, ru|l|proloco| relWor| lral |s oolr
d|ll|cu|l lo rarage ard expard. ll ras oeer esl|raled lral Z0 ol lre cosl ol
oWr|rg a relWor| |s |r ra|rla|r|rg |l. lav|rg a relWor| slralegy ersures lral
lecrro|ogy |s dep|oyed al lre correcl p|ace ard producls croser carelu||y. A
relWor| lral |s ou||l upor a slralegy ersures rarageao|||ly ard sca|ao|||ly.

3.1.2.8 6ost 6onstra|nts
Tre ore rajor dec|s|or lral ra|es or orea|s a des|gr |s cosl. Vary a l|res,
relWor| raragers rave lo lorego a lecrr|ca||y e|egarl so|ul|or lor a |ess
sopr|sl|caled des|gr.`

3.1.2.9 8tandards
Croos|rg equ|prerl lral corlorrs lo slardards |s ar |rporlarl ru|e lo lo||oW.
3lardards rears rav|rg lre ao|||ly lo dep|oy ar |rduslry-recogr|zed lecrro|ogy
lral |s supporled oy lre rajor|ly ol verdors. Tr|s prov|des l|ex|o|||ly |r cro|ce ol
equ|prerl, ard a||oWs relWor| raragers lo croose lre rosl cosl ellecl|ve
so|ul|or.

As rore ous|ress ard lrarsacl|ors are corducled lrrougr lre relWor|, lre
relWor| |rlraslruclure ras oecore rore |rporlarl lrar ever. NelWor| raragers
reed lo croose lre r|grl lecrro|og|es, lror lre oac|oore lo lre des|lops, ard l|e
everylr|rg logelrer lo supporl lre reeds ol lre|r ous|resses. 8y roW, |l |s oov|ous
lral des|gr|rg a relWor| |s rol jusl aooul raW speed. Adopl|rg a oa|arced
approacr, We|gr|rg lealures aga|rsl cosl, ard croos|rg lre r|grl lecrro|ogy lral
|s oased or oper slardards lo reel lre ous|ress requ|rererl |s a r|grl Way lo
oeg|r.

Tre performance requ|rererls ol lre users ol lre app||cal|ors rusl oe
cors|dered.
andw|dth Requ|rements 0|llererl app||cal|ors requ|re vary|rg
arourls ol relWor| oardW|dlr. A s|rp|e 3VTP e-ra|| app||cal|or does
rol rave lre sare oardW|dlr requ|rererl as a vo|ce over lP
app||cal|or
Transm|ss|on Hed|a L|r|s oelWeer lWo |ocal|ors cou|d ul|||ze lW|sled
pa|r cao|e, l|oer opl|c cao|e, sale|||le d|slr|oul|or or r|croWave
d|slr|oul|or. 0|recl L|re ol 3|le (L03) r|croWave d|slr|oul|or |s lyp|ca||y
||r|led lo 30 r||es (18.2Z |r) W|lroul ar |rlerred|ale repealer sysler.
F|oer opl|c cao|e |s ar exce||erl opl|or lor po|rl-lo-po|rl ||r|s; roWever,
l|oer opl|c cao|e does rol ex|sl |r rary parls ol lre Wor|d. 3ale|||le
d|slr|oul|or ol course does rol requ|re cao|e correcl|v|ly or r|croWave
repealer slal|ors ard car oe used lor d|slarces oelWeer lWo |ocal|ors
up lo approx|rale|y 9,000 r||es (11,181 |r). 3ale|||le d|slr|oul|or |s
a|rosl lre or|y so|ul|or lor po|rl-lo-ru|l|po|rl syslers excepl Wrere
exlers|ve cao|e relWor|s are preserl.

3.1.2.10 0ther Factors are
ous|ress rode|
oll|ce |ocal|ors,
secur|ly reeds,
lrlerrel ard rerole access requ|rererls,
expecled groWlr
cap|la| cosl
salely
operao|||ly
lulure requ|rererls
p|arl operal|rg |rlegr|ly (reed lor doWrl|re).

28
6hapter 4 Network Protoco|s
A relWor| proloco| |s a sel ol ru|es lor corrur|cal|rg oelWeer corpulers. Proloco|s
goverr lorral, l|r|rg, sequerc|rg, ard error corlro|. w|lroul lrese ru|es, lre
corpuler carrol ra|e serse ol lre slrear ol |rcor|rg o|ls.
Tre 0elerse Advarce Researcr Projecls Agercy (0ARPA) or|g|ra||y deve|oped
Trarsr|ss|or Corlro| Proloco|/lrlerrel Proloco| (TCP/lP) lo |rlercorrecl var|ous
delerse deparlrerl corpuler relWor|s. Tre lrlerrel, ar |rlerral|ora| w|de Area
NelWor|, uses TCP/lP lo correcl goverrrerl ard educal|ora| |rsl|lul|ors across lre
Wor|d. TCP/lP |s a|so |r W|despread use or correrc|a| ard pr|vale relWor|s. Tre
TCP/lP su|le |rc|udes lre lo||oW|rg proloco|s
0ala L|r| Layer
ARP/RARP Address Reso|ul|or Proloco|/Reverse Address
0CAP 0ala L|r| 3W|lcr|rg C||erl Access Proloco|

Network Layer
0lCP 0yrar|c losl Corl|gural|or Proloco|
0vVRP 0|slarce veclor Vu|l|casl Roul|rg Proloco|
lCVP/lCVPv lrlerrel Corlro| Vessage Proloco|
l0VP lrlerrel 0roup Varagererl Proloco|
lP lrlerrel Proloco| vers|or 1
lPv lrlerrel Proloco| vers|or
VAR3 Vu|l|casl Address Reso|ul|or 3erver
PlV Proloco| lrdeperderl Vu|l|casl-3parse Vode (PlV-3V)
RlP2 Roul|rg lrlorral|or Proloco|
RlPrg lor lPv Roul|rg lrlorral|or Proloco| lor lPv
R3vP Resource Re3erval|or selup Proloco|
vRRP v|rlua| Rouler Redurdarcy Proloco|

Transport Layer
l3TP
Voo||e lP Voo||e lP Proloco|
Ru0P Re||ao|e u0P
TALl Trarsporl Adapler Layer lrlerlace
TCP Trarsr|ss|or Corlro| Proloco|
u0P user 0alagrar Proloco|
var Jacoosor corpressed TCP
X0T X.25 over TCP

8ess|on Layer
80VP 8order 0aleWay Vu|l|casl Proloco|
0|areler
0l3 0|slr|ouled lrleracl|ve 3|ru|al|or
0N3 0ora|r Nare 3erv|ce
l3AKVP/lKE lrlerrel 3ecur|ly Assoc|al|or ard Key
Varagererl Proloco| ard lrlerrel Key Excrarge Proloco|
|3C3l 3ra|| Corpuler 3yslers lrlerlace
L0AP L|grlWe|grl 0|reclory Access Proloco|
VZAP Vu|l|casl-3cope Zore Arrourcererl Proloco|
Nel8l03/lP Nel8l03/lP lor TCP/lP Erv|rorrerl

App||cat|on Layer
C0P3 Corror 0per Po||cy 3erv|ce
FANP F|oW Allr|oule Nol|l|cal|or Proloco|
F|rger user lrlorral|or Proloco|
FTP F||e Trarsler Proloco|
lTTP lyperlexl Trarsler Proloco|
lVAP1 lrlerrel Vessage Access Proloco| rev 1
lVPPpre/lVPPres lrslarl Vessag|rg ard Preserce Proloco|s
lP0C lP 0ev|ce Corlro|
lRC lrlerrel Re|ay Cral Proloco|
l3AKVP lrlerrel Vessage Access Proloco| vers|or 1rev1
l3P
NTP NelWor| T|re Proloco|
P0P3 Posl 0ll|ce Proloco| vers|or 3
Rad|us Rerole Aulrerl|cal|or 0|a| lr user 3erv|ce
RL00lN Rerole Log|r
RT3P Rea|-l|re 3lrear|rg Proloco|
3CTP 3lrear Corlro| Trarsr|s|or Proloco|
3-lTTP 3ecure lyperlexl Trarsler Proloco|
3LP 3erv|ce Local|or Proloco|
3VTP 3|rp|e Va|| Trarsler Proloco|
3NVP 3|rp|e NelWor| Varagererl Proloco|
30CK3 3oc|el 3ecure (3erver)
TACAC3 Terr|ra| Access Corlro||er Access Corlro| 3ysler
TELNET TCP/lP Terr|ra| Eru|al|or Proloco|
TFTP Tr|v|a| F||e Trarsler Proloco|
wCCP weo Cacre Coord|ral|or Proloco|
X-w|rdoW X w|rdoW

Rout|ng
80P-1 8order 0aleWay Proloco|
E0P Exler|or 0aleWay Proloco|
El0RP Errarced lrler|or 0aleWay Roul|rg Proloco|
l3RP C|sco lol 3lardoy Rouler Proloco|
l0RP lrler|or 0aleWay Roul|rg
NARP N8VA Address Reso|ul|or Proloco|
NlRP Nexl lop Reso|ul|or Proloco|
03PF 0per 3rorlesl Palr F|rsl
TRlP Te|eprory Roul|rg over lP

Tunne||ng
ATVP Ascerd Turre| Varagererl Proloco|
L2F Tre Layer 2 ForWard|rg Proloco|
L2TP Layer 2 Turre||rg Proloco|
PPTP Po|rl lo Po|rl Turre||rg Proloco|

8ecur|ty
Al Aulrerl|cal|or leader
E3P Ercapsu|al|rg 3ecur|ly Pay|oad
TL3 Trarsporl Layer 3ecur|ly Proloco|
29
4.1.1 08| Hode| and Protoco|s
The |so 8tandard Hode| For 6ommun|cat|ons

03l (0per 3yslers lrlerlace) Vode|
Hode| = |l rears lral |l's or|y lreoryl lr lacl lre 03l rode| |s rol yel
lu||y |rp|ererled |r rea| relWor|s.
0pen 3ysler : ll car corrur|cale W|lr ary olrer sysler lral lo||oWs
lre spec|l|ed slardards, lorrals, ard serarl|cs.
Protoco|s g|ve ru|es lral spec|l|y roW lre corrur|cal|or parl|es ray
corrur|cale.
3upporls lWo gerera| lypes ol proloco|s. 8olr are corror.
6onnect|on-0r|ented :
o 3erder ard rece|ver l|rsl eslao||sr a correcl|or, poss|o|y
regol|ale or a proloco|. (v|rlua| c|rcu|l)
o Trarsr|l lre slrear ol dala.
o Re|ease lre correcl|or Wrer dore.
o E.g. Te|eprore correcl|or.
6onnect|on|ess
o No advarce selup |s reeded.
o Trarsr|l lre ressage ( dalagrars ) Wrer serder |s ready.
o E.g. surlace ra||
Cors|sls ol Z |ayers : Eacr |ayer dea|s W|lr a spec|l|c aspecl ol
corrur|cal|or.
Eacr |ayer prov|des ar |rlerlace lo lre |ayer aoove. Tre sel ol
operal|ors del|re lre serv|ce prov|ded oy lral |ayer.
As a ressage serl oy lre lop |ayer |s passed or lo lre rexl |oWer |ayer
url|| lre rosl oollor |ayer.
Al eacr |eve| a reader ray oe preperded lo lre ressage. 3ore |ayers
add oolr a reader ard a lra||er.
Tre |oWesl |ayer lrarsr|ls lre ressage over lre relWor| lo lre
rece|v|rg racr|re. ll corrur|cales W|lr lre rosl oollor |ayer ol lre
rece|ver.
Eacr |ayer lrer slr|ps lre reader (lra||er), rard|es lre ressage us|rg
lre proloco| prov|ded oy lre |ayer ard passes |l or lo lre rexl r|grer
|ayer. F|ra||y lo lre r|gresl |ayer |r lre rece|ver.
Tre 0per 3ysler lrlercorrecl|or (03l) relererce rode| descr|oes roW |rlorral|or
lror a sollWare app||cal|or |r ore corpuler roves lrrougr a relWor| red|ur lo a
sollWare app||cal|or |r arolrer corpuler. Tre 03l relererce rode| |s a corceplua|
rode| corposed ol sever |ayers, eacr spec|ly|rg parl|cu|ar relWor| lurcl|ors. Tre
rode| Was deve|oped oy lre lrlerral|ora| 0rgar|zal|or lor 3lardard|zal|or (l30) |r
1981, ard |l |s roW cors|dered lre pr|rary arcr|leclura| rode| lor |rlercorpuler
corrur|cal|ors. Tre 03l rode| d|v|des lre las|s |rvo|ved W|lr rov|rg |rlorral|or
oelWeer relWor|ed corpulers |rlo sever sra||er, rore rarageao|e las| groups. A
las| or group ol las|s |s lrer ass|gred lo eacr ol lre sever 03l |ayers. Eacr |ayer |s
reasorao|y se|l-corla|red so lral lre las|s ass|gred lo eacr |ayer car oe
|rp|ererled |rdeperderl|y. Tr|s erao|es lre so|ul|ors ollered oy ore |ayer lo oe
updaled W|lroul adverse|y allecl|rg lre olrer |ayers. Tre lo||oW|rg ||sl dela||s lre
sever |ayers ol lre 0per 3ysler lrlercorrecl|or (03l) relererce rode|:
1. App||cat|on
Layer
Tr|s |ayer spec|l|es roW ar app||cal|or uses lre relWor| ard roW
ar app||cal|or prograr or ore racr|re ra|es a requesl ard
roW arolrer respords.
2. Presentat|on
Layer
Tr|s |ayer spec|l|es roW dala srou|d oe represerled oecause
d|llererl corpulers use d|llererl |rlerra| represerlal|ors ol dala
proloco|s lo lrars|ale lror dala or ore racr|re lo dala or
arolrer.
3. 8ess|on
Layer
Tr|s |ayer spec|l|es roW lo eslao||sr, ra|rla|r, ard lerr|rale a
corrur|cal|or sess|or W|lr a rerole corpuler.
1. Transport
Layer
Tr|s |ayer spec|l|es roW lo perlorr re||ao|e lrarsler ol dala lror
ore corpuler lo arolrer.
5. Network
Layer
Tr|s |ayer spec|l|es roW relWor| addresses are ass|gred ard
roW dala |s rouled lror ore corpuler lo arolrer |r lre lorr ol
dala |lers oro|er doWr |rlo relWor| o|oc|s ca||ed pac|els.
. 0ata L|nk
Layer
Tr|s |ayer spec|l|es roW dala |s oro|er doWr lurlrer |rlo lrares
Wr|cr are pac|els Wrapped |r add|l|ora| dala ||r| |rlorral|or,
ard roW lrese lrares are lrarsr|lled over lre relWor|.
Z. Phys|ca|
Layer
Tr|s |ayer spec|l|es var|ous lorrs ol relWor| rardWare ard roW
dala |s lrarsr|lled |r |ls prys|ca| lorr as sore sorl ol Wave or
pu|s|rg e|eclr|ca| s|gra|.
Key to remember the |ayers
A||App||cal|or |ayer
Peop|ePreserlal|or |ayer
3eer3ess|or |ayer
ToTrarsporl |ayer
NeedNelWor| |ayer
0ala0ala ||r| |ayer
Process|rgPrys|ca| |ayer

4.1.1.1 6haracter|st|cs of the 08| Layers
Tre sever |ayers ol lre 03l relererce rode| car oe d|v|ded |rlo lWo calegor|es:
upper |ayers ard |oWer |ayers. Tre upper |ayers ol lre 03l rode| dea| W|lr
app||cal|or |ssues ard gerera||y are |rp|ererled or|y |r sollWare. Tre r|gresl
|ayer, lre app||cal|or |ayer, |s c|osesl lo lre erd user. 8olr users ard app||cal|or
|ayer processes |rleracl W|lr sollWare app||cal|ors lral corla|r a corrur|cal|ors
corporerl. Tre lerr upper |ayer |s sorel|res used lo reler lo ary |ayer aoove
arolrer |ayer |r lre 03l rode|. Tre |oWer |ayers ol lre 03l rode| rard|e dala
lrarsporl |ssues. Tre prys|ca| |ayer ard lre dala ||r| |ayer are |rp|ererled |r
rardWare ard sollWare. Tre |oWesl |ayer, lre prys|ca| |ayer, |s c|osesl lo lre prys|ca|
relWor| red|ur ard |s respors|o|e lor aclua||y p|ac|rg |rlorral|or or lre red|ur.

TWo 3els ol Layers Va|e up lre 03l Layers

4.1.1.2 Protoco|s
Tre 03l rode| prov|des a corceplua| lrareWor| lor corrur|cal|or oelWeer
corpulers, oul lre rode| |lse|l |s rol a relrod ol corrur|cal|or. Aclua|
corrur|cal|or |s rade poss|o|e oy us|rg corrur|cal|or proloco|s. lr lre corlexl ol
dala relWor||rg, a proloco| |s a lorra| sel ol ru|es ard corverl|ors lral goverrs roW
corpulers excrarge |rlorral|or over a relWor| red|ur. A proloco| |rp|ererls lre
lurcl|ors ol ore or rore ol lre 03l |ayers.

A W|de var|ely ol corrur|cal|or proloco|s ex|sl. 3ore ol lrese proloco|s |rc|ude
LAN proloco|s, wAN proloco|s, relWor| proloco|s, ard roul|rg proloco|s. LAN
proloco|s operale al lre prys|ca| ard dala ||r| |ayers ol lre 03l rode| ard del|re
corrur|cal|or over lre var|ous LAN red|a. wAN proloco|s operale al lre |oWesl
lrree |ayers ol lre 03l rode| ard del|re corrur|cal|or over lre var|ous W|de-area
red|a. Roul|rg proloco|s are relWor| |ayer proloco|s lral are respors|o|e lor
excrarg|rg |rlorral|or oelWeer roulers so lral lre roulers car se|ecl lre proper
palr lor relWor| lrall|c. F|ra||y, relWor| proloco|s are lre var|ous upper-|ayer
proloco|s lral ex|sl |r a g|ver proloco| su|le. Vary proloco|s re|y or olrers lor
operal|or. For exarp|e, rary roul|rg proloco|s use relWor| proloco|s lo excrarge
|rlorral|or oelWeer roulers. Tr|s corcepl ol ou||d|rg upor lre |ayers a|ready |r
ex|slerce |s lre lourdal|or ol lre 03l rode|.

4.1.1.3 |nteract|on etween 08| Hode| Layers
A g|ver |ayer |r lre 03l rode| gerera||y corrur|cales W|lr lrree olrer 03l |ayers:
lre |ayer d|recl|y aoove |l, lre |ayer d|recl|y oe|oW |l, ard |ls peer |ayer |r olrer
relWor|ed corpuler syslers. Tre dala ||r| |ayer |r 3ysler A, lor exarp|e,
corrur|cales W|lr lre relWor| |ayer ol 3ysler A, lre prys|ca| |ayer ol 3ysler A,
ard lre dala ||r| |ayer |r 3ysler 8. F|gure 1-1 |||uslrales lr|s exarp|e.

30
03l Vode| Layers Corrur|cale W|lr 0lrer Layers

4.1.1.4 |nformat|on Exchange Process
Tre |rlorral|or excrarge process occurs oelWeer peer 03l |ayers. Eacr |ayer |r
lre source sysler adds corlro| |rlorral|or lo dala, ard eacr |ayer |r lre desl|ral|or
sysler ara|yzes ard reroves lre corlro| |rlorral|or lror lral dala. ll 3ysler A
ras dala lror a sollWare app||cal|or lo serd lo 3ysler 8, lre dala |s passed lo lre
app||cal|or |ayer. Tre app||cal|or |ayer |r 3ysler A lrer corrur|cales ary corlro|
|rlorral|or requ|red oy lre app||cal|or |ayer |r 3ysler 8 oy preperd|rg a reader lo
lre dala. Tre resu|l|rg |rlorral|or ur|l (a reader ard lre dala) |s passed lo lre
preserlal|or |ayer, Wr|cr preperds |ls oWr reader corla|r|rg corlro| |rlorral|or
|rlerded lor lre preserlal|or |ayer |r 3ysler 8. Tre |rlorral|or ur|l groWs |r s|ze
as eacr |ayer preperds |ls oWr reader (ard, |r sore cases, a lra||er) lral corla|rs
corlro| |rlorral|or lo oe used oy |ls peer |ayer |r 3ysler 8. Al lre prys|ca| |ayer, lre
erl|re |rlorral|or ur|l |s p|aced orlo lre relWor| red|ur.

Tre prys|ca| |ayer |r 3ysler 8 rece|ves lre |rlorral|or ur|l ard passes |l lo lre
dala ||r| |ayer. Tre dala ||r| |ayer |r 3ysler 8 lrer reads lre corlro| |rlorral|or
corla|red |r lre reader preperded oy lre dala ||r| |ayer |r 3ysler A. Tre reader |s
lrer reroved, ard lre rera|rder ol lre |rlorral|or ur|l |s passed lo lre relWor|
|ayer. Eacr |ayer perlorrs lre sare acl|ors: Tre |ayer reads lre reader lror |ls
peer |ayer, slr|ps |l oll, ard passes lre rera|r|rg |rlorral|or ur|l lo lre rexl r|gresl
|ayer. Aller lre app||cal|or |ayer perlorrs lrese acl|ors, lre dala |s passed lo lre
rec|p|erl sollWare app||cal|or |r 3ysler 8, |r exacl|y lre lorr |r Wr|cr |l Was
lrarsr|lled oy lre app||cal|or |r 3ysler A.

4.1.1.5 08| Hode| Phys|ca| Layer
Tre prys|ca| |ayer del|res lre e|eclr|ca|, recrar|ca|, procedura|, ard lurcl|ora|
spec|l|cal|ors lor acl|val|rg, ra|rla|r|rg, ard deacl|val|rg lre prys|ca| ||r| oelWeer
corrur|cal|rg relWor| syslers. Prys|ca| |ayer spec|l|cal|ors del|re craracler|sl|cs
sucr as vo|lage |eve|s, l|r|rg ol vo|lage crarges, prys|ca| dala rales, rax|rur
lrarsr|ss|or d|slarces, ard prys|ca| correclors. Prys|ca| |ayer |rp|ererlal|ors car
oe calegor|zed as e|lrer LAN or wAN spec|l|cal|ors.
Phys|ca| Layer |mp|ementat|ons 6an e LAN or wAN 8pec|f|cat|ons

Corcerred W|lr lre lrarsr|ss|or ol o|ls.
loW rary vo|ls lor 0, roW rary lor 1?
Nuroer ol o|ls ol secord lo oe lrarsr|lled.
TWo Way or ore-Way lrarsr|ss|or
3lardard|zed proloco| dea||rg W|lr e|eclr|ca|, recrar|ca| ard s|gra||rg
|rlerlaces.
Vary slardards rave oeer deve|oped, e.g. R3-232 (lor ser|a|
corrur|cal|or ||res).

4.1.1. 08| Hode| 0ata L|nk Layer
Tre dala ||r| |ayer prov|des re||ao|e lrars|l ol dala across a prys|ca| relWor| ||r|.
0|llererl dala ||r| |ayer spec|l|cal|ors del|re d|llererl relWor| ard proloco|
craracler|sl|cs, |rc|ud|rg prys|ca| address|rg, relWor| lopo|ogy, error rol|l|cal|or,
sequerc|rg ol lrares, ard l|oW corlro|. Prys|ca| address|rg (as opposed lo relWor|
address|rg) del|res roW dev|ces are addressed al lre dala ||r| |ayer. NelWor|
lopo|ogy cors|sls ol lre dala ||r| |ayer spec|l|cal|ors lral oller del|re roW dev|ces
are lo oe prys|ca||y correcled, sucr as |r a ous or a r|rg lopo|ogy. Error rol|l|cal|or
a|erls upper-|ayer proloco|s lral a lrarsr|ss|or error ras occurred, ard lre
sequerc|rg ol dala lrares reorders lrares lral are lrarsr|lled oul ol sequerce.
F|ra||y, l|oW corlro| roderales lre lrarsr|ss|or ol dala so lral lre rece|v|rg dev|ce
|s rol overWre|red W|lr rore lrall|c lrar |l car rard|e al ore l|re.

The 0ata L|nk Layer 6onta|ns Two 8ub|ayers

Tre Log|ca| L|r| Corlro| (LLC) suo|ayer ol lre dala ||r| |ayer rarages
corrur|cal|ors oelWeer dev|ces over a s|rg|e ||r| ol a relWor|. LLC |s del|red |r
lre lEEE 802.2 spec|l|cal|or ard supporls oolr correcl|or|ess ard correcl|or-
or|erled serv|ces used oy r|grer-|ayer proloco|s. lEEE 802.2 del|res a ruroer ol
l|e|ds |r dala ||r| |ayer lrares lral erao|e ru|l|p|e r|grer-|ayer proloco|s lo srare a
s|rg|e prys|ca| dala ||r|. Tre Ved|a Access Corlro| (VAC) suo|ayer ol lre dala ||r|
|ayer rarages proloco| access lo lre prys|ca| relWor| red|ur. Tre lEEE VAC
spec|l|cal|or del|res VAC addresses, Wr|cr erao|e ru|l|p|e dev|ces lo ur|que|y
|derl|ly ore arolrer al lre dala ||r| |ayer.

lard|es errors |r lre prys|ca| |ayer.
0roups o|ls |rlo lrares ard ersures lre|r correcl de||very.
Adds sore o|ls al lre oeg|rr|rg ard erd ol eacr lrare p|us lre
crec|sur.
Rece|ver ver|l|es lre crec|sur.
ll lre crec|sur |s rol correcl, |l as|s lor relrarsr|ss|or. (serd a corlro|
ressage).
Cors|sls ol lWo suo|ayers:
o Log|ca| L|r| Corlro| (LLC) del|res roW dala |s lrarslerred
over lre cao|e ard prov|des dala ||r| serv|ce lo lre r|grer
|ayers.
o Ved|ur Access Corlro| (VAC) del|res Wro car use lre
relWor| Wrer ru|l|p|e corpulers are lry|rg lo access |l
s|ru|lareous|y (|.e. To|er pass|rg, Elrerrel [C3VA/C0|).

4.1.1.7 08| Hode| Network Layer
Tre relWor| |ayer del|res lre relWor| address, Wr|cr d|llers lror lre VAC address.
3ore relWor| |ayer |rp|ererlal|ors, sucr as lre lrlerrel Proloco| (lP), del|re
relWor| addresses |r a Way lral roule se|ecl|or car oe delerr|red sysleral|ca||y oy
corpar|rg lre source relWor| address W|lr lre desl|ral|or relWor| address ard
app|y|rg lre suorel ras|. 8ecause lr|s |ayer del|res lre |og|ca| relWor| |ayoul,
roulers car use lr|s |ayer lo delerr|re roW lo lorWard pac|els. 8ecause ol lr|s,
rucr ol lre des|gr ard corl|gural|or Wor| lor |rlerrelWor|s rappers al Layer 3, lre
relWor| |ayer.
Corcerred W|lr lre lrarsr|ss|or ol pac|els.
Croose lre oesl palr lo serd a pac|el ( roul|rg ).
ll ray oe corp|ex |r a |arge relWor| (e.g. lrlerrel).
3rorlesl (d|slarce) roule vs. roule W|lr |easl de|ay.
3lal|c (|org lerr average) vs. dyrar|c (currerl |oad) roul|rg.
TWo proloco|s are rosl W|de|y used.
X.25
o Correcl|or 0r|erled
o Puo||c relWor|s, le|eprore, Europear PTT
o 3erd a ca|| requesl al lre oulsel lo lre desl|ral|or
o ll desl|ral|or accepls lre correcl|or, |l serds ar
correcl|or |derl|l|er
|P (|nternet Protoco|}
o Correcl|or|ess
31
o Parl ol lrlerrel proloco| su|le.
o Ar lP packet car oe serl W|lroul a correcl|or oe|rg
eslao||sred.
o Eacr pac|el |s rouled lo |ls desl|ral|or |rdeperderl|y.

4.1.1.8 08| Hode| Transport Layer
Tre lrarsporl |ayer accepls dala lror lre sess|or |ayer ard segrerls lre dala lor
lrarsporl across lre relWor|. 0erera||y, lre lrarsporl |ayer |s respors|o|e lor ra||rg
sure lral lre dala |s de||vered error-lree ard |r lre proper sequerce. F|oW corlro|
gerera||y occurs al lre lrarsporl |ayer.
F|oW corlro| rarages dala lrarsr|ss|or oelWeer dev|ces so lral lre lrarsr|ll|rg
dev|ce does rol serd rore dala lrar lre rece|v|rg dev|ce car process. Vu|l|p|ex|rg
erao|es dala lror severa| app||cal|ors lo oe lrarsr|lled orlo a s|rg|e prys|ca| ||r|.
v|rlua| c|rcu|ls are eslao||sred, ra|rla|red, ard lerr|raled oy lre lrarsporl |ayer.
Error crec||rg |rvo|ves creal|rg var|ous recrar|srs lor delecl|rg lrarsr|ss|or
errors, Wr||e error recovery |rvo|ves acl|rg, sucr as requesl|rg lral dala oe
relrarsr|lled, lo reso|ve ary errors lral occur.
Tre lrarsporl proloco|s used or lre lrlerrel are TCP ard u0P.
NelWor| |ayer does rol dea| W|lr |osl ressages.
Trarsporl |ayer ersures re||ao|e serv|ce.
8rea|s lre ressage (lror sess|ors |ayer) |rlo sra||er pac|els, ass|grs
sequerce ruroer ard serds lrer.
Re||ao|e lrarsporl correcl|ors are ou||l or lop ol X.25 or lP.
lr case lP, |osl pac|els arr|v|rg oul ol order rusl oe reordered.
TCP : (Trarsporl Corlro| Proloco|) lrlerrel lrarsporl proloco|.
TCP/lP w|de|y used lor relWor|/lrarsporl |ayer (uNlX).
u0P (ur|versa| 0alagrar Proloco|) : lrlerrel correcl|or|ess lrarsporl
|ayer proloco|.
App||cal|or progrars lral do rol reed correcl|or-or|erled proloco|
gerera||y use u0P.

4.1.1.9 08| Hode| 8ess|on Layer
Tre sess|or |ayer eslao||sres, rarages, ard lerr|rales corrur|cal|or sess|ors.
Corrur|cal|or sess|ors cors|sl ol serv|ce requesls ard serv|ce resporses lral
occur oelWeer app||cal|ors |ocaled |r d|llererl relWor| dev|ces. Trese requesls ard
resporses are coord|raled oy proloco|s |rp|ererled al lre sess|or |ayer. 3ore
exarp|es ol sess|or-|ayer |rp|ererlal|ors |rc|ude Zore lrlorral|or Proloco| (ZlP),
lre App|eTa|| proloco| lral coord|rales lre rare o|rd|rg process; ard 3ess|or
Corlro| Proloco| (3CP), lre 0ECrel Prase lv sess|or |ayer proloco|.
Jusl lreoryl very leW app||cal|ors use |l.
Errarced vers|or ol lrarsporl |ayer.
0|a|og corlro|, syrcrror|zal|or lac|||l|es.
Rare|y supporled (lrlerrel su|le does rol).

4.1.1.10 08| Hode| Presentat|on Layer
Tre preserlal|or |ayer prov|des a var|ely ol cod|rg ard corvers|or lurcl|ors lral are
app||ed lo app||cal|or |ayer dala. Trese lurcl|ors ersure lral |rlorral|or serl lror
lre app||cal|or |ayer ol ore sysler Wou|d oe readao|e oy lre app||cal|or |ayer ol
arolrer sysler. 3ore exarp|es ol preserlal|or |ayer cod|rg ard corvers|or
screres |rc|ude corror dala represerlal|or lorrals, corvers|or ol craracler
represerlal|or lorrals, corror dala corpress|or screres, ard corror dala
ercrypl|or screres.

Corror dala represerlal|or lorrals, or lre use ol slardard |rage, sourd, ard
v|deo lorrals, erao|e lre |rlercrarge ol app||cal|or dala oelWeer d|llererl lypes ol
corpuler syslers. Corvers|or screres are used lo excrarge |rlorral|or W|lr
syslers oy us|rg d|llererl lexl ard dala represerlal|ors, sucr as E8C0lC ard
A3Cll. 3lardard dala corpress|or screres erao|e dala lral |s corpressed al lre
source dev|ce lo oe proper|y decorpressed al lre desl|ral|or. 3lardard dala
ercrypl|or screres erao|e dala ercrypled al lre source dev|ce lo oe proper|y
dec|prered al lre desl|ral|or.
Preserlal|or |ayer |rp|ererlal|ors are rol lyp|ca||y assoc|aled W|lr a parl|cu|ar
proloco| slac|. 3ore We||-|roWr slardards lor v|deo |rc|ude 0u|c|T|re ard Vol|or
P|clure Experls 0roup (VPE0). 0u|c|T|re |s ar App|e Corpuler spec|l|cal|or lor
v|deo ard aud|o, ard VPE0 |s a slardard lor v|deo corpress|or ard cod|rg.
Arorg lre We||-|roWr grapr|c |rage lorrals are 0rapr|cs lrlercrarge Forral
(0lF), Jo|rl Prolograpr|c Experls 0roup (JPE0), ard Tagged lrage F||e Forral
(TlFF). 0lF |s a slardard lor corpress|rg ard cod|rg grapr|c |rages. JPE0 |s
arolrer corpress|or ard cod|rg slardard lor grapr|c |rages, ard TlFF |s a
slardard cod|rg lorral lor grapr|c |rages.
Jusl lreoryl very leW app||cal|ors use |l.
Corcerred W|lr lre serarl|cs ol lre o|ls.
0el|re records ard l|e|ds |r lrer.
3erder car le|| lre rece|ver ol lre lorral.
Va|es racr|res W|lr d|llererl |rlerra| represerlal|ors lo corrur|cale.
ll |rp|ererled, lre oesl |ayer lor cryplograpry.

4.1.1.11 08| Hode| App||cat|on Layer
Tre app||cal|or |ayer |s lre 03l |ayer c|osesl lo lre erd user, Wr|cr rears lral oolr
lre 03l app||cal|or |ayer ard lre user |rleracl d|recl|y W|lr lre sollWare app||cal|or.
Tr|s |ayer |rleracls W|lr sollWare app||cal|ors lral |rp|ererl a corrur|cal|rg
corporerl. 3ucr app||cal|or progrars la|| ouls|de lre scope ol lre 03l rode|.
App||cal|or |ayer lurcl|ors lyp|ca||y |rc|ude |derl|ly|rg corrur|cal|or parlrers,
delerr|r|rg resource ava||ao|||ly, ard syrcrror|z|rg corrur|cal|or.
wrer |derl|ly|rg corrur|cal|or parlrers, lre app||cal|or |ayer delerr|res lre
|derl|ly ard ava||ao|||ly ol corrur|cal|or parlrers lor ar app||cal|or W|lr dala lo
lrarsr|l.
wrer delerr|r|rg resource ava||ao|||ly, lre app||cal|or |ayer rusl dec|de Wrelrer
sull|c|erl relWor| resources lor lre requesled corrur|cal|or ex|sl. lr syrcrror|z|rg
corrur|cal|or, a|| corrur|cal|or oelWeer app||cal|ors requ|res cooperal|or lral |s
raraged oy lre app||cal|or |ayer.
3ore exarp|es ol app||cal|or |ayer |rp|ererlal|ors |rc|ude Te|rel, F||e Trarsler
Proloco| (FTP), ard 3|rp|e Va|| Trarsler Proloco| (3VTP).

Co||ecl|or ol r|sce||areous proloco|s lor r|gr |eve| app||cal|ors
E|eclror|c ra||, l||e lrarsler, correcl|rg rerole lerr|ra|s, elc.
E.g. 3VTP, FTP, Te|rel, lTTP, elc.

4.2 Network Protoco|s
Protoco| 6ab|e 8peed Topo|ogy
Ethernet
TW|sled Pa|r, Coax|a|,
F|oer
10 Vops
L|rear 8us, 3lar,
Tree
Fast
Ethernet
TW|sled Pa|r, F|oer 100 Vops 3lar
Loca|Ta|k TW|sled Pa|r .23 Vops L|rear 8us or 3lar
Token R|ng TW|sled Pa|r
1 Vops - 1
Vops
3lar-w|red R|rg
F00| F|oer 100 Vops 0ua| r|rg
ATH TW|sled Pa|r, F|oer
155-2188
Vops
L|rear 8us, 3lar,
Tree

4.2.1 Ethernet
Tre Elrerrel proloco| |s oy lar lre rosl W|de|y used. Elrerrel uses ar
access relrod ca||ed C3VA/C0 (Carr|er 3erse Vu|l|p|e
Access/Co|||s|or 0elecl|or). Tr|s |s a sysler Wrere eacr corpuler
||slers lo lre cao|e oelore serd|rg arylr|rg lrrougr lre relWor|. ll lre
relWor| |s c|ear, lre corpuler W||| lrarsr|l. ll sore olrer rode |s
a|ready lrarsr|ll|rg or lre cao|e, lre corpuler W||| Wa|l ard lry aga|r
Wrer lre ||re |s c|ear. 3orel|res, lWo corpulers allerpl lo lrarsr|l al
lre sare |rslarl. wrer lr|s rappers a co|||s|or occurs. Eacr corpuler
lrer oac|s oll ard Wa|ls a rardor arourl ol l|re oelore allerpl|rg lo
relrarsr|l. w|lr lr|s access relrod, |l |s rorra| lo rave co|||s|ors.
loWever, lre de|ay caused oy co|||s|ors ard relrarsr|ll|rg |s very sra||
ard does rol rorra||y ellecl lre speed ol lrarsr|ss|or or lre relWor|.

Tre Elrerrel proloco| a||oWs lor ||rear ous, slar, or lree lopo|og|es. 0ala
car oe lrarsr|lled over W|re|ess access po|rls, lW|sled pa|r, coax|a|, or
l|oer opl|c cao|e al a speed ol 10 Vops up lo 1000 Vops.
32

4.2.2 Fast Ethernet
To a||oW lor ar |rcreased speed ol lrarsr|ss|or, lre Elrerrel proloco|
ras deve|oped a reW slardard lral supporls 100 Vops. Tr|s |s
corror|y ca||ed Fasl Elrerrel. Fasl Elrerrel requ|res lre use ol
d|llererl, rore expers|ve relWor| corcerlralors/ruos ard relWor|
|rlerlace cards. lr add|l|or, calegory 5 lW|sled pa|r or l|oer opl|c cao|e |s
recessary. Fasl Elrerrel |s oecor|rg corror |r scroo|s lral rave
oeer recerl|y W|red.

4.2.3 C|gab|t Ethernet
Tre rosl recerl deve|oprerl |r lre Elrerrel slardard |s a proloco| lral
ras a lrarsr|ss|or speed ol 1 0ops. 0|gao|l Elrerrel |s pr|rar||y used
lor oac|oores or a relWor| al lr|s l|re. lr lre lulure, |l W||| prooao|y oe
used lor Wor|slal|or ard server correcl|ors a|so. ll car oe used W|lr
oolr l|oer opl|c cao||rg ard copper. Tre 10008aseTX, lre copper cao|e
used lor 0|gao|l Elrerrel, |s expecled lo oecore lre lorra| slardard |r
1999.

4.2.4 Loca|Ta|k
Loca|Ta|| |s a relWor| proloco| lral Was deve|oped oy App|e Corpuler,
lrc. lor Vac|rlosr corpulers. Tre relrod used oy Loca|Ta|| |s ca||ed
C3VA/CA (Carr|er 3erse Vu|l|p|e Access W|lr Co|||s|or Avo|darce). ll |s
s|r||ar lo C3VA/C0 excepl lral a corpuler s|gra|s |ls |rlerl lo lrarsr|l
oelore |l aclua||y does so. Loca|Ta|| adaplers ard spec|a| lW|sled pa|r
cao|e car oe used lo correcl a ser|es ol corpulers lrrougr lre ser|a|
porl. Tre Vac|rlosr operal|rg sysler a||oWs lre eslao||srrerl ol a
peer-lo-peer relWor| W|lroul lre reed lor add|l|ora| sollWare. w|lr lre
add|l|or ol lre server vers|or ol App|e3rare sollWare, a c||erl/server
relWor| car oe eslao||sred. Tre Loca|Ta|| proloco| a||oWs lor ||rear
ous, slar, or lree lopo|og|es us|rg lW|sled pa|r cao|e. A pr|rary
d|sadvarlage ol Loca|Ta|| |s speed. lls speed ol lrarsr|ss|or |s or|y
230 Kops.

4.2.5 Token R|ng
Tre To|er R|rg proloco| Was deve|oped oy l8V |r lre r|d-1980s. Tre
access relrod used |rvo|ves lo|er-pass|rg. lr To|er R|rg, lre
corpulers are correcled so lral lre s|gra| lrave|s arourd lre relWor|
lror ore corpuler lo arolrer |r a |og|ca| r|rg. A s|rg|e e|eclror|c lo|er
roves arourd lre r|rg lror ore corpuler lo lre rexl. ll a corpuler
does rol rave |rlorral|or lo lrarsr|l, |l s|rp|y passes lre lo|er or lo
lre rexl Wor|slal|or. ll a corpuler W|sres lo lrarsr|l ard rece|ves ar
erply lo|er, |l allacres dala lo lre lo|er. Tre lo|er lrer proceeds
arourd lre r|rg url|| |l cores lo lre corpuler lor Wr|cr lre dala |s
rearl. Al lr|s po|rl, lre dala |s caplured oy lre rece|v|rg corpuler. Tre
To|er R|rg proloco| requ|res a slar-W|red r|rg us|rg lW|sled pa|r or l|oer
opl|c cao|e. ll car operale al lrarsr|ss|or speeds ol 1 Vops or 1
Vops. 0ue lo lre |rcreas|rg popu|ar|ly ol Elrerrel, lre use ol To|er
R|rg |r scroo| erv|rorrerls ras decreased.

4.2. F00|
F|oer 0|slr|ouled 0ala lrlerlace (F00l) |s a relWor| proloco| lral |s used
pr|rar||y lo |rlercorrecl lWo or rore |oca| area relWor|s, oller over
|arge d|slarces. Tre access relrod used oy F00l |rvo|ves lo|er-
pass|rg. F00l uses a dua| r|rg prys|ca| lopo|ogy. Trarsr|ss|or
rorra||y occurs or ore ol lre r|rgs; roWever, |l a orea| occurs, lre
sysler |eeps |rlorral|or rov|rg oy auloral|ca||y us|rg porl|ors ol lre
secord r|rg lo creale a reW corp|ele r|rg. A rajor advarlage ol F00l
|s speed. ll operales over l|oer opl|c cao|e al 100 Vops.

4.2.7 ATH
Asyrcrrorous Trarsler Vode (ATV) |s a relWor| proloco| lral lrarsr|ls
dala al a speed ol 155 Vops ard r|grer. ATV Wor|s oy lrarsr|ll|rg a||
dala |r sra|| pac|els ol a l|xed s|ze; Wrereas, olrer proloco|s lrarsler
var|ao|e |erglr pac|els. ATV supporls a var|ely ol red|a sucr as v|deo,
C0-qua||ly aud|o, ard |rag|rg. ATV erp|oys a slar lopo|ogy, Wr|cr car
Wor| W|lr l|oer opl|c as We|| as lW|sled pa|r cao|e.
ATV |s rosl oller used lo |rlercorrecl lWo or rore |oca| area relWor|s.
ll |s a|so lrequerl|y used oy lrlerrel 3erv|ce Prov|ders lo ul|||ze r|gr-
speed access lo lre lrlerrel lor lre|r c||erls. As ATV lecrro|ogy
oecores rore cosl-ellecl|ve, |l W||| prov|de arolrer so|ul|or lor
corslrucl|rg lasler |oca| area relWor|s.

4.2.8 T6P||P - Aoorev|al|or lor Trarsr|ss|or Corlro| Proloco|/lrlerrel Proloco|, lre
su|le ol corrur|cal|ors proloco|s used lo correcl rosls or lre lrlerrel. TCP/lP
uses severa| proloco|s, lre lWo ra|r ores oe|rg TCP ard lP. TCP/lP |s ou||l |rlo lre
uNlX operal|rg sysler ard |s used oy lre lrlerrel, ra||rg |l lre de laclo slardard
lor lrarsr|ll|rg dala over relWor|s. Ever relWor| operal|rg syslers lral rave lre|r
oWr proloco|s, sucr as NelWare, a|so supporl TCP/lP.

4.2.9 0L6 3rorl lor 0ala L|r| Corlro|, lre secord |oWesl |ayer |r lre 03l Relererce
Vode|. Every relWor| |rlerlace card (NlC) ras a 0LC address or 0LC |derl|l|er
(0LCl) lral ur|que|y |derl|l|es lre rode or lre relWor|. 3ore relWor| proloco|s,
sucr as Elrerrel ard To|er-R|rg use lre 0LC addresses exc|us|ve|y.
4.2.10 8NHP 3rorl lor 3|rp|e NelWor| Varagererl Proloco|, a sel ol proloco|s lor
rarag|rg corp|ex relWor|s. Tre l|rsl vers|ors ol 3NVP Were deve|oped |r lre
ear|y 80s. 3NVP Wor|s oy serd|rg ressages, ca||ed proloco| dala ur|ls (P0us), lo
d|llererl parls ol a relWor|. 3NVP-corp||arl dev|ces, ca||ed agerls, slore dala
aooul lrerse|ves |r Varagererl lrlorral|or 8ases (Vl8s) ard relurr lr|s dala lo
lre 3NVP requeslers.

4.2.11 |PX 3rorl lor lrlerrelWor| Pac|el Excrarge, a relWor||rg proloco| used oy
lre Nove|| Nelware operal|rg syslers. L||e u0P/lP, lPX |s a dalagrar proloco|
used lor correcl|or|ess corrur|cal|ors. l|grer-|eve| proloco|s, sucr as 3PX ard
NCP, are used lor add|l|ora| error recovery serv|ces.

4.2.12 8PX 3rorl lor 3equerced Pac|el Excrarge, a lrarsporl |ayer proloco| (|ayer
1 ol lre 03l Vode|) used |r Nove|| NelWare relWor|s. Tre 3PX |ayer s|ls or lop ol
lre lPX |ayer (|ayer 3) ard prov|des correcl|or-or|erled serv|ces oelWeer lWo
rodes or lre relWor|. 3PX |s used pr|rar||y oy c||erl/server app||cal|ors.

4.2.13 NETEU| Prorourced rel-oooey, Neloeu| |s srorl lor Nel8|os Errarced
user lrlerlace. ll |s ar errarced vers|or ol lre Nel8l03 proloco| used oy relWor|
operal|rg syslers sucr as LAN Varager, LAN 3erver, w|rdoWs lor wor|groups,
w|rdoWs 95 ard w|rdoWs NT.
4.2.14 APPLE TALK- Proloco|s use oy Vac|rlosr corpulers
4.3 0|a| Up Network|ng Protoco|s
4.3.1 PPP 3rorl lor Po|rl-lo-Po|rl Proloco|, a relrod ol correcl|rg a corpuler lo
lre lrlerrel. PPP |s rore slao|e lrar lre o|der 3LlP proloco| ard prov|des error-
crec||rg lealures.
4.3.2 8L|P 3rorl lor 3er|a| L|re lrlerrel Proloco|, a relrod ol correcl|rg lo lre
lrlerrel.
4.3.4 RA8 - A lealure ol w|rdoWs lral a||oWs rerole users lo d|a| |r lo ard access
lre relWor|.
4.3.5 Transfer F||e Protoco|s
4.4.1 FTP - Aoorev|al|or ol F||e Trarsler Proloco|, lre proloco| used or lre lrlerrel
lor lrarslerr|rg l||es.
FTP corrards
gel - doWr|oad a l||e
rgel - doWr|oad ru|l|p|e l||es
pul - up|oad a l||e
rpul - up|oad ru|l|p|e l||es
4.4 www Protoco|s
4.4.1 hTTP - 3rorl lor lyperTexl Trarsler Proloco|, lre urder|y|rg proloco| used oy
lre wor|d w|de weo. lTTP del|res roW ressages are lorralled ard lrarsr|lled,
ard Wral acl|ors weo servers ard oroWsers srou|d la|e |r resporse lo var|ous
corrards. For exarp|e, Wrer you erler a uRL |r your oroWser, lr|s aclua||y serds
33
ar lTTP corrard lo lre weo server d|recl|rg |l lo lelcr ard lrarsr|l lre requesled
weo page.
4.5 0|rectory protoco|s
4.5.1 L0AP - 3rorl lor L|grlWe|grl 0|reclory Access Proloco|, a sel ol proloco|s lor
access|rg |rlorral|or d|reclor|es. L0AP |s oased or lre slardards corla|red W|lr|r
lre X.500 slardard, oul |s s|gr|l|carl|y s|rp|er.
4. Newsgroup Protoco|s
4..1 NNTP - 3rorl lor NelWor| NeWs Trarsler Proloco|, lre proloco| used lo posl,
d|slr|oule, ard relr|eve u3ENET or reWsgroup ressages
4.7 E-Ha|| Protoco|s
4.7.1 P0P3- 3rorl lor Posl 0ll|ce Proloco| vers|or 3, lre proloco| used lor rece|v|rg
|rcor|rg e-ra||.
4.7.2 8HTP - 3rorl lor 3|rp|e Va|| Trarsler Proloco|, a proloco| lor serd|rg e-ra||
ressages oelWeer servers. Vosl e-ra|| syslers lral serd ra|| over lre lrlerrel
use 3VTP lo serd ressages lror ore server lo arolrer; lre ressages car lrer oe
relr|eved W|lr ar e-ra|| c||erl us|rg e|lrer P0P or lVAP. lr add|l|or, 3VTP |s
gerera||y used lo serd ressages lror a ra|| c||erl lo a ra|| server.
4.7.3 |HAP4 - lrlerrel Vessag|rg App||cal|or Proloco| vers|or 1 A serv|ce Wrere a
c||erls relr|eves e-ra|| lror a Va|| 3erver
4.8 8ecure Protoco|s
4.8.1 88L - 3rorl lor 3ecure 3oc|els Layer, a proloco| deve|oped oy Nelscape lor
lrarsr|ll|rg pr|vale docurerls v|a lre lrlerrel. 33L Wor|s oy us|rg a puo||c |ey lo
ercrypl dala lral's lrarslerred over lre 33L correcl|or. 8olr Nelscape Nav|galor
ard lrlerrel Exp|orer supporl 33L, ard rary weo s|les use lre proloco| lo oola|r
corl|derl|a| user |rlorral|or, sucr as cred|l card ruroers. 8y corverl|or, uRLs lral
requ|re ar 33L correcl|or slarl W|lr rllps: |rslead ol rllp:.
Arolrer proloco| lor lrarsr|ll|rg dala secure|y over lre wor|d w|de weo |s 3ecure
lTTP (3-lTTP). wrereas 33L creales a secure correcl|or oelWeer a c||erl ard a
server, over Wr|cr ary arourl ol dala car oe serl secure|y, 3-lTTP |s des|gred lo
lrarsr|l |rd|v|dua| ressages secure|y. 33L ard 3-lTTP, lrerelore, car oe seer as
corp|ererlary ralrer lrar corpel|rg lecrro|og|es.
4.8.2 PPTP 3rorl lor Po|rl-lo-Po|rl Turre||rg Proloco|, a reW lecrro|ogy lor
creal|rg v|rlua| Pr|vale NelWor|s (vPNs), deve|oped jo|rl|y oy V|crosoll Corporal|or,
u.3. Roool|cs, ard severa| rerole access verdor corpar|es, |roWr co||ecl|ve|y as
lre PPTP Forur. A vPN |s a pr|vale relWor| ol corpulers lral uses lre puo||c
lrlerrel lo correcl sore rodes. 8ecause lre lrlerrel |s esserl|a||y ar oper
relWor|, lre Po|rl-lo-Po|rl Turre||rg Proloco| (PPTP) |s used lo ersure lral
ressages lrarsr|lled lror ore vPN rode lo arolrer are secure. w|lr PPTP, users
car d|a| |r lo lre|r corporale relWor| v|a lre lrlerrel.

1.8.3 L2TP 3rorl lor Layer TWo (2) Turre||rg Proloco|, ar exlers|or lo lre PPP
proloco| lral erao|es l3Ps lo operale v|rlua| Pr|vale NelWor|s (vPNs). L2TP rerges
lre oesl lealures ol lWo olrer lurre||rg proloco|s: PPTP lror V|crosoll ard L2F
lror C|sco 3yslers. L||e PPTP, L2TP requ|res lral lre l3P's roulers supporl lre
proloco|.
4.9 Network|ng 8erv|ce Protoco|s
4.9.1 w|N8-w|rdoWs lrlerrel Nare 3erv|ce A TCP/lP relWor| serv|ce lor V3
NelWor|s lral reso|ves Nel 8l03 rares ard lac|||lales oroWs|rg across suo
relWor|s
4.9.2 0N8-0ora|r Nare 3erv|ce- A TCP/lP relWor| serv|ce lral lrars|ales rosl
rares lo lrlerrel Proloco| lP address
4.9.3 0h6P-0yrar|c losl Corl|gural|or Proloco| a relrod lor auloral|ca||y
ass|gr|rg lP addresses lo c||erl corpulers or a relWor|
4.9.4 Port Numbers
FTP 21, Te|rel 23, 3VTP 25, lTTP 80, P0P3 110, NNTP 119, L0AP 389, 33L
113
4.10 T6P||P and 08| Hode|s
03l sever-|ayers Vode| TCP-lP Relererce Vode|
!t is the totality of all
applications and their
relating protocols that use
networks and have not yet
been represented by the
lower layers.

Like OS!
Nodel, it
contains all
the higher-
level
protocols.
Here are the standards
necessary for
unambiguously
representing data and
more generally, a syntax
of messages to be
transmitted (simple text,
executable code,
pictures...).

.
Because no
need for
them was
perceived,
Presentation
and Session
layers are
not included
in the
TCPf!P
Nodel
!t establishes a connection
with another node and
manages the data flow
from the higher layers to
the lower ones by
managing the timing of
data transmission and the
memory buffer managing,
when several applications
try to transmit data at the
same time.

. .
!t handles the
transmission, reception
and error checking of the
data.

The same as
OS! Nodel
!t is concerned with the
physical transmission of
the data from computer to
computer. There is one
further level of software to
be considered, the
network level. !t routes
the packages across a
particular network.

!t is the
linchpin that
holds the
whole
architecture
together : it
permits to
send and
receive
packets,
even if they
are in
random
order.

!t handles the
transmission of a framed
set of data (usually a
sequence of bits) from one
point in a network (node)
to another one. This layer
also represents the
boundary
betweenhardware (e.g.
CRC) and software
implementation (e.g.
physical addressing).

The TCPf!P
reference
model does
not really
say much
about what
happens
here, except
to point out
that the host
has to

The physical medium used
to transmit the
information. To specify
this layer, it is necessary
to define the physical
properties of the
connection, such as
mechanical properties,
electricalfoptical
properties, functional
aspects of the data
transmission
(modulationfdemodulation
for example) and
procedural aspects of data
transmission (e.g. bit
stuffing to ensure that
special signals are
unequivocal).

connect to
the network
using some
protocol so it
can send !P
packets over
it. This
protocol is
not defined
and varies
from host to
host and
network to
network.

34

4.11 T6P||P Evo|ut|on
Tre or|g|ra| vers|ors ol oolr TCP ard lP lral are |r corror use loday
Were Wr|ller |r 3epleroer 1981, a|lrougr oolr rave rad severa|
rod|l|cal|ors app||ed lo lrer . lr 1983, lre 0o0 rardaled lral a|| ol
lre|r corpuler syslers Wou|d use lre TCP/lP proloco| su|le lor |org-
rau| corrur|cal|ors, lurlrer errarc|rg lre scope ard |rporlarce ol
lre ARPANET. lr 1983, lre ARPANET Was sp||l |rlo lWo corporerls.
0re corporerl, sl||| ca||ed ARPANET, Was used lo |rlercorrecl
researcr/deve|oprerl ard acader|c s|les; lre olrer, ca||ed VlLNET,
Was used lo carry r|||lary lrall|c ard oecare parl ol lre 0elerse 0ala
NelWor|. Tral year a|so saW a ruge ooosl |r lre popu|ar|ly ol TCP/lP
W|lr |ls |rc|us|or |r lre corrur|cal|ors |erre| lor lre ur|vers|ly ol
Ca||lorr|a s uNlX |rp|ererlal|or, 1.2830 uNlX.

lr 198, lre Nal|ora| 3c|erce Fourdal|or (N3F) ou||l a oac|oore
relWor| lo |rlercorrecl lour N3F-lurded reg|ora| supercorpuler
cerlers ard lre Nal|ora| Cerler lor Alrosprer|c Researcr (NCAR).
Tr|s relWor|, duooed lre N3FNET, Was or|g|ra||y |rlerded as a
oac|oore lor olrer relWor|s, rol as ar |rlercorrecl|or recrar|sr lor
|rd|v|dua| syslers. Furlrerrore, lre Appropr|ale use Po||cy del|red
oy lre N3F ||r|led lrall|c lo ror-correrc|a| use. Tre N3FNET
corl|rued lo groW ard prov|de correcl|v|ly oelWeer oolr N3F-lurded
ard ror-N3F reg|ora| relWor|s, everlua||y oecor|rg lre oac|oore lral
We |roW loday as lre lrlerrel. A|lrougr ear|y N3FNET app||cal|ors
Were |arge|y ru|l|proloco| |r ralure, TCP/lP Was erp|oyed lor
|rlercorrecl|v|ly.

4.11.1 T6P
TCP |s a correcl|or-or|erled lrarsporl proloco| lral serds dala as ar urslruclured
slrear ol oyles. 8y us|rg sequerce ruroers ard ac|roW|edgrerl ressages, TCP
car prov|de a serd|rg rode W|lr de||very |rlorral|or aooul pac|els lrarsr|lled lo a
desl|ral|or rode. wrere dala ras oeer |osl |r lrars|l lror source lo desl|ral|or, TCP
car relrarsr|l lre dala url|| e|lrer a l|reoul cord|l|or |s reacred or url|| successlu|
de||very ras oeer acr|eved. TCP car a|so recogr|ze dup||cale ressages ard W|||
d|scard lrer appropr|ale|y. ll lre serd|rg corpuler |s lrarsr|ll|rg loo lasl lor lre
rece|v|rg corpuler, TCP car erp|oy l|oW corlro| recrar|srs lo s|oW dala lrarsler.
TCP car a|so corrur|cale de||very |rlorral|or lo lre upper-|ayer proloco|s ard
app||cal|ors |l supporls.

4.11.2 |P
lP |s lre pr|rary |ayer 3 proloco| |r lre lrlerrel su|le. lr add|l|or lo |rlerrelWor|
roul|rg, lP prov|des error reporl|rg ard lragrerlal|or ard reassero|y ol |rlorral|or
ur|ls ca||ed dalagrars lor lrarsr|ss|or over relWor|s W|lr d|llererl rax|rur dala
ur|l s|zes. lP represerls lre rearl ol lre lrlerrel proloco| su|le.
lP addresses are g|ooa||y ur|que, 32-o|l ruroers ass|gred oy lre NelWor|
lrlorral|or Cerler. 0|ooa||y ur|que addresses perr|l lP relWor|s aryWrere |r lre
Wor|d lo corrur|cale W|lr eacr olrer. Ar lP address |s d|v|ded |rlo lrree parls.
Tre l|rsl parl des|grales lre relWor| address, lre secord parl des|grales lre suorel
address, ard lre lr|rd parl des|grales lre rosl address.

lP address|rg supporls lrree d|llererl relWor| c|asses. C|ass A relWor|s are
|rlerded ra|r|y lor use W|lr a leW very |arge relWor|s, oecause lrey prov|de or|y 8
o|ls lor lre relWor| address l|e|d. C|ass 8 relWor|s a||ocale 1 o|ls, ard C|ass C
relWor|s a||ocale 21 o|ls lor lre relWor| address l|e|d. C|ass C relWor|s or|y
prov|de 8 o|ls lor lre rosl l|e|d, roWever, so lre ruroer ol rosls per relWor| ray oe
a ||r|l|rg laclor. lr a|| lrree cases, lre |ellrosl o|l(s) |rd|cale lre relWor| c|ass. lP
addresses are Wr|ller |r dolled dec|ra| lorral.
lP a|so re||es or proloco|s |r arolrer |ayer lo prov|de error delecl|or ard error
recovery. 8ecause |l corla|rs ro error delecl|or or recovery code, lP |s sorel|res
ca||ed ar urre||ao|e proloco|.
Tre lurcl|ors perlorred al lr|s |ayer are as lo||oWs:
0ef|ne the datagram, wh|ch |s the bas|c un|t of transm|ss|on |n the
|nternet. Tre TCP/lP proloco|s Were ou||l lo lrarsr|l dala over lre
ARPANET, Wr|cr Was a pac|el sW|lcr|rg relWor|. A pac|el |s a o|oc| ol
dala lral carr|es W|lr |l lre |rlorral|or recessary lo de||ver |l|r a
rarrer s|r||ar lo a posla| |eller lral ras ar address Wr|ller or |ls
erve|ope. A pac|el sW|lcr|rg relWor| uses lre address|rg |rlorral|or
|r lre pac|els lo sW|lcr pac|els lror ore prys|ca| relWor| lo arolrer,
rov|rg lrer loWard lre|r l|ra| desl|ral|or. Eacr pac|el lrave|s lre
relWor| |rdeperderl|y ol ary olrer pac|el. Tre dalagrar |s lre pac|el
lorral del|red oy lP.
0ef|ne the |nternet address|ng scheme. lP de||vers lre dalagrar oy
crec||rg lre desl|ral|or address |r lre reader. ll lre desl|ral|or
address |s lre address ol a rosl or lre d|recl|y allacred relWor|, lre
pac|el |s de||vered d|recl|y lo lre desl|ral|or. ll lre desl|ral|or address
|s rol or lre |oca| relWor|, lre pac|el |s passed lo a galeWay lor
de||very. 0aleWays ard roulers are dev|ces lral sW|lcr pac|els oelWeer
lre d|llererl prys|ca| relWor|s. 0ec|d|rg Wr|cr galeWay lo use |s ca||ed
roul|rg. lP ra|es lre roul|rg dec|s|or lor eacr |rd|v|dua| pac|el.
Hove data between the Network Access Layer and the host-to-
host Transport Layer. wrer lP rece|ves a dalagrar lral |s addressed
lo lre |oca| rosl, |l rusl pass lre dala porl|or ol lre dalagrar lo lre
correcl rosl-lo-rosl lrarsporl |ayer proloco|. Tr|s se|ecl|or |s dore oy
us|rg lre proloco| ruroer |r lre dalagrar reader. Eacr rosl-lo-rosl
lrarsporl |ayer proloco| ras a ur|que proloco| ruroer lral |derl|l|es |l lo
lP.
Route datagrams to remote hosts. lrlerrel galeWays are corror|y
(ard perraps rore accurale|y) relerred lo as lP roulers oecause lrey
use lP lo roule pac|els oelWeer relWor|s. lr lrad|l|ora| TCP/lP jargor,
lrere are or|y lWo lypes ol relWor| dev|ces: galeWays ard rosls.
0aleWays lorWard pac|els oelWeer relWor|s ard rosls do rol.
loWever, |l a rosl |s correcled lo rore lrar ore relWor| (ca||ed a
ru|l|-rored rosl), |l car lorWard pac|els oelWeer lre relWor|s. wrer
a ru|l|-rored rosl lorWards pac|els, |l acls |||e ary olrer galeWay ard
|s cors|dered lo oe a galeWay.
Fragment and reassemb|e datagrams. As a dalagrar |s rouled
lrrougr d|llererl relWor|s, |l ray oe recessary lor lre lP rodu|e |r a
galeWay lo d|v|de lre dalagrar |rlo sra||er p|eces. A dalagrar
rece|ved lror ore relWor| ray oe loo |arge lo oe lrarsr|lled |r a s|rg|e
pac|el or a d|llererl relWor|. Tr|s cord|l|or or|y occurs Wrer a
galeWay |rlercorrecls d|ss|r||ar prys|ca| relWor|s.
Eacr lype ol relWor| ras a rax|rur lrarsr|ss|or ur|l (VTu), Wr|cr
|s lre |argesl pac|el |l car lrarsler. ll lre dalagrar rece|ved lror ore
relWor| |s |orger lrar lre olrer relWor|'s VTu, |l |s recessary lo d|v|de
lre dalagrar |rlo sra||er lragrerls lor lrarsr|ss|or. Tr|s d|v|s|or
process |s ca||ed lragrerlal|or.
4.11.2.1 |P Address Format
Tre 32-o|l lP address |s grouped e|grl o|ls al a l|re, separaled oy dols, ard
represerled |r dec|ra| lorral (|roWr as dolled dec|ra| rolal|or). Eacr o|l |r lre
oclel ras a o|rary We|grl (128, 1, 32, 1, 8, 1, 2, 1). Tre r|r|rur va|ue lor ar
oclel |s 0, ard lre rax|rur va|ue lor ar oclel |s 255. |||uslrales lre oas|c lorral ol
ar lP address.
4.11.2.2 |P 8ubnet Address|ng
lP relWor|s car oe d|v|ded |rlo sra||er relWor|s ca||ed suorelWor|s (or
suorels). 3uorell|rg prov|des lre relWor| adr|r|slralor W|lr severa|
oerel|ls, |rc|ud|rg exlra l|ex|o|||ly, rore ell|c|erl use ol relWor|
addresses, ard lre capao|||ly lo corla|r oroadcasl lrall|c (a oroadcasl
W||| rol cross a rouler).
3uorels are urder |oca| adr|r|slral|or. As sucr, lre ouls|de Wor|d sees
ar orgar|zal|or as a s|rg|e relWor| ard ras ro dela||ed |roW|edge ol
lre orgar|zal|or's |rlerra| slruclure.
A g|ver relWor| address car oe oro|er up |rlo rary suorelWor|s. For
exarp|e, 1Z2.1.1.0, 1Z2.1.2.0, 1Z2.1.3.0, ard 1Z2.1.1.0 are a||
suorels W|lr|r relWor| 1Z1.1.0.0. (A|| 0s |r lre rosl porl|or ol ar
address spec|l|es lre erl|re relWor|.)
35
4.11.2.3 |P 8ubnet Hask
A suorel address |s crealed oy oorroW|rg o|ls lror lre rosl l|e|d ard des|gral|rg
lrer as lre suorel l|e|d. Tre ruroer ol oorroWed o|ls var|es ard |s spec|l|ed oy lre
suorel ras|. sroWs roW o|ls are oorroWed lror lre rosl address l|e|d lo creale lre
suorel address l|e|d.

4.11.3 The T6P||P Hode|
Tre TCP/lP rode| does rol exacl|y ralcr lre 03l rode|. Trere |s ro ur|versa|
agreererl regard|rg roW lo descr|oe TCP/lP W|lr a |ayered rode| oul |l |s gerera||y
agreed lral lrere are leWer |eve|s lrar lre sever |ayers ol lre 03l rode|. Vosl
descr|pl|ors preserl lror lrree lo l|ve |ayers. lr lr|s lecrr|ca| relererce docurerl
lre |ayers ol lre TCP/lP rode| are del|red as lo||oWs:

4.11.3.1 App||cat|on Layer
lr TCP/lP lre App||cal|or Layer a|so |rc|udes lre 03l Preserlal|or
Layer ard 3ess|or Layer. lr lr|s docurerl ar app||cal|or |s ary process
lral occurs aoove lre Trarsporl Layer. Tr|s |rc|udes a|| ol lre
processes lral |rvo|ve user |rleracl|or. Tre app||cal|or delerr|res lre
preserlal|or ol lre dala ard corlro|s lre sess|or. lr TCP/lP lre lerrs
socket ard port are used lo descr|oe lre palr over Wr|cr app||cal|ors
corrur|cale. Trere are rurerous app||cal|or |eve| proloco|s |r
TCP/lP, |rc|ud|rg 3|rp|e Va|| Trarsler Proloco| (3VTP) ard Posl 0ll|ce
Proloco| (P0P) used lor e-ra||, lyper Texl Trarsler Proloco| (lTTP)
used lor lre wor|d-w|de-weo, ard F||e Trarsler Proloco| (FTP). Vosl
app||cal|or |eve| proloco|s are assoc|aled W|lr ore or rore porl ruroer.

F||e Transfer Protoco| (FTP}
ll Was des|gred lo perr|l re||ao|e lrarsler ol l||es over d|llererl
p|allorrs. Al lre lrarsporl |ayer lo ersure re||ao|||ly, FTP uses TCP. FTP
ollers s|rp|e corrards ard ra|es lre d|llererces |r slorage relrods
across relWor|s lrarsparerl lo lre user. Tre FTP c||erl |s ao|e lo
|rleracl W|lr ary FTP server; lrerelore lre FTP server rusl a|so oe ao|e
lo |rleracl W|lr ary FTP c||erl. FTP does rol oller a user |rlerlace, oul |l
does oller ar app||cal|or prograr |rlerlace lor l||e lrarsler. Tre c||erl
parl ol lre proloco| |s ca||ed as FTP ard lre server parl ol lre proloco| |s
|roWr as FTPd.

Tre sull|x d rears 0aeror lr|s |s a |egacy lror ur|x corpul|rg
Wrere a daeror |s a p|ece ol sollWare rurr|rg or a server lral ollers a
serv|ce.

hyper Text Transfer Protoco|
lTTP perr|ls app||cal|ors sucr as oroWsers lo up|oad ard doWr|oad
Weo pages. ll ra|es use ol TCP al lre lrarsporl |ayer aga|r lo crec|
re||ao|||ly. lTTP |s a correcl|or|ess proloco| lral serds a requesl,
rece|ves a resporse ard lrer d|scorrecls lre correcl|or. lTTP
de||vers lTVL docurerls p|us a|| ol lre olrer corporerls supporled
W|lr|r lTVL sucr as Java3cr|pl, v|sua| scr|pl ard app|els.

8|mp|e Ha|| Transfer Protoco|
8y us|rg TCP, 3VTP serds era|| lo olrer corpulers lral supporl lre
TCP/lP proloco| su|le. 3VTP prov|des exlers|or lo lre |oca| ra||
serv|ces lral ex|sled |r lre ear|y years ol LANs. ll superv|ses lre era||
serd|rg lror lre |oca| ra|| rosl lo a rerole ra|| rosl. ll |s rol re||ao|e
lor accepl|rg ra|| lror |oca| users or d|slr|oul|rg rece|ved ra|| lo
rec|p|erls lr|s |s lre respors|o|||ly ol lre |oca| ra|| sysler.

3VTP ra|es use ol TCP lo eslao||sr a correcl|or lo lre rerole ra||
rosl, lre ra|| |s serl, ary Wa|l|rg ra|| |s requesled ard lrer lre
correcl|or |s d|scorrecled. ll car a|so relurr a lorWard|rg address |l lre
|rlerded rec|p|erl ro |orger rece|ves era|| al lral desl|ral|or. To
erao|e ra|| lo oe de||vered across d|ller|rg syslers, a ra|| galeWay |s
used.

8|mp|e Network Hanagement Protoco|
For lre lrarsporl ol relWor| raragererl |rlorral|or, 3NVP |s used as
slardard|zed proloco|. Varaged relWor| dev|ces car oe cross
exar|red oy a corpuler rurr|rg lo relurr dela||s aooul lre|r slalus ard
|eve| ol acl|v|ly. 0oserv|rg sollWare car a|so lr|gger a|arrs |l cerla|r
perlorrarce cr|ler|a drop oe|oW acceplao|e reslr|cl|ors. Al lre lrarsporl
|ayer 3NVP proloco| uses u0P. Tre use ol u0P resu|ls |r decreas|rg
relWor| lrall|c overreads.
lr add|l|or lo W|de|y |roWr proloco|s, lre app||cal|or |ayer |rc|udes lre lo||oW|rg
proloco|s:

Te|net. Erao|es users lo execule lerr|ra| sess|ors W|lr rerole rosls.
0oma|n Name 8erv|ce (0N8}. A|so ca||ed rare serv|ce; lr|s
app||cal|or raps lP addresses lo lre rares ass|gred lo relWor|
dev|ces.
Rout|ng |nformat|on Protoco| (R|P}. Roul|rg |s cerlra| lo lre Way
TCP/lP Wor|s. RlP |s used oy relWor| dev|ces lo excrarge roul|rg
|rlorral|or.
8|mp|e Network Hanagement Protoco| (8NHP}. A proloco| lral |s
used lo co||ecl raragererl |rlorral|or lror relWor| dev|ces.
Network F||e 8ystem (NF8}. A sysler deve|oped oy 3ur V|crosyslers
lral erao|es corpulers lo rourl dr|ves or rerole rosls ard operale
lrer as |l lrey Were |oca| dr|ves.

4.11.3.2 Transport Layer
lr TCP/lP lrere are lWo Trarsporl Layer proloco|s. Tre Trarsr|ss|or
Corlro| Proloco| (TCP) guararlees lral |rlorral|or |s rece|ved as |l Was
serl. Tre user 0alagrar Proloco| (u0P) perlorrs ro erd-lo-erd
re||ao|||ly crec|s.

4.11.3.3 |nternet Layer
lr lre 03l Relererce Vode| lre NelWor| Layer |so|ales lre upper |ayer
proloco|s lror lre dela||s ol lre urder|y|rg relWor| ard rarages lre
correcl|ors across lre relWor|. Tre lrlerrel Proloco| (lP) |s rorra||y
descr|oed as lre TCP/lP NelWor| Layer. 8ecause ol lre lrler-
NelWor||rg erpras|s ol TCP/lP lr|s |s corror|y relerred lo as lre
lrlerrel Layer. A|| upper ard |oWer |ayer corrur|cal|ors lrave| lrrougr
lP as lrey are passed lrrougr lre TCP/lP proloco| slac|.

4.11.3.4 Network Access Layer
lr TCP/lP lre 0ala L|r| Layer ard Prys|ca| Layer are rorra||y grouped
logelrer. TCP/lP ra|es use ol ex|sl|rg 0ala L|r| ard Prys|ca| Layer
slardards ralrer lrar del|r|rg |ls oWr. Vosl RFCs lral reler lo lre 0ala
L|r| Layer descr|oe roW lP ul|||zes ex|sl|rg dala ||r| proloco|s sucr as
Elrerrel, To|er R|rg, F00l, l33l, ard ATV. Tre craracler|sl|cs ol lre
rardWare lral carr|es lre corrur|cal|or s|gra| are lyp|ca||y del|red oy
lre Prys|ca| Layer. Tr|s descr|oes allr|oules sucr as p|r corl|gural|ors,
vo|lage |eve|s, ard cao|e requ|rererls. Exarp|es ol Prys|ca| Layer
slardards are R3-232C, v.35, ard lEEE 802.3.

Tre lour |ayer slruclure ol TCP/lP |s ou||l as |rlorral|or |s passed doWr lror
app||cal|ors lo lre prys|ca| relWor| |ayer. wrer dala |s serl, eacr |ayer lreals a|| ol
lre |rlorral|or |l rece|ves lror lre |ayer aoove as dala ard adds corlro| |rlorral|or
lo lre lrorl ol lral dala. Tr|s corlro| |rlorral|or |s ca||ed a header, ard lre add|l|or
ol a reader |s ca||ed encapsu|at|on. wrer dala |s rece|ved, lre oppos|le procedure
la|es p|ace as eacr |ayer reroves |ls reader oelore pass|rg lre dala lo lre |ayer
aoove.

36
6hapter 5 Network |nsta||at|on and
6onf|gurat|on

Pract|ca| 0o the fo||ow|ng
5.1 lrsla|| ard corl|gure a relWor|, us|rg lre lo||oW|rg dev|ces
- luos, sW|lcres, roulers, or|dges, dala cao|rels,
palcr pare|s, palcr cords, l|y |eads
- Parareler sell|rg or PC or 3erver, sW|lcres,
roulers, rad|os

5.2 Prepare ard |rsla|| relWor| cao|es, use lre lo||oW|rg
- Trur||rg |rsla||al|or, cao|e |ay|rg ard cao|e
lerr|ral|or

5.3 0|scuss roW you Wou|d lesl ard corr|ss|or a relWor|

37
6hapter Network 8ecur|ty
|P 8ecur|ty
Tre l|e|d ol relWor| secur|ly |r gerera| ard ol TCP/lP secur|ly |r parl|cu|ar |s loo
W|de lo oe dea|l W|lr We la|e lre rosl corror secur|ly exposures ard reasures lo
courleracl lrer. 8ecause rary, |l rol a||, secur|ly so|ul|ors are oased or
cryplograpr|c a|gor|lrrs.

.1 8ecur|ty |ssues
Tr|s secl|or g|ves ar overv|eW ol sore ol lre rosl corror allac|s or corpuler
secur|ly, ard |l preserls v|ao|e so|ul|ors lo lrose exposures ard ||sls aclua|
|rp|ererlal|ors.

.1.1 6ommon Attacks
For lrousards ol years, peop|e rave oeer guard|rg lre gales lo Wrere lrey slore
lre|r lreasures ard assels. Fa||ure lo do so usua||y resu|led |r oe|rg roooed,
reg|ecled oy soc|ely or ever ||||ed. Trougr lr|rgs are usua||y rol as draral|c
aryrore, lrey car sl||| oecore very oad. Voderr day l/T raragers rave rea||zed
lral |l |s equa||y |rporlarl lo prolecl lre|r corrur|cal|ors relWor|s aga|rsl |rlruders
ard saooleurs lror oolr |rs|de ard ouls|de. we do rol rave lo oe over|y pararo|d lo
l|rd sore good reasors Wry lr|s |s lre case:
Tapp|rg lre W|re: lo gel access lo c|earlexl dala ard passWords
lrpersoral|or: lo gel uraulror|zed access lo dala or lo creale
uraulror|zed e-ra||s, orders, elc.
0er|a|-ol-serv|ce: lo rerder relWor| resources ror-lurcl|ora|
Rep|ay ol ressages: lo gel access lo ard crarge |rlorral|or |r lrars|l
0uess|rg ol passWords: lo gel access lo |rlorral|or ard serv|ces lral
Wou|d rorra||y oe der|ed.
0uess|rg ol |eys: lo gel access lo ercrypled dala ard passWords
(orule-lorce allac|, croser c|prerlexl allac|, croser p|a|rlexl allac|)
v|ruses, lrojar rorses ard |og|c ooros: lo deslroy dala

Trougr lrese allac|s are rol exc|us|ve|y spec|l|c lo TCP/lP relWor|s, lrey srou|d
oe cors|dered polerl|a| lrreals lo aryore Wro |s go|rg lo oase r|s/rer relWor| or
TCP/lP, Wr|cr |s Wral lre rajor|ly ol erlerpr|ses, orgar|zal|ors ard sra||
ous|resses arourd lre Wor|d are do|rg loday. lac|ers (rore prec|se|y, crac|ers) do
|||eW|se ard rerce l|rd easy prey.

.1.2 0bserv|ng the as|cs
8elore ever lr|r||rg aooul |rp|ererl|rg advarced secur|ly lecrr|ques sucr as
lre ores rerl|ored |r lre lo||oW|rg secl|ors, you srou|d ra|e sure lral oas|c
secur|ly ru|es are |r p|ace:

PassWords: Va|e sure lral passWords are erlorced lo oe ol a r|r|rur |erglr
(lyp|ca||y s|x lo e|grl craraclers), lo corla|r al |easl ore rurer|c craracler, lo oe
d|llererl lror lre user l0 lo Wr|cr lrey oe|org, ard lo oe crarged al |easl orce
every lWo rorlrs.

user l0s: Va|e sure lral every user ras a passWord ard lral users are |oc|ed oul
aller severa| |ogor allerpls W|lr Wrorg passWords (lyp|ca||y l|ve allerpls). Keep lre
passWords lo superuser accourls (rool, superv|sor, adr|r|slralor, ra|rl, elc.) arorg
a very ||r|led c|rc|e ol lrusled sysler, relWor| ard secur|ly adr|r|slralors.

3ysler delau|ls: Va|e sure lral delau|l user l0s are e|lrer d|sao|ed or rave
passWords lral adrere lo lre r|r|rur requ|rererls slaled aoove. L||eW|se, ra|e
sure lral or|y lrose serv|ces are erao|ed lral are requ|red lor a sysler lo lu|l||| |ls
des|graled ro|e.

Prys|ca| access: Va|e sure lral access lo lre |ocal|ors Wrere your syslers ard
users prys|ca||y res|de |s corlro||ed appropr|ale|y. lrlorral|or secur|ly oeg|rs al lre
recepl|or|sl, rol al lre corporale l|reWa||.

le|p des|: Va|e sure lral ca||ers are proper|y |derl|l|ed oy re|p des|
represerlal|ves or sysler adr|r|slralors oelore lrey g|ve oul lorgoller
passWords or user l0s. 3oc|a| erg|reer|rg |s oller lre l|rsl slep lo allac| a corpuler
relWor|.

.2 8o|ut|ons to 8ecur|ty |ssues
Trerelore, a coro|ral|or ol severa| sucr so|ul|ors srou|d oe cors|dered |r order lo
guararlee a cerla|r |eve| ol salely ard secur|ly.
Ercrypl|or: lo prolecl dala ard passWords
Aulrerl|cal|or ard aulror|zal|or: lo preverl |rproper access
lrlegr|ly crec||rg ard ressage aulrerl|cal|or codes (VACs): lo prolecl
aga|rsl lre |rproper a|leral|or ol ressages
Nor-repud|al|or: lo ra|e sure lral ar acl|or carrol oe der|ed oy lre
persor Wro perlorred |l
0|g|la| s|gralures ard cerl|l|cales: lo ascerla|r a parly's |derl|ly
0re-l|re passWords ard lWo-Way rardor ruroer rardsra|es: lo
rulua||y aulrerl|cale parl|es ol a corversal|or
Frequerl |ey relresr, slrorg |eys ard preverl|or ol der|v|rg lulure |eys:
lo prolecl aga|rsl orea||rg ol |eys (cryplo-ara|ys|s)
Address corcea|rerl: lo prolecl aga|rsl der|a|-ol-serv|ce allac|s
Corlerl |rspecl|or: lo crec| app||cal|or-|eve| dala lor ra||c|ous corlerl
oelore de||ver|rg |l |rlo lre secure relWor|

Prob|em | Exposure Remedy Ava||ab|e Techno|og|es
0.loW lo ra|e orea|-|rs |rlo ry relWor| as d|ll|cu|l as poss|o|e?
lrsla|| a coro|ral|or ol secur|ly lecrro|og|es lor relWor|s as We|| as lor
app||cal|ors.
F|reWa||s (lP l||ler|rg proxy servers 30CK3 lP3ec, elc.). Arl|v|rus
corlerl |rspecl|or |rlrus|or delecl|or sollWare.
No sysler delau|ls erlorced passWord po||c|es.
PassWords lor every user ard every serv|ce/app||cal|or ACLs.
Exlers|ve |ogg|rg a|erl|rg lrequerl |og aud|ls/ara|ys|s.
No uraulror|zed d|a|-|r ca||oac|.

loW lo prolecl aga|rsl v|ruses, lrojar rorses, |og|c ooros, elc.?
Reslr|cl access lo ouls|de sources.
Rur arl|v|rus sollWare or every server ard Wor|slal|or.
Rur corlerl-screer|rg sollWare or your galeWays lor app||cal|or dala
(ra||, l||es, weo pages, elc.) ard roo||e code (Java, Acl|veX, elc.)
updale lral sollWare lrequerl|y.
l8V/Norlor Arl|v|rus, elc.

loW lo preverl lre |rproper use ol serv|ces oy olrerW|se proper|y aulrerl|caled
users?
use a ru|l|-|ayer access corlro| rode| oased or ACLs.
App||cal|or secur|ly (08V3,
weo servers, Lolus Noles, elc.). 3erver l||e syslers (uNlX, NTF3,
Nelware, lPF3-38, elc.).
3ysler secur|ly serv|ces (RACF, 0CE, uNlX, NT, elc.).

loW lo oola|r |rlorral|or or poss|o|e secur|ly exposures?
0oserve secur|ly d|recl|ves oy orgar|zal|ors sucr as CERT ard your
rardWare ard sollWare verdors
loW lo ra|e sure lral or|y lrose peop|e, lral you Warl d|a| |rlo your
relWor|?
use access corlro| al ||r| eslao||srrerl oy v|rlue ol cerlra|
aulrerl|cal|or serv|ces, lWo-laclor aulrerl|cal|or, elc.
RA0lu3 (opl|ora||y us|rg Keroeros, RACF, elc.),

loW do you |roW lral your sysler ras oeer oro|er |rlo?
use exlers|ve |ogg|rg ard exar|re |ogs lrequerl|y.
use |rlrus|or delecl|or progrars.
App||cal|or/3erv|ce access |ogs (Lolus Noles, 082/u08, weo servers,
elc.).
3ysler |ogs (uNlX, w|rdoWs NT, A3/100,elc.).
F|reWa|| |ogs ard a|erl|rg (l8V l|reWa||s, elc.).
3yslers raragererl ard a|erl|rg (T|vo||, elc.)

loW lo preverl W|re lappers lror read|rg ressages?
Ercrypl ressages, lyp|ca||y us|rg a srared secrel |ey. (3ecrel
|eys oller a lrererdous perlorrarce advarlage over
puo||c/pr|vale|eys.)

loW lo ra|e sure lral a ressage ras rol oeer a|lered |r lrars|l?
use ressage d|gesls (rasr or ore-Way lurcl|ors).

loW lo ra|e sure lral lre ressage ard s|gralure or|g|raled lror lre des|red
parlrer?
use lWo-Way rardsra|es |rvo|v|rg ercrypled rardor ruroers
(rulua| aulrerl|cal|or).

38

loW lo ra|e sure lral rardsra|es are excrarged W|lr lre r|grl parlrers (rar-|r-
lre-r|dd|e allac|)?
use d|g|la| cerl|l|cales (o|rd|rg ol puo||c |eys lo perrarerl
|derl|l|es).

.3 The Need for a 8ecur|ty Po||cy
ll |s |rporlarl lo po|rl oul lral you carrol |rp|ererl secur|ly |l you rave rol
dec|ded Wral reeds lo oe prolecled ard lror Wror. You reed a secur|ly po||cy, a
||sl ol Wral you cors|der a||oWao|e ard Wral you do rol cors|der a||oWao|e, upor
Wr|cr lo oase ary dec|s|ors regard|rg secur|ly. Tre po||cy srou|d a|so delerr|re
your resporse lo secur|ly v|o|al|ors.

Exacl|y Wro do you Warl lo guard aga|rsl?
0o rerole users reed access lo your relWor|s ard syslers?
loW do you c|ass|ly corl|derl|a| or sers|l|ve |rlorral|or?
0o lre syslers corla|r corl|derl|a| or sers|l|ve |rlorral|or?
wral W||| lre corsequerces oe |l lr|s |rlorral|or |s |ea|ed lo your
corpel|lors or olrer ouls|ders?
w||| passWords or ercrypl|or prov|de erougr prolecl|or?
0o you reed access lo lre lrlerrel?

.
.3.1 Network 8ecur|ty Po||cy
ll you correcl your sysler lo lre lrlerrel lrer you car sale|y assure lral your
relWor| |s polerl|a||y al r|s| ol oe|rg allac|ed. Your galeWay or l|reWa|| |s your
grealesl exposure, so We recorrerd lre lo||oW|rg:
1. Tre galeWay srou|d rol rur ary rore app||cal|ors lrar |s aoso|ule|y
recessary; lor exarp|e, proxy servers ard |ogg|rg oecause app||cal|ors
rave delecls lral car oe exp|o|led.
2. Tre galeWay srou|d slr|cl|y ||r|l lre lype ard ruroer ol proloco|s
a||oWed lo l|oW lrrougr |l or lerr|rale correcl|ors al lre galeWay lror
e|lrer s|de, oecause proloco|s polerl|a||y prov|de secur|ly ro|es.
3. Ary sysler corla|r|rg corl|derl|a| or sers|l|ve |rlorral|or srou|d rol
oe d|recl|y access|o|e lror lre ouls|de.
1. 0erera||y, aroryrous access srou|d al oesl oe grarled lo servers |r a
der|||lar|zed zore.
5. A|| serv|ces W|lr|r a corporale |rlrarel srou|d requ|re al |easl passWord
aulrerl|cal|or ard appropr|ale access corlro|.
. 0|recl access lror lre ouls|de srou|d a|Ways oe aulrerl|caled ard
accourled.

Tre relWor| secur|ly po||cy del|res lrose serv|ces lral W||| oe exp||c|l|y a||oWed or
der|ed, roW lrese serv|ces W||| oe used ard lre excepl|ors lo lrese ru|es. Every ru|e
|r lre relWor| secur|ly po||cy srou|d oe |rp|ererled or a l|reWa|| ard/or Rerole
Access 3erver (RA3). 0erera||y, a l|reWa|| uses ore ol lre lo||oW|rg relrods.

Everyth|ng not spec|f|ca||y perm|tted |s den|ed.
Tr|s approacr o|oc|s a|| lrall|c oelWeer lWo relWor|s excepl lor lrose serv|ces ard
app||cal|ors lral are perr|lled.

Everyth|ng not spec|f|ca||y den|ed |s perm|tted.
Tr|s approacr a||oWs a|| lrall|c oelWeer lWo relWor|s excepl lor lrose serv|ces ard
app||cal|ors lral are der|ed.

.4 Network p|ann|ng
.4.1 Expect|ng the worst, P|ann|ng for the worst
6ore Network:Tr|s |s lre relWor| Wrere your ous|ress-cr|l|ca| app||cal|ors ard lre|r
supporl|rg syslers are |ocaled. Tr|s parl ol lre relWor| requ|res rax|rur
prolecl|or lror lre ouls|de ard |s usua||y a|so |epl aparl lror |rlerra| users as ar
add|l|ora| |ayer ol prolecl|or.

Per|meter Network: Tr|s |s lre relWor| Wrere your puo||c resources are |ocaled.
Trese |rc|ude weo ard FTP servers oul a|so app||cal|or galeWays ard syslers lral
prov|de spec|a||zed secur|ly lurcl|ors, sucr as corlerl |rspecl|or, v|rus prolecl|or
ard |rlrus|or delecl|or. Tr|s parl
ol lre relWor| |s lyp|ca||y secured lror lre ouls|de as We|| as lre |rs|de lo prov|de
rax|rur |so|al|or ol lre lrall|c |r lr|s relWor|. Tr|s
parl ol lre relWor| ray a|so corla|r |rlerra| users.

Access Network: Tr|s |s lre relWor|, Wrelrer pr|vale, puo||c or v|rlua|, |eased or
d|a|-up, lral |s used oy lre ouls|de lo access your relWor| ard |ls serv|ces ard
app||cal|ors. Tr|s relWor| |s lyp|ca||y secured lo lre ouls|de or|y.

.4.2 wh|ch Techno|ogy To App|y, and where?
.4.2.1 Access Network Va||d|ty
To prolecl lre access relWor|, you car erp|oy rerole access aulrerl|cal|or
lecrro|og|es, sucr as RA0lu3, lo ersure lral ro uraulror|zed or urWarled access
allerpl |s grarled v|a d|a|-up correcl|ors. To prolecl |eased ||re correcl|ors over
pr|vale relWor|s, e|lrer relWor| rardWare secur|ly (lor |rslarce, ercrypl|or) or
lP3ec are exarp|es ol adequale prolecl|or. To prolecl correcl|ors over puo||c
relWor|s, lP3ec |s cors|dered your oesl cro|ce oecause |l prov|des per-pac|el
aulrerl|cal|or ard ercrypl|or oased or slrorg cryplograpr|c a|gor|lrrs.

.4.2.2 Per|meter Network Va||d|ty
To secure your per|reler relWor|, lre rosl corror reasure cors|sls ol ore or
rore l|reWa||s ard prooao|y ore or rore der|||lar|zed zores (0VZ).

.4.2.3 0ata Va||d|ty
0rce access lo lre relWor| ras oeer proper|y |derl|l|ed ard aulror|zed, |l |s
|rporlarl lral you la|e a |oo| al lre dala lral l|oWs |r ard oul ol lre relWor|, ur|ess
lrere |s a requ|rererl lo a||oW d|recl access lo |rlerra| syslers lror lre ouls|de.

.4.2.4 User Va||d|ty
Al lre erd ol lre dala palr, users srou|d oe proper|y aulrerl|caled lo lre
app||cal|ors lrey are access|rg. Tral Way, you car calcr |rposlors Wro rave
soreroW lourd lre|r Way |rlo lre olrer s|de ol lre corrur|cal|or.

.4.2.5 8ystem Va||d|ty
Tre syslers lral prov|de lre app||cal|ors reed lrerse|ves lo oe prolecled aga|rsl
secur|ly oreacres. PassWord prolecl|or, access corlro| ||sls ard ercrypl|or ol |oca||y
slored dala car oe guards aga|rsl |rproper use, Wrereas arl|v|rus progrars car
|eep lre exposure lo ra||c|ous progrars |oW.

.5 8ecur|ty Techno|og|es
Tr|s secl|or prov|des or|el descr|pl|ors ol lre rosl corror|y used secur|ly
lecrro|og|es |r loday's relWor|s.

.5.1 8ecur|ng the Network
Tre so|ul|ors descr|oed |r lr|s secl|or car oe corror|y urderslood lo prov|de
prolecl|or recrar|srs lor relWor|-|eve| secur|ly.

.5.1.1 Packet F||ters
Vosl ol lre l|re, pac|el l||ler|rg |s accorp||sred oy us|rg a rouler lral car lorWard
pac|els accord|rg lo l||ler|rg ru|es. wrer a pac|el arr|ves al lre pac|el-l||ler|rg
rouler, lre rouler exlracls cerla|r |rlorral|or lror lre pac|el reader ard ra|es
dec|s|ors accord|rg lo lre l||ler ru|es as lo Wrelrer lre pac|el W||| pass lrrougr or
oe d|scarded. Tre lo||oW|rg |rlorral|or car oe exlracled lror lre pac|el reader:

3ource lP address
0esl|ral|or lP address
TCP/u0P source porl
TCP/u0P desl|ral|or porl
lrlerrel Corlro| Vessage Proloco| (lCVP) ressage lype
Ercapsu|aled proloco| |rlorral|or (TCP, u0P, lCVP or lP lurre|)

.5.1.2 F|rewa||s
F|reWa||s rave s|gr|l|carl lurcl|ors |r ar orgar|zal|or's secur|ly po||cy. Trerelore, |l
|s |rporlarl lo urderslard lrese lurcl|ors ard app|y lrer lo lre relWor| proper|y.
Tr|s crapler exp|a|rs lre l|reWa|| corcepl, relWor| secur|ly, l|reWa|| corporerls ard
l|reWa|| exarp|es. A l|reWa|| |s a sysler (or group ol syslers) lral erlorces a
secur|ly po||cy oelWeer a secure |rlerra| relWor| ard ar urlrusled relWor| sucr as
lre lrlerrel. F|reWa||s lerd lo oe seer as prolecl|or oelWeer lre lrlerrel ard a
pr|vale relWor|. 8ul gerera||y spea||rg a l|reWa|| srou|d oe cors|dered as a rears
lo d|v|de lre Wor|d |rlo lWo or rore relWor|s: ore or rore secure relWor|s ard ore
or rore ror-secure relWor|s.

A l|reWa|| car oe a PC, a rouler, a r|drarge, a ra|rlrare, a uNlX Wor|slal|or, or a
coro|ral|or ol lrese lral delerr|res Wr|cr |rlorral|or or serv|ces car oe accessed
lror lre ouls|de ard Wro |s perr|lled lo use lre |rlorral|or ard serv|ces lror lre
ouls|de. 0erera||y, a l|reWa|| |s |rsla||ed al lre po|rl Wrere lre secure |rlerra|
relWor| ard urlrusled exlerra| relWor| reel Wr|cr |s a|so |roWr as a cro|e po|rl.
lr order lo urderslard roW a l|reWa|| Wor|s, cors|der lre relWor| as a ou||d|rg lo
Wr|cr access rusl oe corlro||ed. Tre ou||d|rg ras a |oooy as lre or|y erlry po|rl. lr
39
lr|s |oooy, recepl|or|sls We|core v|s|lors, secur|ly guards Walcr v|s|lors, v|deo
careras record v|s|lor acl|ors ard oadge readers aulrerl|cale v|s|lors Wro erler lre
ou||d|rg.

A|lrougr lrese procedures ray Wor| We|| lo corlro| access lo lre ou||d|rg, |l ar
uraulror|zed persor succeeds |r erler|rg, lrere |s ro Way lo prolecl lre ou||d|rg
aga|rsl lr|s |rlruder's acl|ors. loWever, |l lre |rlruder's rovererls are ror|lored, |l
ray oe poss|o|e lo delecl ary susp|c|ous acl|v|ly. 3|r||ar|y, a l|reWa|| |s des|gred lo
prolecl lre |rlorral|or resources ol lre orgar|zal|or oy corlro|||rg lre access
oelWeer lre |rlerra| secure relWor| ard lre urlrusled exlerra| relWor| (see F|gure
9Z or page 20Z). loWever, |l |s |rporlarl lo role lral ever |l lre l|reWa|| |s des|gred
lo perr|l lre lrusled dala lo pass lrrougr, dery lre vu|rerao|e serv|ces ard preverl
lre |rlerra| relWor| lror ouls|de allac|s, a
reW|y crealed allac| ray perelrale lre l|reWa|| al ary l|re. Tre relWor|
adr|r|slralor rusl exar|re a|| |ogs ard a|arrs gereraled oy lre l|reWa|| or a
regu|ar oas|s. 0lrerW|se, |l |s rol poss|o|e lo prolecl lre |rlerra| relWor| lror
ouls|de allac|s.

0eperd|rg or lre requ|rererls, a l|reWa|| car cors|sl ol ore or rore ol lre
lo||oW|rg lurcl|ora| corporerls:
1. Pac|el-l||ler|rg rouler
2. App||cal|or |eve| galeWay (Proxy)
3. C|rcu|l |eve| galeWay (30CK3)
1. v|rlua| pr|vale relWor| (vPN) galeWay
Eacr ol lrese corporerls ras d|llererl lurcl|ors ard srorlcor|rgs.
0erera||y, |r order lo ou||d ar ellecl|ve l|reWa||, lrese corporerls are
used logelrer.

.5.1.4 |ntrus|on 0etect|on Techno|og|es
F|reWa||s ard sore pac|el-l||ler|rg roulers rorra||y prov|de a lac|||ly lor |ogg|rg a||
sorls ol everls. loWever, |r order lo l|rd oul |l your relWor| ras oeer corpror|sed,
you reed lo eva|uale lrose |ogs Wr|cr W||| or|y revea| a orea|-|r aller |l ras aclua||y
occurred. Logg|rg |s lrerelore cors|der a pass|ve Way ol delerr|r|rg lre slale ol
your relWor| secur|ly. lrlrus|or delecl|or lecrro|ogy prov|des a Way lo acl|ve|y
ror|lor a|| lrall|c lral l|oWs |r ard oul ol your relWor|. ll lrer ralcres cerla|r
pallerrs aga|rsl your secur|ly po||cy ard car delerr|re |r rea| l|re |l a proo|er
occurs. You car lrer opl lo srul doWr a polerl|a||y corpror|sed erlry po|rl |r order
lo delerr|re lre cause ol lre proo|er, or you car croose lo ror|lor lre orea|-|r
allerpl lo l|rd oul lror Wrere |l or|g|rales.

.5.1.5 8ecur|ng the Transact|ons
Tre so|ul|ors descr|oed |r lr|s secl|or car oe corror|y urderslood lo prov|de
prolecl|or recrar|srs lor lrarsacl|or-|eve| secur|ly.

.5.1. Proxy 8ervers
Ar app||cal|or |eve| galeWay |s oller relerred lo as a proxy. Aclua||y, ar app||cal|or
|eve| galeWay prov|des r|grer |eve| corlro| or lre lrall|c oelWeer lWo relWor|s |r
lral lre corlerls ol a parl|cu|ar serv|ce car oe ror|lored ard l||lered

.5.1.7 806K8
A c|rcu|l |eve| galeWay re|ays TCP ard a|so u0P correcl|ors ard does rol prov|de
ary exlra pac|el process|rg or l||ler|rg. A c|rcu|l |eve| galeWay car oe sa|d lo oe a
spec|a| lype ol app||cal|or |eve| galeWay. Tr|s |s oecause lre app||cal|or |eve|
galeWay car oe corl|gured lo pass a|| |rlorral|or orce lre user |s aulrerl|caled,
jusl as lre c|rcu|l |eve| galeWay.

.5.1.8 8ecure 8ockets Layer (88L}
33L |s a secur|ly proloco| lral Was deve|oped oy Nelscape Corrur|cal|ors
Corporal|or, a|org W|lr R3A 0ala 3ecur|ly, lrc. Tre pr|rary goa| ol lre 33L
proloco| |s lo prov|de a pr|vale crarre| oelWeer corrur|cal|rg app||cal|ors, Wr|cr
ersures pr|vacy ol dala, aulrerl|cal|or ol lre parlrers ard |rlegr|ly. 33L prov|des ar
a|lerral|ve lo lre slardard TCP/lP soc|el APl lral ras secur|ly |rp|ererled W|lr|r |l.
Tre 33L proloco| addresses lre lo||oW|rg secur|ly |ssues:

Pr|vacy: Aller lre syrrelr|c |ey |s eslao||sred |r lre |r|l|a| rardsra|e,
lre ressages are ercrypled us|rg lr|s |ey.
|ntegr|ty: Vessages corla|r a ressage aulrerl|cal|or code (VAC)
ersur|rg lre ressage |rlegr|ly.
Authent|cat|on: 0ur|rg lre rardsra|e, lre c||erl aulrerl|cales lre
server us|rg ar asyrrelr|c or puo||c |ey. ll car a|so oe oased or
cerl|l|cales.

33L requ|res eacr ressage lo oe ercrypled ard decrypled ard lrerelore, ras a
r|gr perlorrarce ard resource overread.

.5.1.9 6ontent |nspect|on Techno|og|es
Corlerl |rspecl|or |s lyp|ca||y perlorred oy spec|a|-purpose app||cal|or |ayer
galeWays (prox|es). Trose syslers rol or|y aulrerl|cale lre use ol ar app||cal|or
oul a|so scrul|r|ze lre app||cal|or dala lral lraverses lre proxy server. ll lral dala
does rol ralcr a g|ver secur|ly po||cy lor lral app||cal|or |l W||| rol oe a||oWed lo
|eave lre proxy, ard rol|l|cal|ors ray oe serl lo secur|ly adr|r|slralors. Exarp|es
ol lr|s lecrro|ogy are lTTP prox|es lral scar lTTP dala lor cerla|r uRLs, e-ra|| or
VlVE galeWays lral scar dala lor ollers|ve lexl, or spec|a||zed galeWays lral car
rur roo||e code (lor exarp|e, Java ard Acl|veX) |r a sardoox lo delerr|re |ls
rarrlu|ress lo a user's sysler or app||cal|or.

.5.1.10 V|rus Protect|on Techno|og|es
Corpuler v|ruses are spec|a| p|eces ol code ol a usua||y deslrucl|ve ralure. Trey
allacr lrerse|ves lo cerla|r l||e lypes ard lrave| lror ore sysler lo arolrer Wrer
|rlecled l||es are cop|ed or serl over a relWor|. 0rce a v|rus reacres a corpuler, |l
spreads |lse|l over as rary l||es as poss|o|e lo ersure lre rax|rur |||e||rood ol
lurlrer lrarsporlal|or as We|| as rax|rur deslrucl|or. 3ore parl|cu|ar|y d|saslrous
v|ruses rod|ly parl|l|or ard oool seclor |rlorral|or or rard dr|ves ard rerder
|rlecled syslers corp|ele|y urusao|e. Arl|v|rus sollWare |s des|gred lo |derl|ly
v|ruses ard lo slop lrer oelore lrey car corl|rue lre|r deslrucl|ve Wor| ard lrave|
lo rore syslers. v|ruses usua||y rave a spec|a| s|gralure lral lrey |eave oer|rd or
|rlecled l||es |||e a lra||.

Arl|v|rus sollWare slores rary ol lrose s|gralures |r a dalaoase ard car lrus crec|
l||es aga|rsl v|rus s|gralures lo delerr|re Wrelrer lrey rave oeer |rlecled. A good
arl|v|rus dalaoase a|so |roWs lre l||e s|zes ol W|de|y used app||cal|or sollWare
execulao|es ard car crec| lre |rlegr|ly ol sucr l||es.

.5.1.11 Cenera| Purpose Encrypt|on
Ercrypl|or |s ar ell|c|erl Way lo ra|e dala urreadao|e lo ur|rlerded rec|p|erls. ll
rard|ed proper|y, |l |s a very ellecl|ve Way lo prov|de secur|ly. loWever, |l rard|ed
poor|y, ercrypl|or car oe a lrreal lo your dala ralrer lrar a prolecl|or. Rereroer
lral ercrypl|or requ|res |eys lo lrarslorr c|earlexl |rlo c|prerlexl ard v|ce versa. ll
lrose |eys gel |osl or slo|er, lor |rslarce oy a sysler adr|r|slralor Wro |eaves lre
corpary W|lroul rard|rg |r ercrypl|or |eys prev|ous|y urder r|s/rer cuslody, your
dala |s corpror|sed ard, Wral's Worse, you ray rol oe ao|e lo access |l aryrore
(oul your corpel|lors r|grl). Trerelore, as parl ol your secur|ly po||cy, you srou|d
c|ear|y del|re |l ercrypl|or |s al a|| recessary, ard |l so, lor Wral lypes ol dala, al
Wral po|rls |r lre relWor|, ard Wro srou|d oe aulror|zed lo use |l.
Trere are gerera||y lWo Ways lo prolecl aga|rsl lre |oss or lrell ol ercrypl|or |eys:
Key Escrow
Tr|s lecrr|que prov|des lor lre slorage ard relr|eva| ol |eys ard dala |r
case |eys gel |osl or slo|er. Keys are slored W|lr a lrusled lr|rd parly
(recovery agerl or |ey guard|ar), as a Wro|e or |r parls, or |rdeperderl
slorage red|a, lo oe relr|eved as requ|red. Tre lrusled lr|rd parly cou|d
oe a corpary |ey adr|r|slralor |ocaled or corpary prer|ses, or ar
exlerra| agercy. Tr|s ersures lral lre |eys rera|r |r a corpary's
possess|or ever aller a sysler adr|r|slralor or Wroever used lre |eys
|eaves lre corpary.

Key Recovery
Tr|s lecrr|que Was des|gred lo a||oW |aW erlorcererl agerc|es (LEA)
lo recover lre |eys lor decrypl|rg secrel ressages ol susp|c|ous
parl|es. 0l course, you car a|so use lr|s approacr lo recover your oWr
|eys yourse|l, oul |l |s a ralrer corp||caled process ard |ess pracl|ca|
lrar |ey escroW. 0re Way ol |rp|ererl|rg |ey recovery |s oy |rserl|rg
|ey recovery o|oc|s |r lre dala slrear al rardor |rlerva|s ard/or Wrer
lre |eys crarge. Trose |ey recovery o|oc|s are ercrypled W|lr lre
puo||c |ey ol a lrusled lr|rd parly (|ey recovery agerl). Tre |ey recovery
agerls car decrypl |eys W|lr lre|r pr|vale |eys, lrer ercrypl relr|eved
|eys W|lr lre puo||c |ey ol ar LEA ard serd lrer lo lre LEA. LEAs car
decrypl |eys W|lr lre|r pr|vale |eys ard lrer decrypl lre prev|ous|y
relr|eved c|prerlexl ressages.

.5.1.12 V|rtua| Pr|vate Networks
Tre lrlerrel ras oecore a popu|ar, |oW-cosl oac|oore |rlraslruclure. lls ur|versa|
reacr ras |ed rary corpar|es lo cors|der corslrucl|rg a secure v|rlua| pr|vale
relWor| (vPN) over lre puo||c lrlerrel. Tre cra||erge |r des|gr|rg a vPN lor loday's
g|ooa| ous|ress erv|rorrerl W||| oe lo exp|o|l lre puo||c lrlerrel oac|oore lor oolr
40
|rlra-corpary ard |rler-corpary corrur|cal|or Wr||e sl||| prov|d|rg lre secur|ly ol
lre lrad|l|ora| pr|vale, se|l-adr|r|slered corporale relWor|.

3urrar|zed oe|oW are lre requ|rererls lral rusl oe rel oy vPN |rp|ererlal|ors
lo prov|de ar adequale corporale relWor| |rlraslruclure over a puo||c relWor|:
0ata 0r|g|n Authent|cat|on and Non-Repud|at|on
ver|l|es lral eacr dalagrar Was urder|ao|y or|g|raled oy lre c|a|red
serder.

0ata |ntegr|ty
ver|l|es lral lre corlerls ol lre dalagrar Were rol crarged |r lrars|l.

0ata 6onf|dent|a||ty
Corcea|s lre c|earlexl ol a ressage, lyp|ca||y oy us|rg ercrypl|or.

Rep|ay Protect|on
Ersures lral ar allac|er carrol |rlercepl a dalagrar ard p|ay |l oac| al
sore olrer l|re.

.5.1.13 0|g|ta| 6ert|f|cates and Pub||c Key |nfrastructures (PK|}
Tre so|ul|or lo rary roderr secur|ly lecrro|og|es |s lre d|g|la| cerl|l|cale. A d|g|la|
cerl|l|cale |s a l||e lral o|rds ar |derl|ly lo lre assoc|aled puo||c |ey. Tr|s o|rd|rg |s
va||daled oy a lrusled lr|rd parly, lre cerl|l|cal|or aulror|ly (CA). A d|g|la| cerl|l|cale |s
s|gred W|lr lre pr|vale |ey ol lre cerl|l|cal|or aulror|ly, so |l car oe aulrerl|caled. ll
|s |ssued or|y aller a ver|l|cal|or ol lre app||carl. Aparl lror lre puo||c |ey ard
|derl|l|cal|or, a d|g|la| cerl|l|cale usua||y corla|rs olrer |rlorral|or loo, sucr as:
0ale ol |ssue
Exp|ral|or dale
V|sce||areous |rlorral|or lror |ssu|rg CA (lor exarp|e, ser|a|
ruroer)
Note: Trere |s ar |rlerral|ora| slardard |r p|ace lor d|g|la| cerl|l|cales: lre l30
X.509 proloco|s.

.5.1.14 Key E|ements of Network 8ecur|ty
3uccesslu||y us|rg lrlerrel lecrro|og|es requ|res ar |rcreased reed lo prolecl
va|uao|e dala ard relWor| resources lror corrupl|or ard |rlrus|or.
C|sco's secur|ly so|ul|or |s corpr|sed ol l|ve |ey e|ererls:
|dent|ty
lderl|ly |s lre accurale ard pos|l|ve |derl|l|cal|or ol relWor| users,
rosls, app||cal|ors, serv|ces, ard resources. 3lardard lecrro|og|es lral
erao|e |derl|l|cal|or |rc|ude aulrerl|cal|or proloco|s sucr as RA0lu3
ard TACAC3, Keroeros, ard ore-l|re passWord loo|s. NeW
lecrro|og|es sucr as d|g|la| cerl|l|cales, srarl cards, ard d|reclory
serv|ces are oeg|rr|rg lo p|ay |rcreas|rg|y |rporlarl ro|es |r |derl|ly
so|ul|ors.
Per|meter 8ecur|ty
Tr|s e|ererl prov|des lre rears lo corlro| access lo cr|l|ca| relWor|
app||cal|ors, dala, ard serv|ces so lral or|y |eg|l|rale users ard
|rlorral|or car pass lrrougr lre relWor|. Roulers ard sW|lcres W|lr
access corlro| ||sls ard/or slalelu| l|reWa|||rg, as We|| as ded|caled
l|reWa|| app||arces prov|de lr|s corlro|. Corp|ererlary loo|s, |rc|ud|rg
v|rus scarrers ard corlerl l||lers, a|so re|p corlro| relWor| per|relers.
0ata Pr|vacy
wrer |rlorral|or rusl oe prolecled lror eavesdropp|rg, lre ao|||ly lo
prov|de aulrerl|caled, corl|derl|a| corrur|cal|or or derard |s cruc|a|.
3orel|res, dala separal|or us|rg lurre||rg lecrro|og|es, sucr as
gerer|c roul|rg ercapsu|al|or (0RE) or Layer 2 Turre||rg Proloco|
(L2TP), prov|des ellecl|ve dala pr|vacy. 0ller, roWever, add|l|ora|
pr|vacy requ|rererls ca|| lor lre use ol d|g|la| ercrypl|or lecrro|ogy ard
proloco|s sucr as lPsec. Tr|s added prolecl|or |s espec|a||y |rporlarl
Wrer |rp|ererl|rg vPNs.
8ecur|ty Hon|tor|ng
To ersure lral a relWor| rera|rs secure, |l |s |rporlarl lo regu|ar|y lesl
ard ror|lor lre slale ol secur|ly preparal|or. NelWor| vu|rerao|||ly
scarrers car proacl|ve|y |derl|ly areas ol Wea|ress, ard |rlrus|or
delecl|or syslers car ror|lor ard respord lo secur|ly everls as lrey
occur. us|rg secur|ly ror|lor|rg so|ul|ors, orgar|zal|ors car oola|r
urprecederled v|s|o|||ly |rlo oolr lre relWor| dala slrear ard lre
secur|ly poslure ol lre relWor|.
Po||cy Hanagement
As relWor|s groW |r s|ze ard corp|ex|ly, lre requ|rererl lor cerlra||zed
po||cy raragererl loo|s groWs as We||. 3opr|sl|caled loo|s lral car
ara|yze, |rlerprel, corl|gure, ard ror|lor lre slale ol secur|ly po||cy,
W|lr oroWser-oased user |rlerlaces, errarce lre usao|||ly ard
ellecl|veress ol relWor| secur|ly so|ul|ors.
.5.1.15 Pract|ce
0ata Recovery P|an, what |s |t? |s |t |mportant? why? how |s formu|ated
and |mp|emented? wr|te |n not more 3000wosrd but not |ess than 2700
words.

41
6hapter 7 Network Hanagement

Network Hanagement
3ysler Varagererl usua||y relers lo lre d|sc|p||re ol rarag|rg lre resources or a
rosl, lor exarp|e lre d|s| space, rerory,
perlorrarce ard oac|ups, elc. NelWor| Varagererl, |r |ls slr|cl serse, relers lo
lre raragererl ol lre relWor| |rlraslruclure: lre relWor||rg dev|ces, lre ||r|s,
lre perlorrarce ol lre relWor|, elc. 8ul |r lr|s ooo|, We reler lo relWor|
raragererl as a gerer|c lerr.

The Var|ous 0|sc|p||nes
NelWor| raragererl |rvo|ves rary aspecls ol a corpary's corpul|rg
erv|rorrerl. ll |s oesl lo d|v|de lrese |rlo var|ous d|sc|p||res:

0ep|oyment : 0ep|oyrerl relers lo rav|rg lre ao|||ly lo cerlra||y corl|gure ar
app||cal|orard lrer d|slr|oule |l lo lre users lrrougr lre relWor|. ll |s respors|o|e lor
lre|rsla||al|or, upgrade ard ever rerova| ol lre app||cal|ors lror a cerlra|
corlro| |ocal|or.

Ava||ab|||ty: Ava||ao|||ly ersures lral lre users are preserled W|lr a re||ao|e ard
pred|clao|e serv|ce lror lre app||cal|ors ard lre resl ol lre corpul|rg
resources |||e lre relWor|. Ar exarp|e |s lre T|vo|| Nelv|eW, Wr|cr re|ps lre
relWor| adr|r|slralor lo rarage r|s/rer relWor| lrrougr a grapr|ca| v|eW ol
r|s/rer TCP/lP relWor| |rlraslruclure.

8ecur|ty: 3ecur|ly relers lo lre ao|||ly lo prov|de corprerers|ve prolecl|or ol
app||cal|ors ard |rlorral|or assels oy |rp|ererl|rg access corlro| ard
sysler secur|ly serv|ces.

0perat|ons: 0peral|ors prov|de loo|s lo aulorale roul|rg las|s, sucr as joo
scredu||rg,slorage, ard rerole sysler raragererl. Trese loo|s re||eve lre
relWor|raragers ol l|re-corsur|rg las|s so lral lrey car sperd l|re or olrer
rorecr|l|ca| everls.

App||cat|on Hanagement : App||cal|or raragererl re|ps |rprove lre ava||ao|||ly
ard perlorrarce ol lre syslers, so lral user requ|rererls car oe rel.

7.1.1 The Hechan|cs of Network Hanagement
Tre recrar|sr lor relWor| raragererl lo Wor| |r a relWor| re||es or a
leWlecrro|og|es. Trese are slardards lral a|rosl a|| verdors rave lo lo||oW ard
ra|e ava||ao|e lrrougr lre|r producls. wrer lre lrlerrel oegar lo groW, relWor|
raragers rea||zed sore procedures reeded lo oe |rlroduced lo rarage lre
relWor| lral Was s|oW|y groW|rg oul ol rard. Tre 3|rp|e NelWor| Varagererl
Proloco| (3NVP) Was |rlroduced as a slard-|r so|ul|or ard |s oased or lre TCP/lP
corrur|cal|or slac|.

Tr|s lerporary slalus Was croser oecause des|grers lrougrl lrere ougrl lo oe a
oeller sysler. Tre Corror Varagererl lrlorral|or Proloco| (CVlP) Was |aler
|rlroduced ard |s oased or lre 03l rode|.

8|mp|e Network Hanagement Protoco| (8NHP}
Tre 3|rp|e NelWor| Varagererl Proloco| (3NVP) |s used |r ar lP relWor| lo
excrarge |rlorral|or oelWeer rosls. 3NVP uses lre u0P proloco| lo
lrarsporl ard excrarge |rlorral|or ca||ed Proloco| 0ala ur|ls (P0us). ll prov|des a
lrareWor| lral a||oWs |rlorral|or lo oe serl so as lo ellecl a
crarge |r lre slalus ol lre relWor|. Tre |rlorral|or |s |epl oy rosls |r lre|r rur-l|re
erv|rorrerl |r a dala slruclure ca||ed lre Varagererl lrlorral|or
8ase (Vl8). Trere are lrree |rporlarl e|ererls |r 3NVP: lre rarager, lre agerl
ard lre Vl8. NelWor| raragers reed lo rave a oas|c urderslard|rg ol
lrese, so as lo re|p |r lre relWor| des|gr. Tre rarager |s lre rosl lral so||c|ls
raragererl |rlorral|or lror lre olrer dev|ces |r lre relWor|. Tre
agerl |s |r crarge ol co||ecl|rg |rlorral|or or lre operal|rg slalus ol a rosl ard
ra|rla|r|rg |l lrrougroul lre operal|or. Tre agerl a|so rep||es lo lre
rarager's requesl lor |rlorral|or |r lre Vl8. Nole lral a rarager car |lse|l oe ar
agerl lo arolrer rarager.

Tre 3NVP lrareWor| prov|des l|ve oas|c operal|rg sleps:
8NHPCET
Tre requesl|rg Wor|slal|or serds oul a 3NVP0ET requesl lo lre
desl|ral|or lo so||c|l a spec|l|c Vl8 va|ue. lrlorral|or lral reeds lo oe
preserl |r a 0el requesl |rc|udes:
lP address ol desl|ral|or
Corrur|ly rare
Vl8 |rslarce

8NHP8ET
Tre 3NVP3ET requesl |s serl oul lo lre desl|ral|or lo |rslrucl a
crarge |r a spec|l|c Vl8 va|ue. Tr|s usua||y resu|ls |r a crarge |r lre
operal|rg slale
ol lre rece|v|rg dev|ce. lrlorral|or lral reeds lo oe preserl |r a 3el
requesl |rc|udes:
lP address
Corrur|ly rare - read-Wr|le or Wr|le-or|y
Vl8 |rslarce
Targel va|ue ol lre Vl8 |rslarce

8NHPwALK
Tre 3NVPwALK |s jusl |||e lre 3NVP0ET requesl, excepl lral |r
3NVP0ET, lre exacl Vl8 |rslarce ras lo oe spec|l|ed Wr||e
3NVPwALK a||oWs you lo spec|ly ar erl|re suosel ol a Vl8 lree lo
relr|eve a|| |rlorral|or perla|r|rg lo lral suosel.

8NHPCETNEXT
Tre 3NVP0ETNEXT relr|eves lre |rlorral|or lral |s rexl |r ||re |r lre
Vl8 lree,.

Trap
Traps are gereraled oy lre agerls lo |rlorr lre rarager ol ar everl
lral rappered dur|rg operal|ors. Ar exarp|e |s lre Co|dslarl lrap,
Wr|cr aragerl serds lo lre rarager Wrer |l |s l|rsl poWered up. Tre
rosl corror lraps lral core W|lr ar lP Wor|slal|or are:
Co|d slarl
warrslarl
Aulrerl|cal|or la||ure

Hanagement |nformat|on ase (H|}
Tre Varagererl lrlorral|or 8ase (Vl8) |s a |og|ca| co||ecl|or ol operal|rg dala
aooul a spec|l|c dev|ce, sucr as a rouler. Tre Vl8 corla|rs srapsrol
|rlorral|or, ca||ed ar |rslarce, sucr as dev|ce lype, dev|ce corl|gural|or,
perlorrarce dala ard slalus ol |ls |rlerlaces. A Vl8 |rslarce |s deroled oy a
slr|rg ol ruroers |r lre lorr .1.3..1.1.1, lral represerls a ur|que orarcr ol
|rlorral|or |r lre slruclure ol lre Vl8 dala slruclure ca||ed lre Vl8 lree.
A crarge |r a Vl8 |rslarce va|ue usua||y crarges lre operal|or ol lre dev|ce, so |l
|s |rporlarl lo |eep Vl8 |rslarces ol |rporlarl dev|ces |||e roulers,
sW|lcres ard servers lror ra||c|ous users. TWo p|eces ol |rlorral|or reed lo oe
preserled |r order lo access a dev|ce's Vl8, lral |s, lre dev|ce's lP address
ard lre corrur|ly rare.

6ommun|ty Name
Corrur|ly rare |r 3NVP |s jusl |||e a passWord lo a user accourl. ll |s a slr|rg ol
craraclers lral lre adr|r|slralor ol a dev|ce ras croser. Tre access
ol Vl8 va|ues |s delerr|red oy a ralcr |r lre corrur|ly rare, ard operal|or ol
lre Vl8 va|ue |s delerr|red oy lre allr|oule ol lre corrur|ly rare. Ar
adr|r|slralor car corl|gure var|ous corrur|ly rares lor a s|rg|e dev|ce, eacr W|lr
a ur|que allr|oule:
Read-or|y
wr|le-or|y
Read-Wr|le
Read-Wr|le-lrap

3NVP |s lre rosl W|de|y used relWor| raragererl proloco| loday. A|rosl a|| ol
lre dev|ces lral correcl lo a TCP/lP relWor| core W|lr ar 3NVP agerl. lr lacl,
|l Wou|d oe d|ll|cu|l lo l|rd ore lral does rol rave ar 3NVP agerl. Tre reasors lor
3NVP's popu|ar|ly are due lo lre lo||oW|rg:
8NHP |s s|mp|e
Tre arcr|leclure ol 3NVP |s very s|rp|e. ll |s oased or excrarges ol
|rlorral|or ard does |ls joo W|lr leW resources requ|red or lre rosls.

8NHP |s f|ex|b|e
3NVP prov|des l|ex|o|||ly |r |ls Vl8 del|r|l|or. Tre lree-|||e slruclure
erao|es reW lurcl|ors ard dev|ces lo oe |rlroduced W|lroul allecl|rg
lre or|g|ra| slruclure. Varagers jusl reed lo oe |rlorred ol lre reW Vl8
va|ue ard |rlorral|or car oe excrarged r|grl aWay.
42

8NHP |s easy to |mp|ement
ll |s easy lo |rp|ererl 3NVP, as lrere |s rol rucr corl|gural|or
requ|red lor agerl selup. A|so, |l does rol occupy loo rucr relWor|
oardW|dlr lo operale, ard lr|s |s very allracl|ve lo relWor| raragers.

A|lrougr 3NVP ras |ls advarlages, |l sullers lror lWo rajor proo|ers:
3ecur|ly
lr 3NVP, requesls ard rep||es are serl |r c|ear lexl. Tr|s poses a
ser|ous secur|ly lrreal lo lre relWor| as rac|ers are lrer ao|e lo
|rlercepl lrese excrarges ard exp|ore sers|l|ve dala. Tre rosl oov|ous
lrreal |s access lo lre corrur|ly rares, Wr|cr cou|d oe used
suosequerl|y lo saoolage lre relWor|.

8|mp|e 0ata 8tructure
As lre Vl8 |s oas|ca||y a s|rp|e dala slruclure, |l carrol corla|r sore
corp|ex represerlal|or ol rur-l|re erv|rorrerla| va|ues. Tre operal|rg
slale ol a dev|ce carrol oe accurale|y rel|ecled lor lr|s reasor.

8NHPv2
Tre l|aWs ol 3NVP prorpled lre deve|oprerl ol 3NVPv2, or 3NVP
vers|or 2. 3NVPv2 |rlroduced a leW lealures lo coroal lre secur|ly
ard dala slruclure, |rc|ud|rg:
Exparded dala lypes
lrproved ell|c|ercy W|lr reW operal|ors |||e 3NVP0ET-8uLK
R|crer lurcl|ora||l|es |r error rard||rg ard excepl|ors
V|ror l|re lur|rg lo lre dala del|r|l|or |arguage

A|lrougr |l |s rearl lo rep|ace 3NVP, 3NVPv2 la||s srorl |r lral as |l
d|d rol so|ve a|| ol lre l|aWs ol 3NVP. Tre secur|ly aspecls |s ore
|oopro|e lral 3NVPv2 d|d rol so|ve. 8ecause ol lr|s ||r|lal|or, 3NVPv2
|s rol W|de|y |rp|ererled ard usedoy verdors. lr lacl, |l ex|sls or|y or
paper. A|lrougr We rave capao|e relWor| raragers, |||e lre T|vo||
Nelv|eW, Wr|cr car spea| oolr 3NVP ard 3NVPv2, We l|rd rosl ol
lre agerls |r lre relWor| are 3NVP agerls.

8NHPv3
Tre 3NVPv3 |s lorred oy lre lETF lo l|grler Wral |s |ell oer|rd oy
3NVPv2. ll reuses lre slardards lral rave oeer proposed |r 3NVPv2
ard added lealures |||e lre secur|ly ard adr|r|slral|or porl|ors.
3NVPv3 |rc|udes lre lo||oW|rg:
Aulrerl|cal|or ard pr|vacy ol dala
Access corlro| lo |rlorral|or
Nar|rg ol erl|l|es
Proxy re|al|orsr|ps
Rerole raragererl v|a 3NVP

6ommon Hanagement |nformat|on Protoco| (6H|P}
Tre Corror Varagererl lrlorral|or Proloco| (CVlP) |s oased or lre 03l rode|.
ll Was rearl lo rep|ace 3NVP, oul |l loo sullered lre sare lale as 3NVPv2. Nol
rary relWor|s rave |rp|ererled CVlP lor |ls raragererl, excepl lre Te|cos. Tre
CVlP arcr|leclure |s oroader |r scope ard ras rore corp|ex dala slruclure lrar
lral ol 3NVP, as |l Was rearl lo address a|| ol 3NVP's srorlcor|rgs. ll |s qu|le lre
sare as lral ol 3NVP |r lerrs ol |rlorral|or excrarges, excepl lral |rslead ol l|ve
lypes ol P0us, |l corla|rs 11. Tre advarlage ol us|rg CVlP over 3NVP |s |l car
represerl corp|ex operal|rg slalus due lo |ls dala slruclure. ll prov|des
lurcl|ora||l|es lral are rol ava||ao|e W|lr 3NVP, ard |s su|lao|e lo oe used |r
corp|ex relWor| erv|rorrerls |||e lral ol lre Te|cos. ll ras super|or secur|ly
lealures lral ersure lre corl|derl|a||ly ol dala.

0re rajor d|sadvarlage ol CVlP |s due lo |ls resource |rlers|veress. ll requ|res
spec|a| relWor| des|gr cors|deral|or ard capac|ly p|arr|rg lo |rp|ererl |l.
Exarp|es |||e lre Te|ecorrur|cal|ors Varagererl NelWor| (TVN) |s aclua||y a
relWor| lral rarages arolrer relWor|. Arolrer d|sadvarlage ol CVlP |s lral s||||ed
persorre| |s d|ll|cu|l lo l|rd. 0ue lo |ls corp|ex|ly ard corp|eleress ol Wral |l car
acr|eve, a CVlP-oased relWor| rarager sysler |s very cosl|y lo deve|op. Ar
exarp|e |s lre TVN, Wr|cr uses CVlP ard lre deve|oprerl cosl lor |l usua||y rurs
|rlo r||||ors ol do||ars.

7.1.2 The Effects of Network Hanagement on Networks
0re ol lre rajor corcerrs aooul |rp|ererl|rg relWor| raragererl |s lre ellecl |l
ras or lre perlorrarce ol lre relWor|. A rajor las| ol a relWor| raragererl
Wor|slal|or |s lo crec| or lre slalus ol |rporlarl dev|ces. usua||y, lre rarager
does |l lrrougr a rearloeal crec|, |||e a per|od|c p|rg lo lre largel dev|ces. Tre l|re
|rlerva| oelWeer lrese crec|s |s ca||ed lre po|||rg |rlerva|. Tre expecled l|re la|er
oy lre largel lo rep|y |s dec|ded oy a va|ue ca||ed lre resporse l|re-oul. wrer ro
resporse |s rece|ved
lror a largel, lre rarager relr|es lor a precorl|gured ruroer ol l|res, ca||ed relry
l|re-oul. wrer ro resporse |s rece|ve aller a|| lrese relr|es, lre relWor|
raragererl Wor|slal|or W||| lrer deduce lral lre largel dev|ce |s oul ol order,
proceed lo recogr|ze lre everl as rosl |s doWr ard serd oul ar a|erl. ll |s lre
po|||rg |rlerva|, resporse l|re-oul ard ruroer ol relr|es lral are rosl cruc|a| lo
ersur|rg lral We are rol over|oad|rg lre relWor| W|lr a|| lr|s crec||rg.

lav|rg a ousyoody relWor| raragererl Wor|slal|or crec||rg or ar a|ready
over|oaded rouler jusl ra|es lre s|lual|or Worse. we reed lo slr||e a oa|arce |r
corl|gur|rg lrese va|ues ard lWo cr|ler|a W||| re|p us:
loW cr|l|ca| |s lre largel dev|ce lo lre operal|or ol lre relWor|?
wral |s lre rax|rur doWr l|re ol a largel dev|ce you car accepl
oelore
sore a|arr |s ra|se aooul |ls la||ure?

Arolrer |rporlarl dec|s|or lo ra|e |s lre spar ol corlro| lor lre relWor|
raragererl slal|or. 3|rce lre relWor| raragererl slal|or W||| ror|lor Wralever
|s urder |ls v|eW, |l |s |rporlarl lo dec|de roW o|g lre v|eW srou|d oe. Tre o|gger lre
spar ol corlro|, lre rore lrall|c |s gereraled. usua||y, lre v|eW |s exparded al a
suorel |eve|. Trus, |l |s W|se lo corl|gure lre relWor| raragererl slal|or accord|rg
lo Wr|cr suorels |l srou|d ror|lor ard Wr|cr |l srou|d rol. Tre proo|er W|lr lr|s
relrod |s lral a|| dev|ces res|d|rg |r lre sare suorel W||| oe |rc|uded, Wrelrer or
rol lrey are |rporlarl. Tr|s s|lual|or poss a proo|er lor |arge relWor|s, as We ray
or|y oe |rleresled |r rarag|rg cerla|r dev|ces |r lre suorel. lr lr|s case, |l ray oe
oeller lo corl|gure lre relWor| raragererl slal|or lo delerr|re Wr|cr dev|ces lo
rarage exp||c|l|y. Tr|s W||| |rcur add|l|ora| corl|gural|or ellorl, oul s|rce |l |s or|y a
ore-l|re alla|r, |l |s Worlr lre ellorl.

7.1.3 The Hanagement 8trategy
ll |s |rporlarl lo rave a raragererl slralegy |r lre oeg|rr|rg ard |rcorporale |l
|rlo lre des|gr. Ar area lral lre slralegy ras a prolourd |rpacl or |s relWor|
des|gr. lr a TCP/lP relWor|, |l |s a|rosl a slardard lo croose 3NVP as lre relWor|
raragererl proloco| oecause ol |ls W|despread use. lr 3NVP relWor| des|gr,
reacrao|||ly ras lo oe ersured so lral |rlorral|or car oe excrarged oelWeer lre
rarager ard lre agerls. 8ul reacrao|||ly car a|so |rv|le |rlruders ard lrus
segregal|rg lre agerls lror lre users oecores a cra||erge. lr relWor|s lral use
ATV, |l |s poss|o|e lo group a|| lre raraged dev|ces W|lr|r a s|rg|e lP suorel,
a|lrougr lrey ray oe prys|ca||y separaled. lr lr|s case, lre relWor| raragererl
slralegy ras lo oe |r p|ace lror lre oeg|rr|rg as a relWor| des|grer reeds lo p|ar
lor lre prov|s|or ol lre lP suorel ard lre ass|grrerl ol
lre lP address. Regard|ess ol lre lype ol relWor|s, lre corrur|ly rares reed lo
oe dec|ded ard docurerled so lral dev|ces car oe corl|gured |r lre
|rp|ererlal|or slage.

7.1.4 FA8T EThERNET H|CRAT|0N
Vosl relWor| raragers W||| r|grale lror 108A3E-T or olrer Elrerrel 10 Vops
var|al|ors lo r|grer oardW|dlr relWor|s. Typ|ca||y lr|s slarls al lre Wor|group W|lr
lre rep|acererl ol ruos W|lr Elrerrel sW|lcres. Trese sW|lcres sl||| operale al 10
Vops speeds oul re|p |so|ale ard reduce overa|| lrall|c oy |oca||z|rg lre ou|| ol lre
dala l|oW lo |ls oWr segrerl. Fror rere, lu||- dup|ex correcl|ors car correcl lWo
Elrerrel sW|lcres logelrer, or correcl lre sW|lcr lo a l||e server. Everlua||y, Fasl
Elrerrel porls or lrese sW|lcres W||| oe used lo prov|de ever grealer oardW|dlr
oelWeer lre Wor|groups al 100 Vops speeds. Equ|prerl |||e lre LFR8 Fasl
Elrerrel repealer W||| oe used |r corror areas lo group Elrerrel sW|lcres logelrer
W|lr server larrs |rlo |arge 100 Vegao|l p|pes. Tr|s |s lre cosl ellecl|ve relrod ol
groW|rg rosl relWor|s W|lr|r lre average erlerpr|se.

7.2 Pract|ce
Z.2.1 0raW a relWor| Va|rlararce p|ar ard ar Assel raragererl
Z.2.2 0|scuss roW you Wou|d rarage relWor| groWlr, crarge.
Z.2.3 loW you Wou|d segrerl a relWor|, add or rerove roules.
Z.2.1 0|scuss roW relWor| sollWare |s upgraded ard precaul|ors oelore upgrad|rg
Z.2.5 loW are relWor| correcl|rg dev|ces rep|aced?
Z.2. Exp|a|r roW lre lo||oW|rg process car oe carr|ed oul, lesl ard rep|ace relWor|
cards, cao|es, olrer dev|ces.
43
7.2.7 Rev|ew 0uest|ons
0-Nare lre d|llererl areas ol relWor| raragererl.
A-Corl|gural|or, accourl|rg, lau|l, secur|ly, ard perlorrarce.
0-wral are lre goa|s ol perlorrarce raragererl?
A-Veasure ard ra|e ava||ao|e var|ous aspecls ol relWor| perlorrarce so lral
|rlerrelWor| perlorrarce car oe ra|rla|red al ar acceplao|e |eve|.
0-wral are lre goa|s ol corl|gural|or raragererl?
A-Vor|lor relWor| ard sysler corl|gural|or |rlorral|or so lral lre ellecls or
relWor| operal|or ol var|ous vers|ors ol rardWare ard sollWare e|ererls car oe
lrac|ed ard raraged.
0-wral are lre goa|s ol accourl|rg raragererl?
A-Veasure relWor| ul|||zal|or pararelers so lral |rd|v|dua| or group uses or lre
relWor| car oe regu|aled appropr|ale|y.
0-wral are lre goa|s ol lau|l raragererl?
A-0elecl, |og, rol|ly users ol, ard auloral|ca||y l|x relWor| proo|ers lo |eep lre
relWor| rurr|rg ellecl|ve|y.
0-wral are lre goa|s ol secur|ly raragererl?
A-Corlro| access lo relWor| resources accord|rg lo |oca| gu|de||res so lral lre
relWor| carrol oe saoolaged ard so lral sers|l|ve |rlorral|or carrol oe accessed
oy lrose W|lroul appropr|ale aulror|zal|or.

44
6hapter 8 Network Adm|n|strat|on
Pract|ca|

45
0el|r|l|ors
10ase2 - Elrerrel spec|l|cal|or lor lr|r coax|a| cao|e, lrarsr|ls s|gra|s
al 10 Vops (regao|ls per secord) W|lr a d|slarce ||r|l ol 185 relers
per segrerl.
10ase5 - Elrerrel spec|l|cal|or lor lr|c| coax|a| cao|e, lrarsr|ls
s|gra|s al 10 Vops (regao|ls per secord) W|lr a d|slarce ||r|l ol 500
relers per segrerl.
10aseF - Elrerrel spec|l|cal|or lor l|oer opl|c cao|e, lrarsr|ls s|gra|s
al 10 Vops (regao|ls per secord) W|lr a d|slarce ||r|l ol 2000 relers
per segrerl.
10aseT - Elrerrel spec|l|cal|or lor ursr|e|ded lW|sled pa|r cao|e
(calegory 3, 1, or 5), lrarsr|ls s|gra|s al 10 Vops (regao|ls per
secord) W|lr a d|slarce ||r|l ol 100 relers per segrerl.
100aseT - Elrerrel spec|l|cal|or lor ursr|e|ded lW|sled pa|r cao||rg
lral |s used lo lrarsr|l dala al 100 Vops (regao|ls per secord) W|lr a
d|slarce ||r|l ol 100 relers per segrerl.
1000aseTX -Elrerrel spec|l|cal|or lor ursr|e|ded lW|sled pa|r cao||rg
lral |s used lo lrasr|l dala al 1 0ops (g|gao|ls per secord) W|lr a
d|slarce ||r|lal|or ol 220 relers per segrerl.
Asynchronous Transfer Hode (ATH} - A relWor| proloco| lral
lrarsr|ls dala al a speed ol 155 Vops ard r|grer. ll |s rosl oller used
lo |rlercorrecl lWo or rore |oca| area relWor|s.
AU| 6onnector (Allacrrerl ur|l lrlerlace) - A 15 p|r correclor lourd
or Elrerrel cards lral car oe used lor allacr|rg coax|a|, l|oer opl|c, or
lW|sled pa|r cao|e.
ackbone - A cao|e lo Wr|cr ru|l|p|e rodes or Wor|slal|ors are
allacred.
|t - 8|rary d|g|l |r lre o|rary ruroer|rg sysler. lls va|ue car oe 0 or 1.
lr ar 8-o|l craracler screre, |l la|es 8 o|ls lo ra|e a oyle (craracler) ol
dala.
N6 6onnector (8ayore-Ne|||-Corce|rar) - 3lardard correclor used
lo correcl 108ase2 coax|a| cao|e.
6ab|e - Trarsr|ss|or red|ur ol copper W|re or opl|ca| l|oer Wrapped |r
a prolecl|ve cover.
6||ent|8erver - A relWor||rg sysler |r Wr|cr ore or rore l||e servers
(3erver) prov|de serv|ces; sucr as relWor| raragererl, app||cal|or
ard cerlra||zed dala slorage lor Wor|slal|ors (C||erls).
68HA|6A - Carr|er 3erse Vu|l|p|e Access Co|||s|or Avo|darce |s a
relWor| access relrod |r Wr|cr eacr dev|ce s|gra|s |ls |rlerl lo
lrarsr|l oelore |l aclua||y does so. Tr|s preverls olrer dev|ces lror
serd|rg |rlorral|or, lrus preverl|rg co|||s|ors lror occurr|rg oelWeer
s|gra|s lror lWo or rore dev|ces. Tr|s |s lre access relrod used oy
Loca|Ta||.
68HA|60 - Carr|er 3erse Vu|l|p|e Access Co|||s|or 0elecl|or |s a
relWor| access relrod |r Wr|cr dev|ces lral are ready lo lrarsr|l dala
l|rsl crec| lre crarre| lor a carr|er. ll ro carr|er |s sersed, a dev|ce car
lrarsr|l. ll lWo dev|ces lrarsr|l al orce, a co|||s|or occurs ard eacr
corpuler oac|s oll ard Wa|ls a rardor arourl ol l|re oelore
allerpl|rg lo relrarsr|l. Tr|s |s lre access relrod used oy Elrerrel.
6oncentrator - A dev|ce lral prov|des a cerlra| correcl|or po|rl lor
cao|es lror Wor|slal|ors, servers, ard per|prera|s. Vosl corcerlralors
corla|r lre ao|||ly lo arp||ly lre e|eclr|ca| s|gra| lrey rece|ve.
0|N - A p|ug ard soc|el correclor cors|sl|rg ol a c|rcu|ar pallerr ol p|rs
|r a rela| s|eeve. Tr|s lype ol correclor |s corror|y seer or
|eyooards.
0umb Term|na| - Relers lo dev|ces lral are des|gred lo corrur|cale
exc|us|ve|y W|lr a rosl (ra|r lrare) corpuler. ll rece|ves a|| screer
|ayouls lror lre rosl corpuler ard serds a|| |eyooard erlry lo lre rosl.
ll carrol lurcl|or W|lroul lre rosl corpuler.
E-ma|| - Ar e|eclror|c ra|| ressage serl lror a rosl corpuler lo a
rerole corpuler.
End User - Relers lo lre rurar execul|rg app||cal|ors or lre
Wor|slal|or.
Expans|on 8|ot - Area |r a corpuler lral accepls add|l|ora|
|rpul/oulpul ooards lo |rcrease lre capao|||ly ol lre corpuler.
F||e 8erver - A corpuler correcled lo lre relWor| lral corla|rs
pr|rary l||es/app||cal|ors ard srares lrer as requesled W|lr lre olrer
corpulers or lre relWor|. ll lre l||e server |s ded|caled lor lral purpose
or|y, |l |s correcled lo a c||erl/server relWor|. Ar exarp|e ol a
c||erl/server relWor| |s Nove|| NelWare. A|| lre corpulers correcled lo
a peer-lo-peer relWor| are capao|e ol oe|rg lre l||e server. TWo
exarp|es ol peer-lo-peer relWor|s are LANlasl|c ard w|rdoWs lor
wor|groups.
C|gab|t Ethernet - Ar Elrerrel proloco| lral ra|ses lre lrarsr|ss|or
rales lo 1 0ops (g|gao|ls per secord). ll |s pr|rar||y used lor a r|gr
speed oac|oore ol a relWor|.
C|gabyte (08) - 0re o||||or oyles ol |rlorral|or. 0re lrousard
regaoyles.
|nfrared - E|eclroragrel|c Waves Wrose lrequercy rarge |s aoove lral
ol r|croWaves, oul oe|oW lral ol lre v|s|o|e speclrur.
|ntranet - NelWor| |rlerra| lo ar orgar|zal|or lral uses lrlerrel
proloco|s.
|nternet - A g|ooa| relWor| ol relWor|s used lo excrarge |rlorral|or
us|rg lre TCP/lP proloco|. ll a||oWs lor e|eclror|c ra|| ard lre access|rg
ad relr|eva| ol |rlorral|or lror rerole sources.
L|near us - A relWor| lopo|ogy |r Wr|cr eacr rode allacres d|recl|y lo
a corror cao|e.
HAU (Vu|l|slal|or Access ur|l) - A To|er R|rg W|r|rg ruo.
Hodem (Vodu|alor/0erodu|alor) - 0ev|ces lral corverl d|g|la| ard
ara|og s|gra|s. Voders a||oW corpuler dala (d|g|la|) lo oe lrarsr|lled
over vo|ce-grade le|eprore ||res (ara|og).
Hu|t|p|exer - A dev|ce lral a||oWs ru|l|p|e |og|ca| s|gra|s lo oe
lrarsr|lled s|ru|lareous|y across a s|rg|e prys|ca| crarre|.
Network Hodem - A roder correcled lo a Loca| Area NelWor| (LAN)
lral |s access|o|e lror ary Wor|slal|or or lre relWor|.
Node - Erd po|rl ol a relWor| correcl|or. Nodes |rc|ude ary dev|ce
allacred lo a relWor| sucr as l||e servers, pr|rlers, or Wor|slal|ors.
Node 0ev|ces - Ary corpuler or per|prera| lral |s correcled lo lre
relWor|.
Phys|ca| Topo|ogy - Tre prys|ca| |ayoul ol lre relWor|; roW lre
cao|es are arrarged; ard roW lre corpulers are correcled.
Po|nt-to-Po|nt - A d|recl ||r| oelWeer lWo oojecls |r a relWor|.
Ports - A correcl|or po|rl lor a cao|e.
RA|0 (Redurdarl Array ol lrexpers|ve 0|s|s) - A corl|gural|or ol
ru|l|p|e d|s|s des|gred lo preserve dala aller a d|s| casua|ly.
46
RAH (Rardor Access Verory) - Tre Wor||rg rerory ol a corpuler
Wrere dala ard progrars are lerporar||y slored. RAV or|y ro|ds
|rlorral|or Wrer lre corpuler |s or.
RJ-45 - 3lardard correclors used lor ursr|e|ded lW|sled-pa|r cao|e.
868| (8ma|| 6omputer 8er|a| |nterface} - Ar |rlerlace corlro||er lral
a||oWs severa| per|prera|s lo oe correcled lo lre sare porl or a
corpuler.
8egment - Relers lo a secl|or ol cao|e or a relWor|. lr Elrerrel
relWor|s, lWo lypes ol segrerls are del|red. A popu|aled or lrur|
segrerl |s a relWor| cao|e lral ras ore or rore rodes allacred lo |l. A
||r| segrerl |s a cao|e lral correcls a corpuler lo ar |rlercorrecl|rg
dev|ce, sucr as a repealer or corcerlralor, or correcls a
|rlercorrecl|rg dev|ce lo arolrer |rlercorrecl|rg dev|ce.
8neaker-Net - Relers lo a rarua| relrod ol srar|rg l||es |r Wr|cr a l||e
|s cop|ed lror a corpuler lo a l|oppy d|s|, lrarsporled lo a secord
corpuler oy a persor prys|ca||y Wa|||rg (apparerl|y Wear|rg srea|ers)
lo lre secord corpuler, ard rarua||y lrarslerr|rg lre l||e lror l|oppy
d|s| lo lre secord corpuler.
8peed of 0ata Transfer - Tre rale al Wr|cr |rlorral|or lrave|s lrrougr
a relWor|, usua||y reasured |r regao|ls per secord.
Tape ack-Up - Copy|rg a|| lre dala ard progrars ol a corpuler
sysler or ragrel|c lape. 0r lape, dala |s slored sequerl|a||y. wrer
relr|ev|rg dala, lre lape |s searcred lror lre oeg|rr|rg ol lape url|| lre
dala |s lourd.
Term|nator - A dev|ce lral prov|des e|eclr|ca| res|slarce al lre erd ol a
lrarsr|ss|or ||re. lls lurcl|or |s lo aosoro s|gra|s or lre ||re, lrereoy
|eep|rg lrer lror oourc|rg oac| ard oe|rg rece|ved aga|r oy lre
relWor|.
Th|cknet - A lr|c| coax|a| cao|e lral |s used W|lr a 108ase5 Elrerrel
LAN.
Th|nnet - A lr|r coax|a| cao|e lral |s used W|lr a 108ase2 Elrerrel
LAN.
Token - A spec|a| pac|el lral corla|rs dala ard acls as a resserger or
carr|er oelWeer eacr corpuler ard dev|ce or a r|rg lopo|ogy. Eacr
corpuler rusl Wa|l lor lre resserger lo slop al |ls rode oelore |l car
serd dala over lre relWor|.
Topo|ogy - Trere are lWo lypes ol lopo|ogy: prys|ca| ard |og|ca|. Tre
prys|ca| lopo|ogy ol a relWor| relers lo lre corl|gural|or ol cao|es,
corpulers, ard olrer per|prera|s. Log|ca| lopo|ogy |s lre relrod used
lo pass lre |rlorral|or oelWeer Wor|slal|ors. lssues |rvo|v|rg |og|ca|
lopo|og|es are d|scussed or lre Proloco| crapler
Transce|ver (Trarsr|ller/Rece|ver) - A 0ev|ce lral rece|ves ard serds
s|gra|s over a red|ur. lr relWor|s, |l |s gerera||y used lo a||oW lor lre
correcl|or oelWeer lWo d|llererl lypes ol cao|e correclors, sucr as
Aul ard RJ-15.
Tree Topo|ogy - LAN lopo|ogy s|r||ar lo ||rear ous lopo|ogy, excepl
lral lree relWor|s car corla|r orarcres W|lr ru|l|p|e rodes.
U8 (Un|versa| 8er|a| us} Port - A rardWare |rlerlace lor |oW-speed
per|prera|s sucr as lre |eyooard, rouse, joysl|c|, scarrer, pr|rler, ard
le|eprory dev|ces.
workgroup - A co||ecl|or ol Wor|slal|ors ard servers or a LAN lral are
des|graled lo corrur|cale ard excrarge dala W|lr ore arolrer.

|P Rout|ng
lP roul|rg proloco|s are dyrar|c. 0yrar|c roul|rg ca||s lor roules lo oe ca|cu|aled
auloral|ca||y al regu|ar |rlerva|s oy sollWare |r roul|rg dev|ces. Tr|s corlrasls W|lr
slal|c roul|rg, Wrere roulers are eslao||sred oy lre relWor| adr|r|slralor ard do rol
crarge url|| lre relWor| adr|r|slralor crarges lrer.

|nternet 6ontro| Hessage Protoco| (|6HP}
Tre lrlerrel Corlro| Vessage Proloco| (lCVP) |s a relWor|-|ayer lrlerrel proloco|
lral prov|des ressage pac|els lo reporl errors ard olrer |rlorral|or regard|rg lP
pac|el process|rg oac| lo lre source. lCVP |s docurerled |r RFC Z92.

|nternat|ona| 0rgan|zat|on for 8tandard|zat|on (|80}l30 |s ar |rlerral|ora|
slardards orgar|zal|or respors|o|e lor a W|de rarge ol slardards, |rc|ud|rg rary
lral are re|evarl lo relWor||rg. lls oesl-|roWr corlr|oul|or |s lre deve|oprerl ol lre
03l relererce rode| ard lre 03l proloco| su|le.

Amer|can Nat|ona| 8tandards |nst|tute (AN8|}AN3l, Wr|cr |s a|so a reroer ol
lre l30, |s lre coord|ral|rg oody lor vo|urlary slardards groups W|lr|r lre ur|led
3lales. AN3l deve|oped lre F|oer 0|slr|ouled 0ala lrlerlace (F00l) ard olrer
corrur|cal|ors slardards.

E|ectron|c |ndustr|es Assoc|at|on (E|A}ElA spec|l|es e|eclr|ca| lrarsr|ss|or
slardards, |rc|ud|rg lrose used |r relWor||rg. Tre ElA deve|oped lre W|de|y used
ElA/TlA-232 slardard (lorrer|y |roWr as R3-232).

|nst|tute of E|ectr|ca| and E|ectron|c Eng|neers (|EEE}lEEE |s a proless|ora|
orgar|zal|or lral del|res relWor||rg ard olrer slardards. Tre lEEE deve|oped lre
W|de|y used LAN slardards lEEE 802.3 ard lEEE 802.5.

|nternat|ona| Te|ecommun|cat|on Un|on Te|ecorrur|cal|or 3lardard|zal|or
3eclor (lTu-T)Forrer|y ca||ed lre Corr|llee lor lrlerral|ora| Te|egrapr ard
Te|eprore (CClTT), lTu-T |s roW ar |rlerral|ora| orgar|zal|or lral deve|ops
corrur|cal|or slardards. Tre lTu-T deve|oped X.25 ard olrer corrur|cal|ors
slardards.

|nternet Act|v|t|es oard (|A}lA8 |s a group ol |rlerrelWor| researcrers Wro
d|scuss |ssues perl|rerl lo lre lrlerrel ard sel lrlerrel po||c|es lrrougr dec|s|ors
ard las| lorces. Tre lA8 des|grales sore Requesl For Correrls (RFC)
docurerls as lrlerrel slardards, |rc|ud|rg Trarsr|ss|or Corlro| Proloco|/lrlerrel
Proloco| (TCP/lP) ard lre 3|rp|e NelWor| Varagererl Proloco| (3NVP).

Add|l|ora| Noles
6o|||s|on on 8w|tches
wr||e reduced, co|||s|ors do sl||| occur or occas|or W|lr sW|lcres:
Co|||s|ors occur Wrer lre sW|lcr serds a pac|el lo lre rode al lre
sare l|re lre rode serds a pac|el lo lre sW|lcr.
Co|||s|ors occur Wrer a sW|lcr oecores over|oaded W|lr lrall|c,
rorra||y, lre sW|lcr uses a slore ard lorWard.
Co|||s|ors car occur W|lr oroadcasled lrall|c

The Harr|age of hubs and r|dges
3W|lcres |r rea||ly are ruos W|lr aor|dge ou||l oelWeer eacr porl. As a
resu|l, rodes correcled lo a sW|lcr oecore a co|||s|or dora|r ol lWo, lre
sW|lcr ard lre rode.
w|lr a sW|lcred relWor|, eacr rode rece|ves lre lu|| ava||ao|e oardW|dlr ol
lre relWor|

Routers vs r|dges
8olr dev|ces rave lWo relWor| cards |r lrer. 8olr or|y lorWard lrall|c
oelWeer lre NlC3 Wrer requ|red.
0r a rouler, eacr NlC ras a d|llererl relWor| address; or a or|dge; eacr
NlC ras or|y a ur|que rode address.
wr||e roulers rove dala oelWeer NlCs oased or |ayer 3 or lP address ard
are proloco| deperderl; or|dges rove dala oelWeer NlC3 oased or VAC
address.

47
Repeaters and hubs
Repealers are s|rp|e dev|ces lral arp||ly a s|gra| lo lrave| grealer
d|slarces.
A|| lrall|c |s passed lrrougr a repealer W|lroul d|scr|r|ral|or. Tr|s |rc|udes
carr|er delecl lrall|c, so lral rodes or e|lrer segrerl correcled oy a
repealer are parl ol ore co|||s|or dora|r.
A ruo |s a repealer W|lr rary porls ard srares lre sare craracler|sl|cs
W|lr a repealer

Network 0uest|ons Answers
1. wral |s a 10/100 Fasl luo?
10|100 stands for 10Hbps and 100Hbps. Th|s hub w||| autosense
whether a 10Hbps or 100Hbps dev|ce |s attached and set the speed
accord|ng|y.

2. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer a ruo ard a sW|lcr?
hubs (a|so ca||ed a w|r|ng hub, or concentrator} are the centra|
connect|v|ty po|nt |n a star network, workgroup or subnet. A hub
a||ows each node to commun|cate w|th a|| other connected nodes.
6onnected nodes prov|de the|r own power, and the hub has |ts
own power supp|y. hub status ||ghts he|p to mon|tor the network.
Host hubs are p|ug and p|ay; no software |s necessary to |nsta||.
Two or more hubs can be connected to enab|e network expans|on
eas||y and |nexpens|ve|y. hubs can a|so be connected together by
a br|dge.
w|th|n Ethernet standards, there |s a ||m|t on the number of hubs
that can popu|ate a network. A sw|tch can he|p segment networks
that are becom|ng too |arge, and w||| actua||y |mprove performance
on your network. hubs are ava||ab|e for both 10 and 100 Hbps
network|ng.
A sw|tch |s a key component for expand|ng networks, ||ke
comb|n|ng a br|dge and hub together, because |t d|v|des a |arge
network |nto sma||er segments. Add|ng a sw|tch often |mproves
the speed of a network that has become bogged down and
overused, and he|ps e||m|nates network errors. A sw|tch a|so
enab|es a network transm|ss|on to be d|rected to a spec|f|c node
on the network |nstead of be|ng transm|tted to a|| users, ||ke on a
hub. The type of transm|ss|on contro| on the |nte| |nus|ness 8-
Port 8w|tch mon|tors the network act|v|ty, sends the data, and
tests |t to ensure a comp|ete transm|ss|on. Th|s |s ca||ed "store-
and-forward."
hubs and sw|tches essent|a||y perform the same type of job,
a|though sw|tches are far more versat||e and bandw|dth eff|c|ent.
A dua| speed hub w||| accept connect|on speeds or e|ther 10aseT
or 100aseTX, however the hub w||| drop to the h|ghest speed of
the s|owest dev|ce. For examp|e, |f you have an 8 port hub
connected w|th 7 10|100 ethernet cards they w||| run at 100aseTX.
|f you then p|ug |n a 10aseT connect|on a|| 8 ports w||| run at
10aseT.
w|th a sw|tch you can have a m|xture of 10aseT and 100aseTX
dev|ces a|| commun|cat|ng at the|r max|mum speed. uffer|ng |s
done |nterna||y |n the sw|tch.

3. loW does lre ruo correcl 10 ard 100Vops users logelrer?
Each hub |n the range conta|ns an |nterna| dua| port sw|tch. The sw|tch
connects the 10Hbps and 100Hbps backp|anes of the hubs together and
prov|des a connect|on w|th speed convers|on for both 10Hbp and 100Hbps
users.

1. l reed lo correcl ore ol lrese sW|lcres lo arolrer sW|lcr or ruo, W||| l reed a
crossover cao|e?
A|| of these un|ts have 1 port se|ectab|e for H0||H0|-X a||ow|ng you to
connect to another dev|ce w|thout the use of crossover cab|es. You
shou|d check the un|ts you |ntend to connect to see |f they a|so support
V0l/V0l-X Wr|cr W||| a||oW you lo correcl W|lroul crossovers or lre olrer
porls.

5. Car a|| NelWor| cards supporl wa|e 0r LAN (w0L)?
No. w0L |s a spec|a| feature that requ|res add|t|ona| support to funct|on.
The network card needs to support w0L f|rst|y from a ch|pset |eve|, and
from a hardware |eve| by add|ng a w0L header to the card to connect a
cab|e. The motherboard must a|so support w0L and have a header to
connect the other end of the cab|e. F|na||y, su|tab|e management
software |s requ|red to support w0L

. wral's lre d|llererce oelWeer 108ase2, 108aseT ard 1008aseT?
The d|fference |s speed. oth 10ase2 and 10aseT operate at 10Hbps,
wh||e 100aseTX runs at 10 t|mes th|s speed at 100Hbps.
10ase2 used 6oax|a| cab|e w|th N6 connectors, wh||e 10aseT and
100aseTX use 6ategory 5 "Tw|sted Pa|r" cab|e w|th RJ45 connectors.
RJ45 |s best descr|bed as a "Te|ephone" type p|ug.

Z. l rave pul lre card |rlo ore ol lre s|ols ol ry PC, oul |l |s rol oe|rg
recogr|zed oy lre PC. wry?
You shou|d make sure the card |s p|ugged |nto a P6| s|ot. The P6| s|ot |s
shorter |n |ength compared to the |8A s|ots. You must a|so make sure
the P6| s|ot supports U8 HA8TER|NC. 8ome P6's w||| have support for
bus master|ng on on|y one of the P6| s|ots. Th|s |nformat|on can be
obta|ned from the manua|s of your P6.

8. wral |s lre rax|rur d|slarce oelWeer ry PC ard lre ruo?
A s|mp|e |nterpretat|on of the |EEE spec|f|cat|on |s 100 meters us|ng 6at
5 cab|es

9. Car l correcl lWo corpulers logelrer W|lroul us|rg a ruo?
|f you on|y have two systems that you want to get them connected together to
do some f||e and pr|nter shar|ng, you can save the cost of buy|ng a hub by
connect|ng the adaptor cards us|ng a crossover cab|e. 6rossover cab|es,
wh|ch are d|fferent from the norma| UTP cab|es |n the|r p|n conf|gurat|on, are
ava||ab|e |n most computer shops.

10. wrere do l use lrarce|vers?
Transce|vers are the bas|c un|t of Ethernet. H|cro transce|vers a||ow you
to connect dev|ces equ|pped w|th an AU| port (or H|| port for Fast
Ethernet} to v|rtua||y an Ethernet med|a.

11. wral's lre rax|rur d|slarce l car use lor Aul drop cao|es?
A|| A|||ed Te|esyn transce|vers are fu||y |EEE 802.3 compat|b|e a||ow|ng
up to 50m of AU| drop cab|es.

12. 0o lrese ur|ls add lo repealer courls ard/or allecl lre rax|rur d|slarces lor
cao|es?
0n|y the AT-H615 (10aseT UTP to 10ase2 N6} adds a repeater
count. when p|ann|ng 100ase networks us|ng converters you shou|d
carry out a b|t de|ay ca|cu|at|on to ensure operat|on |f d|stances are
c|ose to max|mum.

13. wral |s a roul|rg sW|lcr?
A rout|ng sw|tch |s a next generat|on dev|ce that comb|nes
together w|re-speed sw|tch|ng and rout|ng to prov|de the
funct|ona| foundat|on for hand||ng mu|t|p|e types of
network|ng traff|c based on the "|ayer representat|on" of the
08| (0pen 8ystems |nterconnect} mode| |nc|ud|ng the
fo||ow|ng:
Trad|t|ona| Layer 2 sw|tch|ng dec|s|ons based on HA6, Port,
Protoco|, or VLAN.
Router Acce|erat|on, wh|ch |s the ab|||ty to sw|tch traff|c at
w|re-speed between ports based on |P se|ect|on cr|ter|a
(|nc|ud|ng T6P and U0P numbers} w|thout add|ng the
comp|ex|ty norma||y assoc|ated w|th trad|t|ona| rout|ng
Enhanced mu|t|cast and broadcast traff|c suppress|on and
contro|
0ua||ty of 8erv|ce (0o8} po||cy based pr|or|t|sat|on based
upon Layer 4 8ess|on, App||cat|on, and F|ow cr|ter|a
Hu|t|-protoco| support for w|re-speed rout|ng support|ng |P,
|PX, R|P|R|P2, App|eTa|k, P|H, |CHP, 0VHRP, 08FP, CP4,
F8RP, and VRRP

11. wral are lre d|llererl prys|ca| Elrerrel relWor| lypes?
48
3ore ol lre prys|ca| Elrerrel lypes as del|red |r lre 802.3 spec|l|cal|or are:
10A8E5 - 10A8E5 |s the or|g|na| des|gn of the trad|t|ona|
Ethernet backbone, des|gned to be |eft |n p|ace permanent|y or for
extended per|ods.
10A8E2 - 10A8E2 |s the or|g|na| des|gn for a departmenta| or
workgroup s|zed Ethernet env|ronment. |t |s des|gned to be s|mp|e,
|nexpens|ve, and f|ex|b|e as peop|e and stat|ons move.
0R0A03 - 10R0A03 |s a se|dom used Ethernet spec|f|cat|on
wh|ch uses a phys|ca| med|um s|m||ar to cab|e te|ev|s|on, w|th
6ATV-type cab|es, taps, connectors, and amp||f|ers.
1A8E5 - 1A8E5 |s a spec|f|cat|on of Ethernet that runs at 1 Hb|s
over tw|sted pa|r w|r|ng. Th|s phys|ca| topo|ogy uses centra||zed
hubs to connect the network dev|ces.
10A8E-T - 10A8ET prov|des Ethernet serv|ces over tw|sted pa|r
copper w|re.
F0|RL - F|bre 0pt|c |nter-Repeater L|nk - Th|s spec|f|cat|on of the
802.3 standard def|nes a standard means of connect|ng Ethernet
repeaters v|a opt|ca| f|ber.
10A8E-F - 10A8E-F |s a set of opt|ca| f|ber med|um
spec|f|cat|ons wh|ch def|ne connect|v|ty between dev|ces.
100A8E-T - 100A8E-T |s a ser|es of spec|f|cat|ons that prov|des
100-megab|t speeds over copper or f|ber. These topo|og|es are
often referred to as Fast Ethernet.
C|gab|t Ethernet - C|gab|t Ethernet prov|des speeds of 1000 Hb|s
over copper and f|ber.

15. w||| l reed spec|a| sollWare lo rur u38?
|n |nsta|||ng U8, w|ndows 2000 does have U8 support. w|ndows 988E
prov|des the most comp|ete U8 support. w|ndows 98 a|so supports
U8. Hany dev|ces get a|| of the software support they need from the
08, but there are some that w||| come w|th a f|oppy or 60 w|th
spec|a||zed dr|vers for that part|cu|ar dev|ce. 0on't worry about gett|ng
the r|ght software because the 08's that support U8 a|ways know how
to determ|ne |f anyth|ng e|se |s needed and they w||| he|p you get the
software |oaded so the dev|ce works correct|y. At one t|me there was
some ||m|ted support for U8 on w|ndows 95, but that |s no |onger
ava||ab|e.

1. loW rary u38 per|prera|s car l correcl al orce?
Techn|ca||y, you can connect up to 127 |nd|v|dua| U8 per|phera|s at
one t|me. 0ue to the fact that some dev|ces reserve U8 bandw|dth, the
pract|ca| max|mum of dev|ces |s |ess than the theoret|ca| max|mum.
however, P6|-U8 add-|n cards prov|de an |ndependent U8 bus to
wh|ch even more per|phera|s can be connected

1Z. loW lasl |s u38?
Fu|| speed U8 dev|ces s|gna| at 12Hb|s, wh||e |ow speed dev|ces use a
1.5Hb|s subchanne|.

18. loW does u38 corpare lo lEEE-1391?
wh||e the two ser|a| buses seem s|m||ar, they are |ntended to fu|f|||
d|fferent bandw|dth and cost needs. 1394 can move more data |n a g|ven
amount of t|me, but |s cons|derab|y more expens|ve than U8 due to |ts
more comp|ex protoco| and s|gna||ng rate. App||cat|ons that are best
su|ted for 1394 are d|sk dr|ves, h|gh qua||ty v|deo streams and other
h|gh bandw|dth app||cat|ons; a|| h|gher end consumer dev|ces. U8 |s
appropr|ate for m|dd|e and |ow bandw|dth app||cat|ons such as aud|o,
scanners, pr|nters, keyboards, and m|ce.
U8 and 1394 are comp||mentary techno|og|es. 1394 |s for dev|ces
where h|gh performance |s a pr|or|ty and pr|ce |s not, wh||e U8 |s for
dev|ces where pr|ce |s a pr|or|ty and h|gh performance |s not.

19. u38 - Proo|ers Caused oy LoW PoWer.
Prob|ems of "scanner not found" or qu|t|crash dur|ng scans can be
caused by an excess|ve power |oad on the U8 ports - make sure that a||
U8 dev|ces w|th externa| power supp||es are sw|tched 0N (to prevent
them draw|ng power from the bus}. |f some dev|ces are se|f-powered (|e
no externa| power supp|y} you may need a "powered U8 hub". |n some
cases the prob|ems are caused by a t|ny power dra|n wh|ch can be f|xed
by p|ugg|ng the scanner's externa| power supp|y d|rect|y |n to a wa||
socket.

20. wral ||rds ol u38 per|prera|s car l correcl lo ry PC?
There are a number of U8 per|phera| dev|ces on the market - amongst
them modems, d|g|ta| cameras, keyboards, m|ce, 60-R0H, tape and
f|oppy dr|ves, pr|nters and scanners.

21. wral |s lre rax|rur |erglr lor a u38 cao|e?
U8 cab|e must be no |onger than 5 meters or 15 feet. Extens|on U8
cab|es do not comp|y w|th U8 spec and are not supported. These
typ|ca||y have ma|e A to fema|e A connectors.

22. wral |s lre 3Cor u38 NelWor| lrlerlace?
0u|te s|mp|y the U8 Network |nterface prov|des the ||nk between a P6's
U8 port and an Ethernet dev|ce. |t performs the same funct|on as a
standard Network |nterface 6ard (N|6} - w|thout the need to open the P6
to |nsta|| the card.

23. wrere Wou|d l use lre u38 NelWor| lrlerlace?
The U8 Network |nterface |s des|gned to be used as the s|mp|est
method of connect|ng a P6 to an Ethernet network, or dev|ce. efore the
on|y way to connect to an Ethernet network was v|a a Network |nterface
6ard or N|6 - wh|ch requ|red the user to open the P6 case, and |nsta||
the N|6 |n the P6| or |8A s|ot. w|th U8 techno|ogy, the need to open the
P6 |s e||m|nated and the U8 Network |nterface |s p|ugged stra|ght |nto
the U8 port a|ready present on the P6.

21. wral do l do |l lre u38 porls or ry PC are a|ready oe|rg used
You cou|d use a dev|ce ca||ed a U8 hub, wh|ch prov|des you w|th more U8
ports than |s ava||ab|e on your P6. A U8 hub cannot be used to network P6's
|n the same way that an Ethernet hub |s used. |t |s s|mp|y a dev|ce for
connect|ng mu|t|p|e U8 dev|ces such as scanners, joyst|cks and m|ce.
To connect mu|t|p|e P6's you shou|d use an Ethernet hub such as 36om's
0ff|ce6onnect hub TP4 (361704}, wh|ch a||ows you to network up to 4 P6s
us|ng the U8 Network |nterface or convent|ona| Network |nterface 6ards
such as 36om's EtherL|nk products.

25. wral |s |rc|uded W|lr lre u38 NelWor| lrlerlace?
The U8 Network |nterface comes comp|ete w|th the fo||ow|ng:-
U8 6ab|e - (2 feet | 0.m} to connect your P6 to the U8 Network
|nterface.
|nsta||at|on d|skette - conta|n|ng a|| necessary dr|vers to |nsta|| the
dev|ce.
Reference Cu|de - a deta||ed gu|de, |n Eng||sh, French, 8pan|sh, |ta||an
and Cerman, to sett|ng up, conf|gur|ng and us|ng the U8 Network
|nterface.
|nsta||at|on Cu|de - easy to use, step by step |nsta||at|on poster, a|so
|oca||sed.

2. wral dev|ces use Layer 2 addresses lo segrerl relWor|s?
8w|tches, br|dges

2Z. wral dev|ce uses Layer 3 addresses lo segrerl relWor|s?
Routers

28. loW does a rouler recogr|ze ore relWor| lror arolrer?
y the |P number. Each network has a un|que |P address.

29. wral |s ar |rlerlace or a rouler? loW |s eacr ore |derl|l|ed?
a port. Each |nterface must have a un|que network or subnet address.

30. wral |s ARP? wral does |l do?
Address Reso|ut|on Protoco|. |f a send|ng dev|ce knows the |P address of the
dest|nat|on host but not the HA6 address, then ARP f|nds the HA6 address that
matches the |P address. |t then sends th|s |nformat|on back to the dev|ce that needed
the |nformat|on.

31. loW does a rouler |eep lrac| ol VAC addresses?
|t bu||ds an ARP tab|e that reso|ves HA6 address to |P addresses. ARP tab|es are
a|so ma|nta|ned by other dev|ces on the network, too, |nc|ud|ng hosts.

32. wral |s lre slruclure ol ar ARP requesl?
Three parts:
HA6 header - has the dest|nat|on's HA6 address des|gnated as FF-FF-
FF-FF-FFFF (broadcast} and the source's HA6 address (wh|ch |t
knows}
|P header - has the dest|nat|on host |P address and the source host |P
49
address spec|f|ed
ARP Request Hessage - asks for the HA6 address of the dest|nat|on
Th|s message goes out to a|| dev|ces on the network. The dev|ce whose
|P address matches the |P header port|on of the ARP request, sends
back |ts HA6 address to the send|ng host (ARP rep|y}. Th|s host then
reso|ves the HA6 address w|th the |P address, puts |t |n |ts ARP tab|e,
and correct|y addresses the packet and sends |t on |ts way.

33. wral |s RARP? wral does |l do?
Reverse Address Reso|ut|on Protoco|. Th|s |s the oppos|te of ARP. |n ARP, the
send|ng dev|ce has the dest|nat|on's |P, but not |ts HA6. w|th RARP, the send|ng
dev|ce has the dest|nat|on's HA6 not |ts |P address. 8o RARP reso|ves HA6
addresses w|th known |P addresses. Th|s |nformat|on goes |nto the ARP tab|e of the
dev|ce.

31. wral |s ar ARP lao|e?
Routers and other dev|ces on a network bu||d these tab|es. They map HA6
addresses to |P addresses. They run |n RAH of the dev|ce. |n routers, ARP tab|es can
conta|n HA6 and |P addresses of dev|ces on other networks, as we|| as on the|r own.

35. wral |s lre proloco| used lral W||| dyrar|ca||y ass|gr lP ruroers lo dev|ces or a relWor|?
0h6P (0ynam|c host conf|gurat|on protoco|}. |t a||ows a host to obta|n an |P address
qu|ck|y and dynam|ca||y.

3. wral |s a delau|l galeWay?
The |P address of the router |nterface that connects to the network segment that the
source host |s |ocated on.

3Z. wral |s proxy ARP?
A var|at|on of ARP. |t uses an |ntermed|ate dev|ce (such as a router} to send an ARP
rep|y on beha|f of the dest|nat|on host to the source host. A router runn|ng proxy
ARP responds to ARP rep||es w|th |ts own (the router's} HA6 address |f the ARP
request |s for a dest|nat|on host that |sn't on the router's |oca| subnet.

38. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer a rouled proloco| ard a roul|rg proloco| (|.e., Wral |s eacr
used lor)?
A routed protoco| |s used to route users' messages (|.e., between dev|ces on a LAN}.
A rout|ng protoco| |s used between routers to send path |nformat|on.

39. wral |s a roul|rg relr|c?
The way a router determ|nes the best path for a packet to take. Examp|es: hop count,
bandw|dth, |oad, de|ay, re||ab|||ty

10. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer correcl|or-or|erled ard correcl|or|ess syslers?
A connect|on-or|ented system has error check|ng bu||t |nto |t. |t a|so estab||shes a
connect|on w|th the rece|v|ng host before transm|tt|ng any data. A connect|on|ess
system does ne|ther. |t |s a best-effort de||very system.

11. wral |s arolrer rare lor a correcl|or|ess sysler?
Packet sw|tched

12. wral |s arolrer rare lor a correcl|or-or|erled sysler?
6|rcu|t sw|tched

13. wral does lP re|y or lo delerr|re Wrelrer pac|els rave oeer |osl ard lo requesl
relrarsr|ss|or?
A Layer 4 connect|on-or|ented protoco| (||ke T6P}

11. 0oes a dev|ce rave |rlorral|or or dev|ces or olrer segrerls |r |ls ARP lao|e? wry or
Wry rol?
Routers do, but hosts don't. hosts can on|y "see" dev|ces on the same
network|subnet that the host |s on. Routers, however, exchange tab|es of
|nformat|on w|th other routers so they can "see" dev|ces on other networks.
hosts can get |nformat|on on dev|ces on other networks by go|ng through a
proxy ARP (e.g., router}.

15. loW does a dev|ce l|rd lre VAC address ol arolrer dev|ce or a d|llererl suorel?
|t has to go through a proxy ARP dev|ce.

1. As a pac|el roves lrrougr lre relWor|, go|rg lror dev|ce lo dev|ce ard rouler lo rouler,
Wral p|ece ol address|rg |rlorral|or rever crarges?
The dest|nat|on host's |P address
1Z. wral rappers |l a pac|el cores |rlo a rouler lral's rol d|recl|y correcled lo lre desl|ral|or
relWor|?
The router forwards the packet to the next router (hop} that |s most ||ke|y to be
connected to the dest|nat|on network or has |nformat|on on |t.

18. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer dyrar|c ard slal|c roules?
0ynam|c routes are those that routers |earn automat|ca||y by exchang|ng rout|ng
tab|es. Routers are set up to exchange th|s |nformat|on on a regu|ar bas|s (e.g., every
30 seconds, 90 seconds, whatever}. 8tat|c routes are entered |nto the router's
conf|gurat|on f||e by the network adm|n|strator. Therefore, the on|y way a stat|c route
can be updated |s |f the adm|n|strator manua||y changes |t |n the router's
conf|gurat|on f||e.

19. wral |s a sluo relWor|? wou|d |l oe rouled slal|ca||y or dyrar|ca||y?
|t's a route to a network that on|y has one path to get there. |t wou|d norma||y be
conf|gured stat|ca||y by the adm|n|strator.

50. wral |s ore advarlage ol dyrar|ca||y ra|rla|red relWor|s v3 slal|ca||y ra|rla|red ores?
0ne advantage |s that routers automat|ca||y update themse|ves. |t takes ||tt|e
adm|n|strat|ve overhead.

51. wral |s ore d|sadvarlage?
0ne d|sadvantage |s secur|ty. 8tat|c routes are on|y known to the adm|n|strator(s} of
the network. |t's d|ff|cu|t for outs|ders to get th|s |nformat|on.

52. 0escr|oe TCP/lP.
Transm|ss|on 6ontro| Protoco|||nternet Protoco| - the su|te of protoco|s deve|oped
as part of ARPA. |nc|udes |ayers 3 and 4 spec|f|cat|ons, as we|| as protoco|s for
common app||cat|ons (e.g., e-ma||, f||e transfer, term|na| emu|at|on}. |ts ma|n funct|on
|s for transfer of |nformat|on from one network dev|ce to another.

53. L|sl lre d|llererl |ayers ol lre TCP/lP slac|.
Layers 7, 4, and 3

51. wral app||cal|ors ard proloco|s are |r eacr |ayer ol lre TCP/lP slac|?
Layer 7: 0N8 (name-to-|P reso|ut|on}, w|N8 (name-to-NT workstat|on
reso|ut|on}, h08T8 (stat|c mapp|ng of |P to computer names}, P0P3
(|ncom|ng e-ma||}, 8HTP (outgo|ng e-ma||}, 8NHP (network management}, FTP
(f||e transfer}, TFTP (f||e transfer}, hTTP (web pages}, Te|net (remote
connect|ons}
Layer 4: T6P (connect|on or|ented}, U0P (connect|on|ess}
Layer 3: |P, |6HP (p|ng}, ARP, RARP, Traceroute

55. wral are porl ruroers ard roW are lrey used?
Used to keep track of mu|t|p|e conversat|ons cross|ng the network at the same t|me.

5. 0escr|oe lre dyrar|cs ol lre lrree Way rardsra|e.
1. The source host sends the dest|nat|on host a request for commun|cat|on.
Th|s |s done by send|ng a sequence number.
2. The dest|nat|on host sends back an acknow|edgement of the sequence
number and then adds 1 to |t and sends that.
3. The source host acknow|edges the sequence number +1 that the
dest|nat|on host sent and transm|ss|on beg|ns.

5Z. wrere Wou|d l|oW corlro| proo|ers ex|sl |r lre 03l rode|?
Layer 4, Transport

58. wral |s lre purpose ol lre proloco| l|e|d |r lre lP reader?
|nd|cates wh|ch Layer 4 protoco| (T6P or U0P} |s be|ng used to send the packet.

59. wral are lCVPs ard lre|r purpose?
|nternet 6ontro| Hessage Protoco| (p|ng} - they check for connect|v|ty between two
dev|ces at Layer 3. |6HP sends a packet to a des|gnated remote s|te and wa|ts for an
echo rep|y. |t sends out 5 packets and responds on how many of them echoed back
from the dest|nat|on.

0. wral |s ARP ard Wral lurcl|or does |l perlorr?
Address Reso|ut|on Protoco| - reso|ves unknown HA6 addresses to |P known
addresses to a||ow commun|cat|on on mu|t|-access med|a (e.g., Ethernet}.

1. loW does a dev|ce l|rd a Layer 3 address or a relWor|?
From an RARP (Reverse Address Reso|ut|on Protoco|} server.

2. wral |s lre lurcl|or ol a oroadcasl address?
|t's the address put on a packet that |s to be seen by a|| hosts on a network|subnet.

3. wral |s lre ip host corrard used lor? wral |s lre correcl syrlax ol lre corrard?
|t |s used to assoc|ate an |P address of a router's |nterface w|th a name.
router (conf|g}# |p host [namej [|P addressj [|P address-|f more than one |nterface
on routerj

1. loW do you lurr oll lre rare-lo-address lrars|al|or?
use the command: no |p doma|n-|ookup

5. wral corrard sroWs palr la||ures lror lre source lo desl|ral|or?
traceroute

. wral are lre pr|rary dul|es ol lre Trarsporl Layer (Layer 1)?
1. transport of data
2. re||ab|e and accurate transport (error contro|}
50

Z. wral are lre lWo ra|r Layer 1 proloco|s We use?
TCP, UDP

8. wral are lour or rore craracler|sl|cs ol TCP?
creates v|rtua| c|rcu|t between sender and rece|ver
connect|on-or|ented
re||ab|e
d|v|des outgo|ng messages |nto segments
reassemb|es segments at rece|v|ng end
re-sends anyth|ng not rece|ved
reassemb|es messages from |ncom|ng packets

9. wral are lour or rore craracler|sl|cs ol u0P?
transports data unre||ab|y
connect|on|ess
unre||ab|e
transm|ts messages (datagrams}, not segments
no error contro|
does not reassemb|e |ncom|ng messages
no acknow|edgements
no f|ow contro|

Z0. wral |ayer does lP Wor| or? loW does |l Wor| W|lr TCP?
Layer 3; s|nce |P |s connect|on|ess, |t works w|th T6P for error contro| (T6P |s
connect|on-or|ented}

Z1. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer TCP ard u0P?
T6P offers error contro|; U0P does not.

Z2. wral are lre parls ol a TCP segrerl? 0|ve a or|el descr|pl|or ol eacr parl.
1. 8ource port - number of the ca|||ng port
2. 0est|nat|on port - number of the ca||ed port
3. 8equence number - used to ensure correct sequenc|ng of arr|v|ng data
1. Acknow|edgement number - next expected T6P octet
5. hLEN - number of 32-b|t words |n the header
. Reserved - set to 0 (zero}
Z. 6ode b|ts - contro| funct|ons (such as setup and term|nat|on of sess|on}
8. w|ndow - number of octets that the sender |s w||||ng to accept
9. 6hecksum - ca|cu|ated checksum of the header and data f|e|ds
10. Urgent po|nter - |nd|cates the end of the urgent data
11. 0pt|on-one opt|on - max|mum T6P segment s|ze
12. 0ata - upper-|ayer protoco| data

Z3. L|sl lour proloco|s lral use u0P. 8r|el|y descr|oe eacr ore.
1. TFTP - Tr|v|a| F||e Transfer Protoco|: k|nd of ||ke FTP, but you have to be on
the same network segment for |t to work.
2. 8NHP - 8|mp|e Network Hanagement Protoco|: checks how the network |s
runn|ng
3. 0h6P - 0ynam|c host 6onf|gurat|on Protoco|: ass|gns |P addresses to
dev|ces dynam|ca||y
1. 0N8 - 0oma|n Name 8erv|ce: maps names to |P numbers

Z1. wral do TCP ard u0P use lo pass |rlorral|or lo upper |ayers?
port numbers

Z5. wral do porl ruroers do?
They keep track of d|fferent conversat|ons that are cross|ng the network at the same
t|me.

Z. wral porl ruroers are used lor puo||c app||cal|ors? Are ass|gred lo corpar|es? Are
urregu|aled?
Pub||c - be|ow 255
6ompan|es - 255-1023
Unass|gned - over 1023

ZZ. wral |s a lrree-Way rardsra|e?
|t |s the open sequence that synchron|zes a connect|on at both ends before data |s
transferred.

Z8. wral |s PAR?
Pos|t|ve Acknow|edgement and Retransm|ss|on. |t |s an error-check|ng techn|que
used by many protoco|s.

Z9. wral |s W|rdoW|rg?
f|ow contro| mechan|sm requ|r|ng that the source dev|ce rece|ve an
acknow|edgement from the send|ng dev|ce after transm|tt|ng a certa|n amount of
data.

80. wral |s W|rdoW s|ze?
the amount of data that can be transm|tted at one t|me before rece|v|ng an
acknow|edgement from the dest|nat|on dev|ce

81. wral rappers |l a lrarsr|ss|or us|rg TCP la||s lo de||ver ore segrerl oul ol a ru|l|-
segrerl l||e?
The dest|nat|on dev|ce |ets the send|ng dev|ce know, and the segment |s
retransm|tted.

82. loW does lre rece|v|rg dev|ce |roW lral lrere's a segrerl r|ss|rg?
datagrams are numbered. |f a number |s m|ss|ng, the rece|v|ng dev|ce knows a
segment |s m|ss|ng.

83. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol lre 3ess|or Layer (Layer 5)?
|t estab||shes, manages, and term|nates sess|ons between app||cat|ons.

81. wral |s d|a|ogue corlro|?
Th|s |s how the 8ess|on Layer manages conversat|ons on the network. Each dev|ce,
whether send|ng or rece|v|ng, acts ||ke both a c||ent a host at d|fferent t|mes dur|ng
the transm|ss|on process. 0|a|ogue contro| |ets each dev|ce know wh|ch |t |s at any
t|me dur|ng the transm|ss|on process.

85. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer lWo-Way a|lerrale corrur|cal|or ard lWo-Way
s|ru|lareous corrur|cal|or? wr|cr ore |s prore lo co|||s|ors?
Two-way a|ternate commun|cat|on |s when the send|ng and rece|v|ng dev|ces
take turns dur|ng the transm|ss|on of the data on the network. Th|s |s ||ke ha|f
dup|ex conversat|ons.
Two-way s|mu|taneous commun|cat|on |s when the send|ng and rece|v|ng
dev|ces can both transm|t at the same t|me on the network. Th|s |s ||ke fu||
dup|ex.
Th|s commun|cat|on mode |s more prone to co|||s|ons.

8. wral |s d|a|ogue separal|or?
the order|y process of estab||sh|ng, manag|ng, and term|nat|ng commun|cat|on.

8Z. L|sl s|x |rporlarl Layer 5 proloco|s.
NF8 - Network F||e 8ystem
80L - 8tructured 0uery Language
RP6 - Remote Procedure 6a||
X-w|ndow 8ystem
A8P - App|eta|k 8ess|on Protoco|
0NA 86P - 0|g|ta| Network Arch|tecture 8ess|on 6ontro| Protoco|

88. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol lre Preserlal|or Layer (Layer )?
The |ayer respons|b|e for present|ng data |n a form that the rece|v|ng dev|ce can
understand.

89. Nare 3 |rporlarl lurcl|ors ol lr|s |ayer:
data formatt|ng
data encrypt|on
data compress|on

90. Nare lWo lypes ol lexl lorrall|rg. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer lre lWo?
A86|| and E60|6. A86|| |s s|mp|e text format. |t |s the computer standard
today.
E60|6 was created by |H and |s s|m||ar to A86||, but doesn't use any
soph|st|cated formatt|ng. |t |s pr|mar||y used on ma|nframes.

91. Nare al |easl 1 slardards lor grapr|c |rages.
P|6T - P|cture format: used on Hac 08 systems
T|FF - Tagged |mage F||e Format: h|gh-reso|ut|on, b|t-mapped |mages
JPEC - Jo|n Photograph|c Experts Croup: used to compress graph|c |mages
C|F - Craph|c |nterchange Format: standard for uncompressed graph|c
|mages

92. wr|cr |l lre aoove are used or lre lrlerrel?
JPEC, C|F

93. Nare al |easl 3 slardards lor sourd ard rov|es.
H|0| - Hus|ca| |nstrument 0|g|ta| |nterface: d|g|t|zed mus|c
HPEC - Hot|on P|cture Experts Croup: compress|on and cod|ng of v|deo for
d|g|ta| storage
0u|ckT|me - hand|es aud|o and v|deo for both Hac and P6 operat|ng systems

91. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol slrear|rg aud|o?
sound f||es that start to p|ay before comp|ete|y down|oad|ng.

95. wral |s lTVL?
hypertext Harkup Language - |t |s the tagg|ng system used to create web pages.
The |anguage of the |nternet.

9. wral |ayer ol lre 03l rode| |s c|osesl lo lre user?
the app||cat|on |ayer (Layer 7}
51

9Z. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol lre App||cal|or Layer?
0eterm|nes whether suff|c|ent resources ex|t for commun|cat|on between systems. |t
does not prov|de serv|ces to any other Layer. |t does prov|de a d|rect |nterface for
the rest of the 08| mode| by us|ng network app||cat|ons or an |nd|rect |nterface by
us|ng standa|one app||cat|ons w|th a red|rector.

98. wral |s a red|reclor? wral does |l do?
|t |s a protoco|. |t works w|th computer operat|ng systems and network c||ents
|nstead of spec|f|c app||cat|on programs. For examp|e, |f a c||ent wants to save a f||e
from a word processor to the network server, the red|rector enab|es the word
process|ng program to become a network c||ent.

99. L|sl al |easl lrree red|reclors.
1. App|e F||e Protoco|
2. Net|08 Extended User |nterface (NetEU|}
3. Nove| |PX|8PX protoco|s
1. Network F||e 8ystem (N8F} of the T6P||P su|te

100. wral |s rearl oy a 'c||erl-server erv|rorrerl?
the c||ent |s a |oca| computer (requester of serv|ces}, the server |s a remote computer
that prov|des those serv|ces requested by the c||ents. |t |s the usua| network|ng
mode|.

101. wral |s |rd|recl-app||cal|or relWor| supporl?
|t |s a c||ent-server funct|on. |t a||ows the red|rector to send f||es from a c||ent to a
remote server.

102. wral ass|grs |og|ca| rares lo resources or a |oca| c||erl? wral a||oWs lr|s lo rapper?
The network adm|n|strator ass|gns |og|ca| names to remote resources (such as
pr|nters}. These resources are |oca| c||ents. The network red|rector |s what actua||y
a||ows th|s to work. |t sends the se|ected f||e to the proper remote resource on the
network for process|ng.

103. loW does a red|reclor process lrarsacl|ors sucr as correcl|rg lo a server?
|t connects on|y |ong enough to do the process|ng, then |t term|nates the connect|on.
The connect|on must be reestab||shed each t|me the resource |s requested.

101. wral |s a dora|r rare? wral |s lre rax|rur ruroer ol craraclers a||oWed |r a dora|r
rare?
|t |s a way to map a str|ng of characters to an |P address. The max characters a||owed
(r|ght now} |s 4.

105. wral |s lre dora|r rare server? wral does |l do?
The 0oma|n Name 8erver manages the 0N8 entr|es and what |Ps they stand for.
(|t maps names to |Ps.} |t |s a dev|ce on the network that responds to c||ent requests
for 0N8 serv|ce.

10. wral |s lre rosl corror|y used app||cal|or or lre lrlerrel?
wor|d w|de web (www}

10Z. Nare sore olrer app||cal|ors or lre lrlerrel:
1. Te|net
2. FTP
3. e-ma||
1. Network |nformat|on gather|ng and mon|tor|ng app||cat|ons (8NHP, for examp|e}

108. wral are lre lWo parls ol ar e-ra|| address? wr|cr parl rusl oe ur|que lo lre ra|| server?
The user name (rec|p|ent's name}, the post off|ce address

109. wral rusl you rave |r order lo access your e-ra|| accourl?
a password

110. wral do We rear oy 'slore ard lorWard lecrro|ogy?
f||es are stored on a server unt|| they are "ca||ed" for. Then they are forwarded to the
owner. Th|s |s how e-ma|| works.

111. wrere are e-ra|| ressages slored url|| lrey're ca||ed lor?
they are stored |n a "ma||box" on the ma|| server.

112. wral |s lre corror ra|| proloco| used lo rece|ve (doWr|oad) e-ra|| ressages?
P0P3 (Post 0ff|ce Protoco|}

113. wral |s lre corror ra|| proloco| used lo serd (up|oad) e-ra|| ressages?
8HTP (8|mp|e Ha|| Transfer Protoco|}

111. wrere does process|rg la|e p|ace |l you are Te|relled |rlo arolrer corpuler?
when you Te|net to another computer, your computer becomes a dumb term|na|; a||
process|ng takes p|ace on the remote computer.

115. wral |ayers ol lre 03l rode| does Te|rel Wor| al?
7, , 5

11. wral |s FTP? wral |s |l des|gred lo do?
F||e Transfer Protoco| - |t a||ows you to up|oad or down|oad f||es to|from a remote
|ocat|on. The ma|n purpose of FTP |s to transfer f||es from one computer to another
by copy|ng and mov|ng f||es from servers to c||ents, and from c||ents to servers.

11Z. wral |s lTTP?
hypertext Transfer Protoco| - |t works w|th the web

118. wral |s a Weo oroWser?
a c||ent-server app||cat|on that |nterprets data |n mu|t|med|a formats (use text,
graph|cs, sound, and v|deo} on web pages

119. wral |s a ryper||r|? wrere Wou|d you lyp|ca||y l|rd ore?
an object (word, phrase, graph|c} on a web page that, when c||cked, transfers you to
a new web page. You typ|ca||y f|nd them on web pages.

120. wral |s a uRL?
Un|form Resource Locator - |t |s the "address" of a web s|te

121. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol ar erlerpr|se?
a corporat|on, agency, schoo|, or other organ|zat|on that t|es together |ts data,
commun|cat|on, comput|ng, and f||e servers.

122. Nare lre reasors lor creal|rg a |ayered rode| lo descr|oe relWor||rg lurcl|ors:
to make |ess comp|ex e|ements
to def|ne standards for compat|b|||ty
to deve|op modu|ar funct|ons
to promote symmetry and |nteroperab|||ty
to promote qu|cker evo|ut|on
to make d|ff|cu|t concepts easy to understand and |earn

123. wral does lre App||cal|or |ayer do?
prov|des network serv|ces to user app||cat|ons; supports the commun|cat|ng
components of an app||cat|on.

121. wral does lre Preserlal|or |ayer do?
prov|des data representat|on and code formatt|ng. |t a|so |s respons|b|e for
encrypt|on.

125. wral does lre 3ess|or |ayer do?
estab||shes, ma|nta|ns, and manages sess|ons between app||cat|ons

12. Nare sore ol lre app||cal|ors/proloco|s supporled oy lre 3ess|or |ayer:
Network F||e 8ystems (NF8}
8tructured 0uery Language (80L}
Remote-Procedure 6a|| (RP6}
X w|ndow 8ystem
App|eTa|k 8ess|on Protoco| (A8P}
0NA 8ess|on 6ontro| Protoco| (0NA 86P}

12Z. wral does lre Trarsporl |ayer do?
segments and reassemb|es data |nto a data stream.

128. wral does lre NelWor| |ayer do?
path se|ect|on (determ|nes best way to get data to dest|nat|on}

129. wral does lre 0ala L|r| |ayer do?
concerned w|th network topo|ogy

130. wral does lre Prys|ca| |ayer do?
prov|des the e|ectr|ca|, mechan|ca|, procedura|, and funct|ona| means for act|vat|ng
and ma|nta|n|ng the phys|ca| ||nk between systems.

131. wral are lre |ayers lral ra|e up lre losl |ayers?
App||cat|on, Presentat|on, 8ess|on, Transport

132. wral are lre |ayers lral ra|e up lre Ved|a |ayers?
Network, 0ata L|nk, Phys|ca|

133. wral |s a P0u? wral |s lre P0u lor lre 0ala L|r| |ayer?
Protoco| 0ata Un|t - |nformat|on exchanged by protoco|s. P0U for 0ata L|nk |s the
frame.

131. L|sl lre ercapsu|al|or reader lor eacr ol lre lo||oW|rg |ayers:
/pp||car|on-$ess|on. 0ata
Transporr. 8egments
heruork. Packets
0ara l|nk. Frames
Pn,s|ca|. |ts
52

135. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol a rouler?
a network|ng dev|ce prov|des |nternetwork|ng funct|ona||ty and broadcast contro|.

13. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol ar Elrerrel sW|lcr?
a network|ng dev|ce that offers fu||-dup|ex, ded|cated bandw|dth to a|| segments or
desktops

13Z. wral are lre 3 rosl corror LAN lecrro|og|es used loday?
Ethernet, Token R|ng, F00|

138. wral cao|e(s) a||oW(s) segrerls up lo 185 relers?
10-ase 2, 10-ase 5, Hu|t|-mode f|ber, 8|ng|e-mode f|ber

10-ase T, 10-ase2, 10-ase 5, Hu|t||8|ng|e-mode f|ber

10-ase 5, Hu|t||8|ng|e-mode f|ber

8|ng|e-mode f|ber

112. wral |s lre lEEE ruroer lor Elrerrel?
802.3

113. wral does C3VA/C0 slard lor? wral lype ol LAN lecrro|ogy uses C3VA/C0?
6arr|er 8ense Hu|t|p|e Access|6o|||s|on 0etect. Ethernet

111. wral rappers Wrer a co|||s|or occurs or a relWor|?
data |n both packets |s destroyed. when the transm|tt|ng node recogn|zes the
co|||s|on, |t |ssues a jam s|gna|.

115. wral does a jar s|gra| do?
|t |s a s|gna| to a|| dev|ces on the network|segment to stop transm|tt|ng.

11. wral |s a oac|oll?
|t |s a certa|n amount of t|me that a dev|ce |s stop transm|tt|ng on the network.
Each dev|ce has a d|fferent backoff so they w||| start transm|tt|ng aga|n at d|fferent
t|mes. Th|s, hopefu||y, keeps other co|||s|ons from happen|ng.

11Z. VAC addresses car oe d|v|ded |rlo 2 p|eces. wral are lrey, ard roW rary o|ls are |r eacr
p|ece?
Vendor code: 24 b|ts
8er|a| number (un|que number to each card}: 24 b|ts

118. wral |s ARP? wral does |l do?
Address Reso|ut|on Protoco|. |t |s how a send|ng dev|ce can get the HA6 address of
the dest|nat|on dev|ce. The send|ng dev|ce must know the |P number of the
dest|nat|on for ARP to work.

119. ll a dev|ce serds oul ar ARP requesl, Wral W||| serd oac| lre ARP rep|y? wral W||| serd
oac| lre ARP rep|y |l lre requesled dev|ce |s rol or lre sare segrerl, ard Wral does |l
rep|y W|lr?
0n|y the dev|ce that has the |P address referenced |n the ARP request w||| send back
an ARP rep|y (w|th |ts HA6 address} to the send|ng dev|ce.
|f the dest|nat|on dev|ce |s not on the same segment as the send|ng dev|ce, then the
router w||| send back the ARP rep|y. |t w||| |nc|ude |ts own HA6 address (|nstead of
the actua| dest|nat|on dev|ce's} |n the ARP rep|y.

150. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer acrua| ard useao|e suorels?
Actua| subnets |s how many tota| subnets are created by borrow|ng b|ts. Useab|e are
the actua| subnets |ess 2. The reason for th|s |s that you can't use the who|e f|rst
subnet (|t's reserved for the network address} or the |ast subnet (|t's reserved for
network broadcast}.

151. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer TCP ard u0P? wral |ayer do lrey oolr ex|sl al?
T6P has error contro| bu||t |nto |t (connect|on or|ented}; U0P does not
(connect|on|ess}. They are both Layer 4 protoco|s.

152. wral |s W|rdoW|rg?
an agreement between the send|ng dev|ce and the dest|nat|on dev|ce on how much
data can be sent at a t|me. |t |s an error contro| techn|que that he|ps T6P's re||ab|||ty.

153. wral are lre lrree sleps |r des|gr|rg a reW relWor|?
Cather |nformat|on about the organ|zat|on
0o a deta||ed ana|ys|s and assessment of the current and projected
requ|rements
|dent|fy resources and constra|nts of the organ|zat|on

151. For lecrr|ca| l|e|ds, rare s|x lr|rgs lre des|gr process srou|d |rc|ude:
0es|gner (the person do|ng the des|gn}
6||ent (the person who requested the des|gn}
User(s} (peop|e who w||| be us|ng the network}
ra|nstorm|ng (generat|on of |deas for the des|gn}
8pec|f|cat|ons deve|opment (measurements to te|| how we|| the des|gn
works}
u||d|ng and test|ng (make sure network meets the needs|object|ves of the
c||ent and standards of |ndustry}

155. wry |s docurerl|rg lre des|gr ol a relWor| |rporlarl?
|f you have good documentat|on on hand, |t can make |t eas|er to "see" what the
network w||| |ook ||ke and how |t shou|d act before |t actua||y |s up and runn|ng, |t can
make troub|eshoot|ng much eas|er after the network |s |nsta||ed and runn|ng, |t |s
eas|er to tra|n new network|ng adm|n|strators|personne| |n the network |ayout |f
there |s documentat|on ava||ab|e.

15. wral are s|x lypes ol docurerlal|or you srou|d creale Wrer des|gr|rg/docurerl|rg a
relWor|?
Eng|neer|ng journa|
Log|ca| topo|ogy
Phys|ca| topo|ogy
6ut sheets
Prob|em-so|v|ng matr|ces
Labe|ed out|ets
Labe|ed cab|e runs
8ummary of out|ets and cab|e runs
8ummary of dev|ces, HA6 addresses, |P addresses

15Z. wral does lre TlA/ElA-59 slardard descr|oe?
how w|r|ng c|osets are to be arranged |n a bu||d|ng and that add|t|ona| w|r|ng c|osets
are requ|red |f a bu||d|ng f|oor exceeds 1000 square meters.

158. 0r a lrree-l|oor ou||d|rg, Wral |s lre r|r|rur ruroer ol W|r|rg c|osels you srou|d rave?
3

159. wral dev|ces car you use lo exlerd oeyord lre 100-reler cao|e rur ||r|l or Cal 5 uTP?
Repeaters, hubs, sw|tches, br|dges, routers

10. wral are lre requ|rererls lor W|r|rg c|osel Wa||s, l|oors, ard ce|||rgs?
Ra|sed f|oors or |adder racks
T||e or f|n|shed surface of f|oor (concrete}
H|n|mum of 2 wa||s covered w|th 20mm A-6 p|ywood that |s at |east 2.4 m.
h|gh
H0F w|th P0P shou|d have |nter|or wa||s covered from f|oor to ce|||ng w|th
the above ment|oned p|ywood and a m|n|mum of 4. m. of wa|| space for
term|nat|ons and re|ated equ|pment.
F|re prevent|on mater|a|s that meet codes (e.g., p|ywood, pa|nt, etc.}
No dropped or fa|se ce|||ngs

11. wral are lre requ|rererls lor W|r|rg c|osel lerperalure ard rur|d|ly |eve|s?
A|r cond|t|oned to keep temperature approx|mate|y 21 degrees 6 when a||
equ|pment |n operat|on
No water or steam p|pes runn|ng through c|oset (except for f|re spr|nk|er}
hum|d|ty |eve| between 30-507

12. wral are lre requ|rererls lor W|r|rg c|osel poWer oul|els?
H|n|mum 2 ded|cated, non-sw|tched, A6 dup|ex out|ets on separate c|rcu|ts
0ne dup|ex power out|et every 1.8 m on each wa|| 150 mm above f|oor
wa|| sw|tch |mmed|ate|y |ns|de door to contro| room's ||ght|ng

13. wral are lre requ|rererls lor W|r|rg c|osel |ocal|or ard lypes ol ||grl|rg?
|ncandescent |s best, but f|orescent can be used w|th proper |nsta||at|on
H|n|mum 500 |x br|ghtness (50 foot cand|es}
F|xtures mounted m|n|mum 2. m above f|oor

11. wral are lre requ|rererls lor W|r|rg c|osel roor/equ|prerl access?
0oor w|dth of .9 m m|n|mum
0oor shou|d sw|ng |nto the room
Lock shou|d be on outs|de of door

15. wral are lre requ|rererls lor W|r|rg c|osel cao|e access ard supporl?
hub and patch pane| mounted to wa|| w|th h|nged wa|| bracket or on
d|str|but|on rack
h|nged wa|| bracket must be attached to p|ywood that covers wa|| surface
0|str|but|on rack m|n|mum 15.2 cm wa|| c|earance for equ|pment, p|us
another 30.5-45.5 cm.
A 55.9 cm f|oor p|ate shou|d be used to f|oor mount the d|str|but|on rack
|f us|ng a cab|net, need at |east 7.2 cm c|earance |n front. Typ|ca| cab|nets
are 1.8 m h|gh by .74 m w|de by . m deep

1. wral |rporlarl lealure srou|d Wa||/ce|||rg oper|rgs lor cordu|l rave |l lre cordu|l corla|rs
53
relWor| cao||rg?
They shou|d be sea|ed w|th smoke- and f|ame-retardant mater|a|s that meet a|| codes.

1Z. wral |s a V0F?
Ha|n 0|str|but|on Fac|||ty. |t |s the ma|n w|r|ng c|oset of the bu||d|ng.

18. wrere srou|d a V0F oe |ocaled |r a s|rg|e-slory ou||d|rg?
Near the P0P.

19. wrere srou|d a V0F oe |ocaled |r a ru|l|-slory ou||d|rg?
0n a m|dd|e f|oor.

1Z0. wral |s lre P0P?
Po|nt of Presence - where the te|ephone serv|ce enters the bu||d|ng.

1Z1. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol a W|r|rg c|osel?
The centra| po|nt of a star topo|ogy where the hub |s |ocated.

1Z2. loW do you delerr|re lre |ocal|or ol W|r|rg c|osels |r a ou||d|rg?
0raw a f|oor p|an (or get b|ue pr|nts of the bu||d|ng} approx|mate|y to sca|e. Add a||
dev|ces that w||| be connected to the network |n the areas where you dec|de they w|||
be most effect|ve and meet standards.

1Z3. wral |s a calcrrerl area? loW |s ore crealed?
The area around a hub|w|r|ng c|oset that does not extend beyond the tota| cab|e run
|ength of your med|a. 6atchment areas are created by creat|ng w|r|ng c|osets.

1Z1. wral |s ar l0F? wrere |s |l |ocaled |r lre ou||d|rg?
|ntermed|ate d|str|but|on fac|||ty. There shou|d be one on each f|oor and|or w|th|n a
1000 sq. meter rad|us.

1Z5. wral |s lre recorrerded cao||rg lo use lor oac|oore (verl|ca|) cao||rg?
F|ber opt|c; 2.5|125 m|cron mu|t|-mode

1Z. wral |s lre TlA/ElA slardard lral spec|l|es oac|oore cao||rg?
578-A

1ZZ. loW srou|d ar l0F oe correcled lo a V0F |r ar exlerded slar lopo|ogy relWor|?
Each |0F through |ts h66 (hor|zonta| 6ross 6onnect [patch pane|j} can be
connected d|rect|y to the ma|n d|str|but|on fac|||ty.
An |0F may be connected to another |0F and then the second |0F |s
connected to the H0F. Th|s uses a |66 (|ntermed|ate 6ross 6onnect [patch
pane|j} to connect to the h66 of the f|rst |0F.

1Z8. wral |s a lCC?
hor|zonta| 6ross 6onnect |s the patch pane| |ocated |n an |0F.

1Z9. wral |s a VCC
Ha|n 6ross 6onnect |s the patch pane| |ocated |n a H0F.

180. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer AC ard 0C currerl?
06 f|ows at a constant va|ue when c|rcu|ts are one; A6 r|ses and fa||s as power
compan|es manufacture |t.

181. wral |s AC ||re ro|se ard Wral |s ore lr|rg lral car corpourd |l?
No|se on an A6 ||ne that adds unwanted vo|tages to s|gna|s. Poor ground connect|on
can compound |t.

182. wral |s E30? wral car |l do lo a corpuler?
E|ectr|c 8tat|c 0|scharge. |t can destroy sem|conductors and data.

183. wral |s lre purpose ol a salely grourd or a corpuler?
|t |s to prevent meta| parts from becom|ng energ|zed w|th hazardous vo|tage, wh|ch
can resu|t from a w|r|ng fau|t |n the computer.

181. wral |s lre ra|r proo|er W|lr a |arge ou||d|rg lral ras ru|l|p|e earlr grourds?
Each earth ground can have a s||ght|y d|fferent potent|a| (vo|tage} to the common
and hot w|res so out|ets are not rea||y grounded.

185. wral |s lre ore-rard ru|e? wry |s |l a good |dea lo lo||oW |l Wrer Wor||rg or a corpuler?
when work|ng on a computer (or any e|ectr|ca| dev|ce}, on|y touch the dev|ce w|th
one hand at a t|me. Th|s way you won't acc|denta||y comp|ete a c|rcu|t and get a
nasty shock.

18. ls uTP a good corduclor ol e|eclr|c|ly? (yes/ro) wry or Wry rol?
|t's copper-based, wh|ch |s an exce||ent conductor.

18Z. wral Wou|d rapper |l lre grourd W|re lor a relWor||rg dev|ce |r ore |ocal|or ras a s||grl|y
d|llererl polerl|a| lrar arolrer dev|ce or lre sare relWor| segrerl?
The c|osed c|rcu|t of UTP cab||ng wou|d a||ow e|ectr|ca| current to f|ow from the
negat|ve source to the pos|t|ve source.

188. wral r|grl rapper |l lrere |s a lau|ly grourd W|re al lre oul|el lral |s used oy a relWor||rg
dev|ce?
Potent|a||y fata| vo|tages between the UTP and the chass|s of the dev|ce can bu||d
up.

189. 0oes e|eclr|c|ly l|oW lror regal|ve lo pos|l|ve or pos|l|ve lo regal|ve?
Negat|ve to pos|t|ve

190. wry |s |l rol a good |dea lo use copper-oased cao||rg lor oac|oore cao||rg?
|t can prov|de a pathway |nto the bu||d|ng |f struck by ||ghten|ng.

191. wral |s a rorra| rode proo|er?
A s|tuat|on between the hot and neutra| w|re.

192. wral |s a corror rode proo|er?
A s|tuat|on between the hot (or neutra|} w|re and the ground w|re.

193. wr|cr poses lre Worsl proo|er? wry?
6ommon mode. ecause they can go d|rect|y to a computer's chass|s (or whatever}
w|thout any |nterven|ng f||ter (ground}. Th|s a||ows a common mode prob|em to
cause more s|gna| damage than does a norma| mode prob|em.

191. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol a poWer d|sluroarce?
Unwanted excess energy sent to e|ectr|ca| equ|pment.

195. wral |s a surge? Nare al |easl ore s|lual|or lral cou|d cause a surge.
Vo|tage |ncrease above 1107 norma|. L|ghten|ng |s one cause.

19. wral |s a sp||e? Nare al |easl ore s|lual|or lral cou|d cause a sp||e.
|mpu|se that produces a vo|tage over|oad, usua||y |ast|ng a few m|croseconds. The
e|ectr|c company power|ng up after an outage |s a cause of th|s.

19Z. wral |s a oroWroul? Nare al |easl ore s|lual|or lral cou|d cause a oroWroul.
when 807 |ess than norma| e|ectr|c|ty |s ava||ab|e. An over|oaded c|rcu|t can cause a
brownout, or the e|ectr|c company can |ntent|ona||y cause a brownout (||ke when too
many peop|e are runn|ng the|r a|r cond|t|oners on a very hot day} to decrease
e|ectr|c|ty usage.

198. wral |s a sag? Nare al |easl ore s|lual|or lral cou|d cause a sag.
A brownout that |asts |ess than a second. 0epend|ng on the w|r|ng of the bu||d|ng, a
sag can happen when the cop|er runs or a dev|ce that pu||s a |ot of e|ectr|c|ty turns
on (a|r cond|t|oner, refr|gerator, etc.}

199. wral |s osc|||al|or? wral |s arolrer rare lor lr|s? wral |s a corror cause ol osc|||al|or?
wral |s lre oesl Way lo gel r|d ol osc|||al|or?
E|ectr|ca| no|se (|nterference} on the ||ne. Th|s |s a|so known as harmon|cs. |t |s often
caused by excess|ve|y |ong e|ectr|ca| w|r|ng runs wh|ch act as antenna. The on|y way
to get r|d of osc|||at|on |s by re-w|r|ng.

200. wral |s a surge proleclor used lor?
To compensate for surges and sp|kes (we||, somet|mes surges-depends on how
good a surge protector you buy}.

201. wral |s a V0v?
Heta| 0x|de Var|stor - a type of surge protector. |t red|rects excess vo|tages from
sp|kes and surges to a ground. |t can absorb |arge currents w|thout damage.

202. wral are lre lWo separale |ayers ol lre 03l ||r| |ayer? wral does eacr do?
HA6 (Hed|a Access 6ontro|} - trans|t|ons down to the med|a (cab|e}; |t dea|s w|th the
protoco|s that a host fo||ows |n order to access the phys|ca| med|a. |t a|so dea|s w|th
med|a access.
LL6 (Log|ca| L|nk 6ontro|} - trans|t|ons up to the network |ayer (|ayer 3}; th|s a||ows
|t to commun|cate w|th upper-|eve| |ayers.

203. wral |s a VAC address?
A 48-b|t address burned onto the N|6. |t |s a un|que way of |dent|fy|ng each computer
on a network.

201. Al Wral |ayer ol lre 03l rode| does lre VAC address ex|sl?
Layer 2

205. wral are lre lWo parls ol a VAC address? wral does eacr parl represerl?
The f|rst s|x compr|se the 0rgan|zat|ona| Un|que |dent|f|er (0U|} wh|ch |dent|f|es the
manufacturer (ass|gned by the |EEE}. The |ast s|x represent a un|que |0 number for
the N|6.

20. wral |s lre Layer 2 ercapsu|al|or process ca||ed?
Fram|ng

54
20Z. wral |s eacr secl|or ol a lrare ca||ed?
A f|e|d

208. wral are lre s|x secl|ors ol a lrare ca||ed? 8r|el|y descr|oe Wral eacr ore does.
Frame start f|e|d - |nd|cates the beg|nn|ng of a frame
Address f|e|d - has source and dest|nat|on address |nformat|on |n |t
Length|type|contro| f|e|d - |nd|cates the end (the frame |s cons|dered ended
after the F68 f|e|d}; a|so somet|mes ca||ed an end-frame de||m|ter.
0ata f|e|d - the |nformat|on you're send|ng
Frame check sequence (F68} f|e|d - conta|ns a number that |s ca|cu|ated by
the source computer and |s based on the data |n the frame. The dest|nat|on
computer reca|cu|ates the F68 number and compares |t w|th the source F68
number. |t |s an error-check|ng dev|ce.
8top frame f|e|d - |nd|cates the end of a frame

209. wral does red|a access corlro| reler lo?
Protoco|s that determ|ne wh|ch computer on a shared med|um |s a||owed to transm|t
data (access to the med|a}.

210. wral are lre lWo oas|c calegor|es VAC car oe d|v|ded |rlo? 8r|el|y descr|oe eacr ore.
0eterm|n|st|c - uses a form of "tak|ng your turn." Examp|e |s Token R|ng. The
computer that wants to transm|t must get a token |n order to ga|n access to the
med|a. 0n|y one computer (host} at a t|me can transm|t. Non-determ|n|st|c - uses the
F6F8 approach. The med|a |s shared by a|| hosts on the network.

211. wr|cr ol lre lWo aoove lypes does Elrerrel la|| |rlo?
Non-determ|n|st|c

212. Nare lrree corror Layer 2 lecrro|og|es. wral |s eacr ore's |og|ca| lopo|ogy?
Ethernet - |og|ca| bus topo|ogy
Token R|ng - |nformat|on f|ow |s contro||ed |n a r|ng
F00| - ||ke a r|ng, |nformat|on f|ow |s contro||ed |n a r|ng

213. wral |s lre l|rsl lr|rg (salely-W|se) you srou|d do Wrer Wor||rg |r ce|||rgs, Wa||s, or all|cs?
Turn off a|| power.

211. wral are sore ol lre precaul|ors you srou|d la|e Wrer Wor||rg W|lr e|eclr|ca| dev|ces?
Never work on a dev|ce when |t's p|ugged |n Test out|ets w|th a m||||meter
Locate a|| e|ectr|ca| condu|ts and power w|res before |nsta|||ng cab|e Property
ground a|| equ|pment
Never cut or n|ck a ||ve 120 A6 ||ne 0on't touch ||ve w|res!

215. wral are sore ol lre gerera| salely precaul|ors you srou|d la|e Wrer |rsla|||rg cao|e?
wear safety g|asses
Heasure carefu||y (measure tw|ce, cut once}
Know where e|ectr|c w|res are |n the wa|| where you w||| be dr||||ng|cutt|ng
Keep dust down (|t can start a f|re}
Hake sure you have your |adder p|aced correct|y
0on't wear baggy c|othes; wear |ong s|eeves and pants to protect your arms
and |egs
Know where the f|re ext|ngu|shers are |ocated
|f work|ng |n a dropped ce|||ng, survey the area f|rst. Know what's a|ready |n
the ce|||ng.
6onsu|t w|th the bu||d|ng eng|neer|ma|ntenance personne| for spec|a| hazards
(asbestos,|ead, P6's, etc.}
P|ck up your too|s so no one (|nc|ud|ng you!} stumb|es over them

21. wral |s lre correclor you rusl use lor CAT 5 cao|e?
RJ-45

21Z. wral are lre sleps you go lrrougr lo surlace rourl a le|ecorrur|cal|or oox?
1. 8e|ect the RJ-45 jack |ocat|on
2. Run the w|re to the |ocat|on, e|ther |ns|de or outs|de the wa||
3. Hount the box w|th adhes|ve or screws
4. Feed the w|re |nto the top or rear of the box
5. Punch the w|re down |nto the RJ-45 jack
. |nsert the RJ-45 jack |nto the box
7. Attach the facep|ate to the box
8. Labe| the box

218. wral are sore ol lre laclors you srou|d la|e |rlo cors|deral|or Wrer l|usr rourl|rg a
le|ecorrur|cal|or oox?
what type of mater|a| |s the wa|| made from?
0o you want to mount boxes on w|de wood baseboards?
0ec|de |f you're go|ng to use a box or a |ow-vo|tage mount|ng bracket

219. wral |s lre lerr We use lo |rd|cale lre process ol ralcr|rg W|res ol a cao|e lo lre proper
lerr|ra|s or lre le|ecorrur|cal|or jac|?
8equenc|ng

220. Nare al |easl do's ard dorl's ol slr|rg|rg cao|e.
00 00N'T
use cab|e t|es untw|st more than 1.2 cm or cab|e forconnect|ons
|eave s|ack H|n|m|ze bend rad|| (<90 degrees}
|eave serv|ce co||s No k|nks
use support bars stretch cab|e to "make |t f|t"
use cab|e management pane|s use stap|e guns to attach cab|e
use ve|cro t|es str|ng network cab|e |n the same raceway as
e|ectr|ca| w|res

221. wral |s a cul sreel?
A rough d|agram that shows the |ocat|ons of cab|e runs |n a bu||d|ng

222. wrere srou|d |aoe|s oe allacred |r a LAN?
on both ends of the cab|e
on the facep|ates of te|ecommun|cat|on boxes
on workstat|on patch cords
on cab|e connect|ons at patch pane|s

223. Nare al |easl 1 do's ard dor'ls ol slr|rg|rg cao|e lror ru|l|p|e spoo|s.
00 00N'T
ass|gn a |etter to each box for |dent|f|cat|on purposes
unco|| cab|e from boxes (|eave |n the box}
t|e cab|es together w|th e|ectr|ca| tape cut cab|es un|ess they have a |abe| on
them
b|nd cab|e ends together w|th a pu|| str|ng
a||ow enough s|ack to reach to the f|oor and extend another 50-90 cm. (serv|ce
co||}
cut w|re w|th w|re cutters to get a c|ean cut (better s|gna|}

221. Nare al |easl lrree Ways lo Wa||-rourl uTP CAT 5. Exp|a|r Wral eacr ore |s.
t|e wraps - a wrap that a||ows you to t|e the cab|es together and mount on a
wa||
decorat|ve raceway - wa||-mounted channe| w|th a removab|e cover that
presents a f|n|shed apearance
gutter - same as decorat|ve raceway but unf|n|shed. Usua||y used where |t
won't be seen (att|cs, dropped ce|||ngs}

225. wrer rusl you use l|re-raled cao|e?
when cab|e |s run where a|r |s c|rcu|ated.

22. wral |s a le|epo|e?
A te|escop|ng po|e w|th a hook at one end to ho|d the cab|e.

22Z. wral |s l|sr lape?
8tr|ng or tape you use to "f|sh" (pu||} cab|e through a ce|||ng or wa||.

228. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol a W|r|rg c|osel? Nare sore ol lre |lers you r|grl l|rd |r ore.
the centra| junct|on po|nt for the w|r|ng and w|r|ng equ|pment used to connect
dev|ces |n a LAN. patch pane|s, hubs, routers, sw|tches, br|dges

229. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer ar l0F ard a V0F?
The H0F |s the ma|n w|r|ng c|oset |n the bu||d|ng. |t |s where a|| the other
w|r|ng c|osets come together. |t |s usua||y pos|t|oned as c|ose to the P0P as
poss|b|e.
The |0F |s an |ntermed|ate w|r|ng c|oset (one on another f|oor or another
catchment area on the same f|oor |f |t's a rea||y b|g bu||d|ng}. |0F's are
dependent on the H0F.
Together, H0F and |0Fs make an extended star phys|ca| topo|ogy.

230. loW rary p|rs are or a palcr pare| (Wrere you Wou|d W|re |r ore cao|e)?
8

231. ls lre co|or-cod|rg or purcr doWr o|oc|s |rporlarl? wry or Wry rol?
Yes. |f you don't get the r|ght w|res |n the r|ght p|n |ocat|on, your c|rcu|ts m|ght not
work. |f your c|rcu|ts don't work, your LAN won't work.

232. Nare lre 8 sleps |r lesl|rg a relWor|:
1. 0|v|de the network |nto sma||er |og|ca| un|ts
2. Test each un|t, one sect|on at a t|me
3. Hake a ||st of any prob|ems you f|nd
4. Use the ||st to try to f|nd any ma|funct|on|ng network e|ement(s}
5. Rep|ace any bad e|ements, one at a t|me
. Test w|th each new e|ement. Keep test|ng unt|| you f|nd the prob|em.
7. Repa|r the bad e|ement.
8. Rep|ace the bad e|ement |f you can't repa|r |t.

233. wry |s |l recessary lo do a oase||re lesl? wral |s |l used lor?
|t g|ves you a c|ear p|cture of what the network shou|d |ook ||ke when |t's operat|ng
proper|y. You can use th|s as a base||ne to compare your network on an on-go|ng
bas|s. |t can he|p you troub|e shoot prob|ems |n the future.

55
231. wral |s a cao|e lesler used lor? wral |s arolrer rare lor a cao|e lesler? Nare al |easl 5
lr|rgs |l car lesl lor.
|t |s a hand-he|d dev|ce that can cert|fy that cab|e meets the requ|red |EEE and
T|A|E|A standards.
|t |s somet|mes ca||ed a t|me doma|n ref|ectometer (T0R}
To determ|ne cab|e d|stances (runs}
Locate bad connect|ons
Prov|de w|re maps
Heasure s|gna| attenuat|on
Heasure near-end crossta|k (NEXT}
0etect crossed pa|rs
Perform no|se |eve| tests
Trace cab|e beh|nd wa||s

235. loW do cao|e leslers Wor| lo l|rd a srorled cao|e?
They send an e|ectr|ca| |mpu|se through the cab|e and then t|me the s|gna|'s
ref|ect|on from the end back to the tester.

23. wral |s a crossed pa|r?
when w|res that make a c|rcu|t |n 6AT 5 cab|e are crossed |n the|r p|ns (e|ther |n an
RJ-45 jack or patch pane|} (e.g., |nstead of 1-3, |t's w|red 1-2}

23Z. wral |s a sp||l pa|r?
when w|res that make a c|rcu|t |n 6AT 5 cab|e are sp||t between the p|ns (e.g.,
|nstead of 1- 3, |t's w|red 3-3}.

238. Nare al |easl lr|rgs lral car add ro|se lo a copper cao|e.
f|uorescent ||ghts
heaters
rad|os
a|r c|eaners
te|ev|s|ons
computers
mot|on sensors
radar
motors
sw|tches
we|ders
auto |gn|t|ons
e|ectron|c dev|ces of a|| k|nds

239. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol a prys|ca| lopo|ogy?

210. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol a |og|ca| lopo|ogy?

211. wral |s lre purpose ol a server or a relWor|?

212. wry are sore dev|ces descr|oed as 'Layer Z dev|ces? 0|ve ar exarp|e ol
ore.

213. Al Wral |ayer does NlC lurcl|or? wral does a NlC do? wral serv|ces does |l
prov|de?

211. Al Wral |ayer does relWor||rg red|a lurcl|or? 0|ve lrree exarp|es ol red|a.

215. Al Wral |ayer do ruos ard repealers lurcl|or?

21. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer a ruo ard a repealer?

21Z. wral do ruos ard repealers do?

218. Al Wral |ayer do or|dges ard sWl|cres lurcl|or?

219. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer a or|dge ard a sW|lcr?

250. wral do or|dges ard sW|lcres use lo ra|e sW|lcr|rg dec|s|ors?

251. Al Wral |ayer do roulers lurcl|or?

252. wral |s lre del|r|l|or ol a rouler?

253. wral do We rear Wrer We la|| aooul lre 'lrlerrel C|oud?

251. wral do |rlerrelWor||rg dev|ces correcl?

255. 0escr|oe lre lrree |ayers used |r lre des|gr rode| We use lo descr|oe
correcl|v|ly.

25. wral do We rear Wrer We la|| aooul '|rle|||gerl dev|ces?

25Z. wral |s lre order ol ercapsu|al|or (Layer ard ercapsu|al|or ur|l)?

258. wral ||rd ol cao|e do you use lo correcl ore PC lo arolrer PC?

259. wral ||rd ol cao|e do you use lo correcl a PC lo a ruo or sW|lcr?

20. 0o ruos rave lP addresses or lre relWor|? wry or Wry rol?

21. wral |s a lrarsc|ever ard Wral does |l do?

22. wral |s a segrerl ard Wral are lre d|llererl Ways |l car ellecl perlorrarce?

23. wral ro|e does a repealer p|ay |r a relWor|? loW does a repealer corpare lo
a ruo?

21. wral ro|e does a or|dge p|ay |r a relWor|? loW does |l corpare lo a sW|lcr?

25. wral |s lre d|llererce oelWeer a or|dge ard a rouler? wral |s lre d|llererce
oelWeer a or|dge ard a sW|lcr?

2. wral |s a proxy server? wral are d|llererl Ways |l car oe used?

27. what |s Ethernet?
A: Elrerrel |s a lype ol relWor| cao||rg ard s|gra|||rg spec|l|cal|ors (03l
Vode| |ayers 1 [prys|ca|| ard 2 [dala ||r||) or|g|ra||y deve|oped oy Xerox |r
lre |ale 19Z0. lr 1980, 0|g|la| Equ|prerl Corp. (0EC), lrle| ard Xerox (lre
or|g|r ol lre lerr 0lX, as |r 0EC/lrle|/Xerox) oegar jo|rl prorol|or ol lr|s
oaseoard, C3VA/C0 corpuler corrur|cal|ors relWor| over coax|a|
cao||rg, ard puo||sred lre 8|ue 8oo| 3lardard lor Elrerrel vers|or 1. Tr|s
slardard Was |aler errarced, ard |r 1985 Elrerrel ll Was re|eased.

Tre lEEE's (lrsl|lule ol E|eclr|ca| ard E|eclror|cs Erg|reers') Projecl 802
lrer (aller cors|derao|e deoale) used Elrerrel vers|or 2 as lre oas|s lor lre
802.3 C3VA/C0 relWor| slardard. Tre lEEE 802.3 slardard |s gerera||y
|rlercrargeao|e W|lr Elrerrel ll, W|lr lre grealesl d|llererce oe|rg lre
corslrucl|or ol lre relWor| pac|el reader.

A corp|ele descr|pl|or ol a|| Elrerrel spec|l|cal|ors |s lar oul-s|de lre scope
ol lr|s docurerl. ll lr|s area |rleresls you, you are ercouraged lo oola|r
(ropelu||y |ega||y) cop|es ol lre lEEE 802.3 docurerls, ard perraps lre l30
8802-3 docurerls as We||.

28. what |s an 802.3 network?
A: Tral's lEEE-|sr lor Elrerrel, oul W|lr a leW sra|| d|llererces.Tre prys|ca|
|ayer spec|l|cal|ors are |derl|ca| (lrougr 0lX Elrerrel rever spec|l|ed slardards
lor uTP ard F|oer-0pl|c red|a) ard lre VAC suo|ayer are soreWral d|llererl.
3ee wral |s Elrer-rel lor rore |rlo.

29. what |s 68HA|60?
A: C3VA/C0 |s lre red|a access corlro| recrar|sr used oy Elrerrel ard 802.3
relWor|s; |r olrer Words, |l delerr|res roW a pac|el ol dala |s p|aced or lre W|re.
C3VA/C0 slards lor Carr|er 3erse Vu|l|p|e Access, W|lr Co|||s|or 0elecl|or.
8elore ar Elrerrel dev|ce puls a pac|el or lre W|re, |l ||slers lo l|rd |l arolrer
dev|ce |s a|ready lrarsr|ll|rg. 0rce lre dev|ce l|rds lre W|re |s c|ear, |l slarls
serd|rg lre pac|el Wr||e a|so ||sler|rg lo rear |l arolrer dev|ce slarled serd|rg
al lre sare l|re (Wr|cr |s ca||ed a co|||s|or). Reler lo lre 0&A or co|||s|ors lor
rore |rlo aooul lr|s prerorera.

270. what |s a baseband network?
A: A oaseoard relWor| |s ore lral prov|des a s|rg|e crarre| lor
corrurc|al|ors accross lre prys|ca| red|ur (e.g., cao|e), so or|y ore dev|ce car
lrarsr|l al a l|re. 0ev|ces or a oaseoard relWor|, sucr as Elrerrel, are perr|lled
lo use a|| lre ava||ao|e oardW|dlr lor lrarsr|ss|or, ard lre s|gra|s lrey lrarsr|l do
rol reed lo oe ru|l|p|exed orlo a carr|er lrequercy. Ar ara|ogy |s a s|rg|e prore
||re sucr as you usua||y rave lo your rouse: 0r|y ore persor car la|| al a l|re--|l
rore lrar ore persor Warls lo la|| everyore ras lo la|e lurrs.

56
271. 0k, so what |s a broadband network?
A: 3|rp||sl|ca||y, |l |s lre oppos|le ol a oaseoard relWor|. w|lr oroadoard, lre
prys|ca| cao||rg |s v|rlua||y d|v|ded |rlo severa| d|llererl crarre|s, eacr W|lr |ls
oWr ur|que carr|er lrequercy, us|rg a lecrr|que ca||ed lrequercy d|v|s|or
rodu|al|or. Trese d|llererl lrequerc|es are ru|l|p|exed orlo lre relWor| cao||rg
|r sucr a Way lo a||oW ru|l|p|e s|ru|lareous corversal|ors lo la|e p|ace. Tre
ellecl |s s|r||ar lo rav|rg severa| v|rlua| relWor|s lravers|rg a s|rg|e p|ece ol W|re.
NelWor| dev|ces lured lo ore lrequercy car'l rear lre s|gra| or olrer
lrequerc|es, ard v|sa-versa. Cao|e-Tv |s ar exarp|e ol a oroadoard relWor|:
ru|l|p|e corversal|ors (crarre|s) are lrarsr|lled s|ru|lareous|y over a s|rg|e
cao|e; you p|c| Wr|cr ore you Warl lo ||sler lo oy se|ecl|rg ore ol lre lrequerc|es
oe|rg oroadcasl.

272. what |s an 08| Hode|?
A: Tre 0per 3yslers lrlercorrecl (03l) relererce rode| |s lre l30 (lrlerral|ora|
3lardards orgar|zal|or) slruclure lor lre |dea| relWor| arcr|leclure. Tr|s Vode|
oul||res sever areas, or |ayers,
lor lre relWor|. Trese |ayers are (lror r|gresl lo |oWesl):

Z.) App||cal|ors: wrere lre user app||cal|ors sollWare ||es. 3ucr |ssues as l||e
access ard lrarsler, v|rlua| lerr|ra| eru|al|or, |rlerprocess corrur|cal|or ard
lre |||e are rard|ed rere.

.) Preserlal|or: 0|llererces |r dala represerlal|or are dea|l W|lr al lr|s |eve|. For
exarp|e, uNlX-sly|e ||re erd|rgs (CR or|y) r|grl oe corverled lo V3-003 sly|e
(CRLF), or E8Cl0lC lo A3Cll craracler sels.

5.) 3ess|or: Corrur|cal|ors oelWeer app||cal|ors across a rel-Wor| |s
corlro||ed al lre sess|or |ayer. Tesl|rg lor oul-ol-sequerce pac|els ard
rard||rg lWo-Way corrur|cal|or are rard|ed rere.

1.) Trarsporl: Va|es sure lre |oWer lrree |ayers are do|rg lre|r joo correcl|y, ard
prov|des a lrarsparerl, |og|ca| dala slrear oelWeer lre erd user ard lre relWor|
serv|ce s/re |s us|rg. Tr|s |s lre |oWer |ayer lral prov|des |oca| user serv|ces.

3.) NelWor|: Tr|s |ayer ra|es cerla|r lral a pac|el serl lror ore dev|ce lo arolrer
aclua||y gels lrere |r a reasorao|e per|od ol l|re. Roul|rg ard l|oW corlro| are
perlorred rere. Tr|s |s lre |oWesl |ayer ol lre 03l rode| lral car rera|r |grorarl
ol lre prys|ca| relWor|.

2.) 0ala L|r|: Tr|s |ayer dea|s W|lr gell|rg dala pac|els or ard oll lre W|re,
error delecl|or ard correcl|or ard relrarsr|ss|or. Tr|s |ayer |s gerera||y
oro|er |rlo lWo suo-|ayers: Tre LLC (Log|ca| L|r| Corlro|) or lre upper ra|l, Wr|cr
does lre error crec||rg, ard lre VAC (Ved|ur Access Corlro|) or lre |oWer ra|l,
Wr|cr dea|s W|lr gell|rg lre dala or ard oll lre W|re.

1.) Prys|ca|: Tre ruls ard oo|ls |ayer. lere |s Wrere lre cao|e, correclor ard
s|gra||rg spec|l|cal|ors are del|red.

Trere |s a|so lre urdocurerled oul W|de|y recogr|zed r|rlr relWor| |ayer:

9.) 8ozore (a.|.a., |oose rul oer|rd lre Wree|): Tre user s|ll|rg al ard us|rg (or
aous|rg, as lre case ray oe) lre relWor|ed dev|ce. A|| lre error delecl|or or
correcl|or a|gor|lrrs |r lre Wor|d carrol prolecl your relWor| lror lre proo|ers
|r|l|aled al lre 8ozore |ayer.

273. what does an Ethernet packet |ook ||ke?
A. 3ee lre |rlorral|or oe|oW, as descr|oed |r lre Nal|ora| dalaooo|. Tre elrerrel
pac|el prearo|e |s rorra||y gereraled oy lre cr|psel. 3ollWare |s respors|o|e lor
lre desl|ral|or address, source address, lype, ard dala. Tre cr|ps rorra||y W|||
apperd lre lrare crec| sequerce.

2 b|ts [ Preamb|e A ser|es ol a|lerral|rg 1's ard 0's used oy lre elrerrel rece|ver
lo acqu|re o|l syrcrror|zal|or. Tr|s |s gereraled oy lre cr|p.

2 b|ts 8tart 0f Frame 0e||m|ter - TWo corsecul|ve 1 o|ls used lo acqu|re oyle
a||grrerl. Tr|s |s gereraled oy lre cr|p.

bytes 0est|nat|on Ethernet Address - Address ol lre |rlerded rece|ver. Tre
oroadcasl address |s a|| 1's.

bytes 8ource Ethernet Address - Tre ur|que elrerrel address ol lre serd|rg
slal|or.

2 bytes Lerglr or Type l|e|d - For lEEE 802.3 lr|s |s lre ruroer ol oyles ol dala.
For Elrerrel l&ll lr|s |s lre lype ol pac|el. Types codes are > 1500 lo a||oW oolr lo
coex|sl. Tre lype code lor lP pac|els |s 0x800.

4 bytes 0ata - lo 3rorl pac|els rusl oe padded lo 1 oyles.
1500 oyles

4 bytes Frame 6heck 8equence -Tre FC3 |s a 32 o|l CRC ca|cu|aled us|rg lre
AuT00lN ll po|yror|a|.
Tre cr|p rorra||y gererales lr|s l|e|d.

274. what |s the d|fference between an Ethernet frame and a |EEE802.3
frame? why are there two types? why |s there a d|fference?
A: Elrerrel Was |rverled al Xerox Pa|o A|lo Researcr Cerler ard |aler oecare ar
|rlerral|ora| slardard. lEEE rard|ed ra||rg |l a slardard; ard lre|r
spec|l|cal|ors are s||grl|y d|llererl lror lre or|g|ra| Xerox ores. lerce, lWo
d|llererl lypes. 802.3 uses lre 802.2 LLC lo d|sl|rgu|sr arorg ru|l|p|e c||erls, ard
ras a LEN0Tl l|e|d Wrere Elrerrel ras a 2-oyle TYPE l|e|d lo d|sl|rgu|sr
arorg ru|l|p|e c||erl proloco|s.

TCP/lP ard 0ECrel (ard olrers) use Elrerrel_ll lrar|rg, Wr|cr |s lral Wr|cr
Xerox/PARC or|g|raled.

275 what |s 8NAP?
A: 3uo-NelWor| Access Proloco|, ar exlerl|or lo lre or|g|ra| 802.2 dala ||r| |eve|
lorral. (3NAP |s descr|oed |r lEEE 802-1990) Tre 802.2 dala ||r| lorral
rep|aced lre Elrerrel Proloco| Type corcepl W|lr lWo 8 o|l l|e|ds; 3ource 3AP,
ard 0esl|ral|or 3AP. urlorlurale|y lral causes proo|ers W|lr r|gral|or ol
proloco|s, ard lre |ac| ol 3AP space lral |s ava||ao|e. 3o ore 3AP as a||ocaled lor
lr|s screre, Wr|cr greal|y expards lre ava||ao|e proloco| space. wrer us|rg lre
3NAP 3AP lre l|rsl 5 oyles ol dala are used as a proloco| l0. Tre l|rsl 3 oyles
srou|d oe a va|ue a||ocaled lo you as a verdor |d, lre sare as you gel lor 3ource
address va|ues. Tre |s ca||ed lre 0ul (0rgar|zal|ora||y ur|que l0) Tre secord 2
oyles |s a proloco| lype.

Nole lral lr|s |s 802.2 ard app||es across a|| 802 LAN red|a lypes.

For lrars|al|or or|dg|rg, lrere |s a corverl|or, |l you sel lre 0ulr lo zero, you are
represerl|rg a rapped Elrerrel lrare. 3o lral a or|dge W||| lrars|ale sucr a lrare
oac| |rlo Elrerrel lorral, ard rol |rlo ar 802.3 lrare lorral.

27. what |s a HA6 address?
A: ll |s lre ur|que rexadec|ra| ser|a| ruroer ass|gred lo eacr Elrer-rel relWor|
dev|ce lo |derl|ly |l or lre relWor|. w|lr Elrerrel dev|ces (as W|lr rosl olrer
relWor| lypes), lr|s address |s perrarerl|y sel al lre l|re ol rarulaclurer,
lrougr |l car usua||y oe crarged lrrougr sollWare (lrougr lr|s |s gerera||y a very
8ad Tr|rg lo do).

277. why must the HA6 address to be un|que?
A: Eacr card ras a ur|que VAC address, so lral |l W||| oe ao|e lo exc|us|ve|y grao
pac|els oll lre W|re rearl lor |l. ll VAC addresses are rol ur|que, lrere |s ro
Way lo d|sl|rgu|sr oelWeer lWo slal|ors. 0ev|ces or lre relWor| Walcr relWor|
lrall|c ard |oo| lor lre|r oWr VAC address |r eacr pac|el lo delerr|re Wrelrer lrey
srou|d decode |l or rol. 3pec|a| c|rcurslarces ex|sl lor oroadcasl|rg lo every
dev|ce.

278. what |s a preamb|e ?
A: A sever oclel l|e|d ol a|lerral|rg ore ard zero o|rary o|ls serl pr|or lo eacr
lrare lo a||oW lre PL3 c|rcu|lry lo reacr |ls sleady slale syrcrror|zal|or W|lr
rece|ved lrare l|r|rg. (802.3 slardard, page 21,12).

279. what |s a 8tart Frame 0e||m|ter (8F0}?
A: A o|rary sequerce ol '10101011' |rred|ale|y lo||oW|rg lre prearo|e ard
|rd|cal|rg lre oeg|rr|rg ol a lrare. (802.3 slardard, page 21).

280. what does 6R6 mean?
A: Cyc||ca| Redurdarcy Crec| - A relrod ol delecl|rg errors |r a ressage oy
perlorr|rg a ralreral|ca| ca|cu|al|or or lre o|ls |r lre ressage ard lrer serd|rg
lre resu|ls ol lre ca|cu|al|or a|org W|lr lre ressage. Tre rece|v|rg Wor|-slal|or
57
perlorrs lre sare ca|cu|al|or or lre ressage dala as |l rece|ves |l ard lrer
crec|s lre resu|ls aga|rsl lrose lrarsr|lled al lre erd ol lre ressage. ll lre
resu|ls dor'l ralcr, lre rece|v|rg erd as|s lre serd|rg erd lo serd aga|r.

281. what |s a broadcast address?
A: Tre ur|que address lral |derl|l|es a pac|el as appropr|ale lo a|| rece|ve|rg
slal|ors. lr 802.3 ary address |r Wr|cr lre secord oyle |s ar odd ruroer. (1,3,...F).

282. what exact|y do 10ase5, 10aseT, 10ase2, 10road3, etc mean?
A: Trese are lre lEEE rares lor lre d|llererl prys|ca| lypes ol Elrerrel. Tre
10 slards lor s|gra|||rg speed: 10Vlz. 8ase rears 8aseoard, oroad
rears oroadoard. lr|l|a||y, lre |asl secl|or as |rlerded lo |rd|cale lre rax|rur
|erglr ol ar urrepealed cao|e segrerl |r rurdreds ol relers. Tr|s corverl|or Was
rod|l|ed W|lr lre |rlroducl|or ol 108aseT, Wrere lre T rears lW|sled pa|r, ard
108aseF Wrere lre F rears l|oer (see lre lo||oW|rg 0&A lor spec|l|cs). Tr|s
aclua||y cores lror lre lEEE corr|llee ruroer lor
lral red|a.

lr aclua| pracl|ce:
108ase2 ls 10Vlz Elrerrel rurr|rg over lr|r, 50 0rr oaseoard coax|a| cao|e.
108ase2 |s a|so corror|y relerred lo as lr|r-Elrerrel or Creaperrel. 108ase5 ls
10Vlz Elrerrel rurr|rg over slardard (lr|c|) 50
0rr oaseoard coax|a| cao||rg. 108aseF ls 10Vlz Elrerrel rurr|rg over l|oer-
opl|c cao||rg. 108aseT ls 10Vlz Elrerrel rurr|rg over ursr|e|ded, lW|sled- pa|r
cao||rg.
108road3 ls 10Vlz Elrerrel rurr|rg lrrougr a oroadoard cao|e.

283. what does F0|RL mean?
A: F|oer 0pl|c lrler Repealer L|r|. A lEEE 802 slardard Wor|ed oul oelWeer
rary verdors sore l|re ago lor carry|rg Elrerrel s|gra|s across |org d|slarces
v|a l|oer opl|c cao|e. ll ras s|rce oeer adapled lo olrer app||cal|ors oes|des
correcl|rg segrerls v|a repealers (you car gel F0lRL cards lor PCs). ll ras
oeer superseded oy lre |arger 108aseF slardard.

284. what |s Latt|sNet?
A: Lall|sNel |s a pre-108aseT quas|-slardard lor rurr|rg Elrerrel over lW|sled-pa|r
cao||rg. ll Was deve|oped oy 3yropl|cs, ard severa| olrer verdors rade
corpal|o|e equ|prerl lor a Wr||e. Lall|sNel |s rol corpal|o|e W|lr 108aseT, oul
you car rave Lall|sNel ruos ard 108aseT ruos |r lre sare ruo crass|s or
correcled lo lre sare relWor| oac|oore. Tre pr|rary d|llererce |s lral 108aseT
syrcrror-|zes lre s|gra|s al lre serd|rg erd, Wr||e Lall|sNel syrcrror|zes al lre
rece|v|rg erd.

285. what |s 8tarLAN-10?
A: 3larLAN-10 |s AT&T's var|ely ol Elrerrel over lW|sled-pa|r cao||rg. 0|der
3larLAN-10 |s rol 100 108aseT corp||arl, as |l does rol prov|de ||r| |rlegr|ly
lo lre Aul. loWever, rary 108aseT |rlerlaces car oe corl|gured lo Wor|
W|lr 3larLAN-10 ruos, a|orgs|de 3larLAN-10 NlCs. 8eWare, lrougr, lral lre
or|g|ra| 3larLAN-10 |s N0T |r ary Way corpal|o|e W|lr 108aseT, ard Worse,
lrere seers lo oe ro Way lo le|| olrer lrar lry|rg |l lo see Wral rappers.

Tre currerl 3larLAN producls supporled oy AT&T/NCR are lu||y 802.3 corp||arl.
Tr|s |rc|udes lre 3rarllu8 rode| E, 3rarllu8 rode| 8, 3rarllu8 XE, ard lre
olrer l|oer ard W|re 3rarllu8 rode|s.

28. what |s coax?
A: Coax|a| cao|e (coax) |s a rela|||c e|eclr|ca| cao|e used lor RF (rad|o lrequercy)
ard cerla|r dala corrur|cal|ors lrarsr|ss|or. Tre cao|e |s corslrucled W|lr a
s|rg|e so||d or slrarded cerler corduclor lral |s surrourded oy lre d|e|eclr|c |ayer,
ar |rsu|al|rg raler|a| ol corslarl lr|c|ress ard r|gr res|slarce. A corducl|rg
|ayer ol a|ur|rur lo||, rela|||c ora|d or a coro|ral|or ol lre lWo ercorpass lre
d|e|eclr|c ard acl as oolr a sr|e|d aga|rsl |rlerlererce (lo or lror lre cerler
corduclor) ard as lre relurr grourd lor lre cao|e. F|ra||y, ar overa|| |rsu|al|rg
|ayer lorrs lre ouler jac|el ol lre cao|e. Coax|a| cao|e |s gerera||y super|or |r
r|gr-lrequercy app||cal|ors sucr as relWor||rg. loWever, lor srorler d|slarces
(up lo 100 relers), uTP or 3TP cao|e |s gerera||y jusl as re||ao|e Wrer us|rg
d|llererl|a| rodu|al|or lecrr|ques (sucr as W|lr 108aseT).

Trere are lrree lypes ol R0-58 cao|e, as lar as l car le||. Trere are prooao|y olrer
suol|e d|llererces, oul lor 108A3E2, |rpedarce ard ve|oc|ly ol propagal|or are
lre |rporlarl ores. Tre lao|e oe|oW surrar|zes:

Cao|e lrpedarce ve|oc|ly
R0-58A/u 50 orrs . or .Z8
R0-58C/u 50 orrs .
R0-58/u 53.5 orrs . or .95

287. what |s UTP, 8TP?
A: TW|sled pa|r cao|es. uTP |s lor uNsr|e|ded, lW|sled pa|r, Wr||e 3TP |s lor
3llEL0E0, lW|sled pa|r. uTP |s Wral's lyp|ca||y |rsla||ed oy prore corpar|es
(lrougr lr|s |s oller rol ol r|gr erougr qua||ly lor r|gr- speed relWor| use) ard
|s Wral 108aseT Elrerrel rurs over. uTP |s graded accord|rg lo |ls dala carry|rg
ao|||ly (e.g., Leve| 3, Leve| 1, Leve| 5). 108aseT Elrerrel requ|res al |easl
Leve| 3 cao|e. Vary s|les roW |rsla|| or|y Leve|-5 uTP, ever lrougr |eve| 1 |s
rore lrar sull|c|erl lor 108aseT, oecause ol lre grealer |||e||rood lral ererg|rg
r|gr-speed slardards W||| requ|re cao|e W|lr oeller oardW|dlr capao|||l|es.

3TP |s lyp|ca||y used lor To|er-R|rg relWor|s, Wrere |l |s corror|y relerred lo
l8V Type 1 (or 2, 3, , 8, elc); roWever lrere are severa| rarulaclurers ol
Elrerrel equ|prerl ard |rlerlaces lral supporl Elrerrel over 3TP. Neverlre|ess,
Elrerrel over 3TP |s rol oll|c|a||y del|red |r ary slardards. wr||e lrere |s a good
|eve| ol |rleroperao|||ly W|lr Elrerrel over 3TP, (Lall|srel, deve|oped oy 3yropl|cs,
|s lre recogr|zed de laclo slardard |r lr|s area), ore srou|d cors|der lre |org-
lerr ava||ao|||ly ard cosl ol lr|s ror-slardard screre oelore p|arr|rg reW
relWor|s arourd |l.

288. Are there any restr|ct|ons on how Ethernet |s cab|ed?
A: Yes, lrere are rary, ard lrey vary accord|rg lo lre red|a used. F|rsl ol a||,
lrere are d|slarce ||r|lal|ors:
108ase2 ||r|led lo 185 relers (0Z ll) per urrepealed cao|e segrerl.
108ase5 ||r|led lo 500 relers (1,10 ll) per urrepealed cao|e segrerl.
108aseF deperds or lre s|gra||rg lecrro|ogy ard red|ur used oul car go up lo
2KV.
108aseT gerera||y accepled lo rave a rax|rur rur ol 100-150V, oul |s rea||y
oased or s|gra| |oss |r 0o's (11.5do rax|rur |oss source lo desl|ral|or).
108road3 ||r|led lo 3,00 relers (a|rosl 2.25 r||es).

Trer lrere are ||r|lal|ors or lre ruroer ol repealers ard cao|e segrerls
a||oWed oelWeer ary lWo slal|ors or lre relWor|. Trere are lWo d|llererl Ways ol
|oo||rg al lre sare ru|es:

1. Tre Elrerrel Way:
A rerole repealer pa|r (W|lr ar |rlerred|ale po|rl-lo-po|rl ||r|) |s courled as a
s|rg|e repealer (lEEE ca||s |l lWo repealers). You carrol pul ary slal|ors or lre
po|rl lo po|rl ||r| (oy del|r|l|orl), ard lrere car oe lWo repealers |r lre palr
oelWeer ary pa|r ol slal|ors. Tr|s seers s|rp|er lo re lrar lre lEEE
lerr|ro|ogy, ard |s equ|va|erl.

2. Tre lEEE Way:
Trere ray oe ro rore lrar l|ve (5) repealed segrerls, ror rore lrar lour (1)
repealers oelWeer ary lWo Elrerrel slal|ors; ard ol lre l|ve cao|e segrerls, or|y
lrree (3) ray oe popu|aled. Tr|s |s relerred lo as lre 5-1-3 ru|e (5 segrerls,
1 repealers, 3 popu|aled segrerls).

ll car rea||y gel ressy Wrer you slarl cascad|rg lrrougr 108aseT ruos, Wr|cr are
repealers urlo lrerse|ves. Jusl lry lo rereroer, lral ary poss|o|e palr oelWeer
lWo relWor| dev|ces or ar
uror|dged/urrouled relWor| carrol pass lrrougr rore lrar 1 repealers or
ruos, ror rore lrar 3 popu|aled cao|e segrerls.

289. 6an | m|x 10ase2 and 10ase5 cab||ng on a s|ng|e segment?
A: ll |s rol |ega|, oul lre relWor| po||ce W||| rol read you your r|grls ard drag you
aWay. ldea||y, you srou|d use a repealer (or or|dge, rouler, elc...) oelWeer lre
d|llererl cao||rg lypes. loWever, |r rea||ly, |l W||| Wor| l|re, as |org as rore ol
lre olrer relWor| pararelers (|erglrs, ruroers ol slal|ors, repealers,
elc) are rear lre ||r|l ol lre spec|l|cal|or.

290. what about w|re|ess Ethernets? Are there any?
A: Yes, ard ro. Vary verdors oller equ|prerl lor Elrerrel across a var|ely ol
uroourded, or W|re|ess, correcl|ors us|rg |asers, r|croWaves, ard spread-
speclrur rad|o lrarsr|ss|ors. loWever, rore
ol lrese relrods are orgar|zed oy ary slardards oody, so |l |s ur|||e|y lo l|rd
equ|prerl lror ary lWo d|llererl rarulaclurers lral Wor| logelrer.

58
291. when shou|d | choose 10aseT, when 10ase2 (or others}?
A: Tre spec|l|c erv|rorrerl ard app||cal|or rusl oe cors|dered Wrer se|ecl|rg
your red|a lype. loWever, lrere are sore gerera|ru|es-ol-lruro lral you car
cors|der:

Avo|d us|rg copper oelWeer ou||d|rgs. Tre e|eclr|ca| d|sluroarces caused oy
||grlr|rg, as We|| as ralura||y occurr|rg d|llererces |r grourd polerl|a| over d|slarce,
car very qu|c||y ard eas||y cause cors|derao|e darage lo equ|prerl ard
peop|e. Tre use ol l|oer-opl|c cao||rg oelWeer ou||d|rgs e||r|rales relWor|
cao||rg as a salely r|s|. Trere are a|so var|ous W|re|ess red|a ava||ao|e lor |rler-
ou||d|rg ||r|s, sucr as |aser, spread-speclrur RF ard r|croWave. loWever,
W|re|ess red|a |s rucr rore expers|ve ard |ess re||ao|e lrar l|oer-opl|c, ard srou|d
or|y oe cors|dered Wrer |l |s |rposs|o|e lo gel r|grl-ol-Way lor l|oer-opl|c cao|e.

108ase2 (lr|r Elrerrel or Creaperrel) |s lre |easl expers|ve Way lo cao|e ar
Elrerrel relWor|. loWever, lre pr|ce d|llererce oelWeer 108ase2 ard 108aseT
(Elrerrel over uTP) |s rap|d|y d|r|r|sr|rg. 3l|||, lor sra||, oudgel-corsc|ous
|rsla||al|ors, 108ase2 |s lre rosl ecoror|ca| lopo|ogy. Tre d|sadvarlages ol
108ase2 |s lral ary orea| |r lre cao|e or poor correcl|or W||| or|rg lre erl|re
relWor| doWr, ard you reed repealers |l you rave rore lrar 30 dev|ces
correcled lo lre relWor| or lre cao|e |erglr exceeds 185 relers (0Z leel).

108ase5 |s gerera||y used as a |oW-cosl a|lerral|ve lo l|oer-opl|c red|a lor use as a
oac|oore segrerl W|lr|r a s|rg|e ou||d|rg. ll's exlerded |erglr (500r or 110ll),
r|grer allacred dev|ce courl (100) ard oeller ro|se res|slarce ra|e 108ase5 We||
su|led lor use as a relWor| lrur| lor ore or rore l|oors |r a ou||d|rg. loWever, lre
r|gr cosl ol correcl|rg eacr dev|ce (|r add|l|or lo lre |rlerlace, you a|so reed
ar exlerra| lrarsce|ver, or VAu, ard ar Aul cao|e) ra|es 108ase5 loo expers|ve
lor rosl LAN |rsla||al|ors, ard |||e 108ase2, a s|rg|e orea| or oad correcl|or |r
lre cao|e car or|rg lre erl|re relWor| doWr.

108aseT |s lre rosl l|ex|o|e lopo|ogy lor LANs, ard |s gerera||y lre oesl cro|ce
lor rosl relWor| |rsla||al|ors. 108aseT ruos, or ru|l|-ruo corcerlralors, are
lyp|ca||y |rsla||ed |r a cerlra| |ocal|or lo lre user corrur|ly, ard |rexpers|ve
uTP cao||rg |s rur lo eacr relWor| dev|ce (Wr|cr ray oe 100r, or 330ll, lror lre
ruo). Tre s|gra|||rg lecrro|ogy |s very re||ao|e, ever |r soreWral ro|sy
erv|rorrerls, ard 108aseT ruos W||| usua||y delecl rary relWor| error
cord|l|ors ard auloral|ca||y srul-doWr lre ollerd|rg porl(s) W|lroul allecl|rg lre
resl ol lre relWor| (ur|ess, ol course, lre ollerd|rg porl Was your server, srared
pr|rler, or rouler lo lre resl ol lre Wor|d). wr||e lre rardWare |s rore expers|ve
lrar 108ase2, lre cao||rg |s creaper ard requ|res |ess s|||| lo |rsla||, ra||rg
108aseT |rsla||al|or cosls or|y s||grl|y r|grer lrar 108ase2. Tre l|ex|o|||ly ard
re||ao|||ly rore lrar ollsel lre rarg|ra||y r|grer pr|ce.

108aseF, ard |ls predecessor, F0lRL, are lre or|y recorrerded lopo|og|es lor
|rler-ou||d|rg ||r|s. loWever, lrey reed rol oe ||r|led lo lr|s ro|e. 108aseF car
a|so oe rur lo lre des|lop, lrougr lre cosl |s pror|o|l|ve|y r|gr |r a|| oul lre
rosl spec|a||zed erv|rorrerls (gerera||y, exlrere|y ro|sy rarulaclur|rg lac|||l|es,
or very secur|ly-corsc|ous |rsla||al|ors). Vore corror|y, F0lRL (ard roW,
108aseF) |s used |rs|de ou||d|rgs lo lorr oac|oore relWor|s ard lo correcl W|r|rg
c|osels logelrer.

292. what are the advantages|d|sadvantages of a star ||ke cab||ng?
A: 0|d sly|e Elrerrel ous W|r|rg (|e, la||rg lre cao|e lror ore racr|re lo lre
rexl, ard lrer lo lre rexl, elc) |s prore lo cao|e la||ure ard qu|c||y corsures
a||oWed d|slarces due lo aeslrel|c W|r|rg reeds. ll lre W|r|rg correcl|or |s oro|er
al ary po|rl, lre erl|re relWor| (segrerl) la||s - ard lre rucr grealer ruroer ol
correcl|ors |rcreases lre prooao|||ly ol a la||ure or orea|. 0r lre olrer rard, |l's
prelly easy lo do lor a |ayrar ard ray |rvo|ve |ess aclua| W|r|rg lor sra||
segrerls.

3lar W|r|rg e||r|rales lre s|rg|e po|rl ol la||ure ol a corror W|re. A cerlra|
ruo ras rary correcl|ors lral rad|ale oul lo rosls, |l ore ol lrese rosls
correcl|ors la||s |l usua||y doesr'l allecl lre olrers. 0ov|ous|y, roWever, lre ruo
oecores a cerlra| po|rl ol la||ure |lse|l, oul slud|es sroW a qua||ly ruo |s |ess
|||e|y lo la|| oelore a reav||y used slrard ol coax.

Trere are a ourcr ol olrer reasors ruos are des|rao|e, oul lr|s |s lre o|gg|e.

293. |s there an off|c|a| "standard" punch down scheme for 10aseT?
A: 0el a copy ol ElA/TlA-58, |l covers a|| ol lral sorl ol slull: ror|zorla|, verl|ca|,
correclors, palcr cords, cross-correcls, elc.

294. |s |t safe to run Unsh|e|d Tw|sted Pa|r next to power cab|e?
A: Accord|rg lo ElA/TlA-59, lre slardard W|r|rg pracl|ces lor rurr|rg dala cao||rg
ard corpar|or lo lre aoove relererced ElA/TlA-58, you srou|d rol rur dala cao|e
para||e| lo poWer cao|es. loWever, |r rea||ly, lr|s srou|d rol oe a proo|er W|lr
relWor|s sucr as 108aseT. 108aseT uses d|llererl|a| s|gra|||rg lo p|c| lre dala
s|gra|s oll lre W|re. 3|rce ary |rlerlererce lror rearoy poWer ||res W||| usua||y
allecl a|| pa|rs equa||y, arylr|rg lral |s rol carce|ed-oul oy lre lW|sls |r lre uTP
srou|d oe |grored oy lre rece|v|rg relWor| |rlerlace.

295. 6an | make a cab|e to connect the AU| ports of two dev|ces d|rect|y to
each other?
A: Yes ard ro. You car ra|e lre equ|va|erl ol a ru|| roder cao|e oy correcl|rg
a lWo-pa|r, lW|sled pa|r cao|e correcl|rg p|rs 3/10 al eacr erd lo p|rs 5/12
(respecl|ve|y) al lre olrer. Tr|s correcls lrarsr|l-lo rece|ve (ru|| roder).
loWever, lr|s W||| prooao|y N0T Wor| W|lr slardard sollWare oecause:

Trere |s ro co|||s|or delecl. ll a co|||s|or occurs re|lrer dev|ce W|||
oac|-oll or ard relry.
Trere |s ro |oopoac| (slal|ors W||| rol rear lre|r oWr lrarsr|ss|ors
Wr|cr ray cause d|agrosl|cs la||ures).
Trere |s ro rearloeal (30E lesl) prov|ded, Wr|cr ray cause
d|agrosl|c la||ure.

ll you Warl lo use slardard sollWare, ouy sore lrarsce|vers. Ar Aul ru||-roder
W||| Wor| lor a |aooralory, lesl erv|rorrerl urder cerla|r cord|l|ors.

29. what |s a "segment"?
A: A p|ece ol relWor| W|re oourded oy or|dges, roulers, repealers or lerr|ralors.

297. what |s a "subnet"?
A: Arolrer over|oaded lerr. ll car rear, deperd|rg or lre usage, a segrerl, a
sel ol racr|res grouped logelrer oy a spec|l|c proloco| lealure (role lral lrese
racr|res do rol rave lo oe or lre sare segrerl, oul lrey cou|d oe) or a o|g
ry|or lr|rg used lo caplure erery suos.

298. what |s a fan-out? |s th|s dev|ce st||| used?
A: Faroul (a.|.a. lrarsce|ver ru|l|p|exor, a.|.a. ru|l|porl lrars-ce|ver, a.|.a.
0ELNl) a||oWs ru|l|p|e slal|ors lo correcl lo a s|rg|e lrarsce|ver or lrarsce|ver-
|||e dev|ce. Trey are sl||| W|de|y used.

299. what means "AU|"?
A: Allacrrerl ur|l lrlerlace, ar lEEE lerr lor lre correcl|or oelWeer a corlro||er
ard lre lrarsce|ver.

300. what |s a transce|ver?
A: A lrarsce|ver a||oWs a slal|or lo lrarsr|l ard rece|ve lo/lror lre corror
red|ur. lr add|l|or, Elrerrel lrarsce|vers delecl co|||s|ors or lre red|ur ard
prov|de e|eclr|ca| |so|al|or oelWeer slal|ors. 108ase2 ard 108ase5 lrarsce|vers
allacr d|recl|y lo lre corror ous red|a, lrougr lre lorrer usua||y use ar
|rlerra| lrarsce|ver ou||l-orlo lre corlro||er c|rcu|lry W|lr a T correclor lo access
lre cao|e, Wr||e lre |aller use a separale, exlerra| lrarsce|ver ard ar Aul (or
lrarsce|ver) cao|e lo correcl lo lre corlro||er.

108aseF, 108aseT ard F0lRL a|so usua||y use |rlerra| lrarsce|vers. lav|rg sa|d
lral, lrere a|so a|so exlerra| lrarsce|vers lor 108ase2, 108aseF, 108aseT ard
F0lRL lral car correcl exlerra||y lo lre corlro||er's Aul porl, e|lrer d|recl|y or v|a ar
Aul cao|e.

301. what means "HAU"?
A: Ved|ur Access ur|l, ar lEEE lerr lor a lrarsce|ver. VAu |s a|so corror|y
[r|s|used lo descr|oe a To|er-R|rg Vu|l|-3lal|or Access ur|l (V3Au). Reler lo
lu8 lor ar exp|aral|or ol V3Au.

302. what exact|y does a repeater?
A: A repealer acls or a pure|y e|eclr|ca| |eve| lo correcl lo segrerls. A|| |l
does |s arp||ly ard resrape (ard, deperd|rg or lre lype, poss|o|y rel|re) lre
ara|og Wavelorr lo exlerd relWor| segrerl d|slarces. ll does rol |roW
59
arylr|rg aooul addresses or lorWard|rg, lrus |l carrol oe used lo reduce lrall|c as
a or|dge car |r lre exarp|e aoove.

303. what |s a "hub"?
A: A ruo |s a corror W|r|rg po|rl lor slar-lopo|ogy relWor|s, ard |s a corror
syroryr lor corcerlralor (lrougr lre |aller gerera||y ras add|l|ora| lealures or
capao|||l|es). Arcrel, 108aseT Elrerrel ard 108aseF Elrerrel ard rary
propr|elary relWor| lopo|og|es use ruos lo correcl ru|l|p|e cao|e rurs |r a slar-
W|red relWor| lopo|ogy |rlo a s|rg|e relWor|. To|er-R|rg V3Aus (Vu|l|-3lal|or
Access ur|ls) car a|so oe cors|dered a lype ol ruo, oul dor'l |el a lo|er-r|rg
o|gol rear lral. luos rave ru|l|p|e porls lo allacr lre d|llererl cao|e rurs.
3ore ruos (sucr as 108aseT ard acl|ve Arcrel) |rc|ude e|eclror|cs lo regererale
ard rel|re lre s|gra| oelWeer eacr ruo porl. 0lrers (sucr as 108aseF or
pass|ve Arcrel) s|rp|y acl as s|gra| sp||llers, s|r||ar lo lre ru|l|-lap cao|e-Tv
sp||llers you r|grl use or your rore arlerra coax (ol course, 108aseF uses
r|rrors lo sp||l lre s|gra|s oelWeer cao|es). To|er-R|rg V3Aus use re|ays
(recrar|ca| or e|eclror|c) lo reroule lre relWor| s|gra|s lo eacr acl|ve dev|ce |r
ser|es, Wr||e a|| olrer ruos red|slr|oule rece|ved s|gra|s oul a|| porls
s|ru|lareous|y, jusl as a 108ase2 ru|l|-porl repealer Wou|d.

304. what exact|y does a br|dge?
A: A or|dge W||| correcl lo d|sl|rcl segrerls (usua||y relerr|rg lo a prys|ca| |erglr
ol W|re) ard lrarsr|l lrall|c oelWeer lrer. Tr|s a||oWs you lo exlerd lre rax|rur
s|ze ol lre relWor| Wr||e sl||| rol orea||rg lre rax|rur W|re |erglr, allacred
dev|ce courl, or ruroer ol repealers lor a relWor| segrerl.

305. what does a "|earn|ng br|dge"?
A: A |earr|rg or|dge ror|lors VAC (03l |ayer 2) addresses or oolr s|des ol |ls
correcl|or ard allerpls lo |earr Wr|cr addresses are or Wr|cr s|de. ll car lrer
dec|de Wrer |l rece|ves a pac|el Wrelrer |l srou|d cross lre or|dge or slay |oca|
(sore pac|els ray rol reed lo cross lre or|dge oecause lre source ard
desl|ral|or addresses are oolr or ore s|de). ll lre or|dge rece|ves a pac|el lral |l
doesr'l |roW lre addresses ol, |l W||| lorWard |l oy delau|l.

30. what |s a remote br|dge?
A: A or|dge as descr|oed aoove lral ras ar Elrerrel |rlerlace or ore s|de ard a
ser|a| |rlerlace or lre olrer. ll Wou|d correcl lo a s|r||ar dev|ce or lre olrer s|de
ol lre ser|a| ||re. Vosl corror|y used |r wAN ||r|s Wrere |l |s |rposs|o|e or
|rpracl|ca| lo |rsla|| relWor| cao|es. A r|gr-speed roder (or T1 03u/C3u's,
X.25 PA0's, elc) ard |rlerver|rg le|eprore ||res or puo||c dala relWor| Wou|d oe
used lo correcl lre lWo rerole or|dges logelrer.

307. |s there a max|mum number of br|dges a||owed on a network?
A: Per lEEE 802.1 (d), lre rax|rur ruroer ol corcaleraled or|des |r a or|dged
LAN |s Z. Tr|s ruroer |s ralrer aro|lrary, roWever, ard |s oased or s|ru|al|ors ol
app||cal|or perlorrarce W|lr expecled or|dge de|ays.

lr add|l|or, lre ruroer assures lral a|| or|dges are L0CAL (ro rerole wAN
correcl|ors), ard lral lre delau|l lo|d T|re ol 1 secord|s |r p|ace (lr|s |s lre l|re
aller Wr|cr a or|dge W||| d|scard a lrare |l |s ro|d|rg). Tr|s preverls exlra-|ale
lrare de||very. (|.e, a lrare srou|d rever oe de||vered rore lrar ~Z secords aller
|s |l serl).

308. what exact|y does a router?
A: Roulers Wor| rucr |||e or|dges, oul lrey pay allerl|or lo lre upper relWor| |ayer
proloco|s (03l |ayer 3) ralrer lrar prys|ca| |ayer (03l |ayer 1) proloco|s. A rouler
W||| dec|de Wrelrer lo lorWard a pac|el oy |oo||rg al lre proloco| |eve| addresses
(lor |rslarce, TCP/lP addresses) ralrer lrar lre VAC address. 8ecause roulers
Wor| al |ayer 3 ol lre 03l slac|, |l |s poss|o|e lor lrer lo lrarsler pac|els
oelWeer d|llererl red|a lypes (|.e., |eased ||res, Elrerrel, lo|er r|rg, X.25, Frare
Re|ay ard F00l). Vary roulers car a|so lurcl|or as or|dges.

309. 8o shou|d | use a router or a br|dge?
A: Trere |s ro aoso|ule arsWer lo lr|s. Your relWor| |ayoul, lype ard arourl ol
rosls ard lrall|c, ard olrer |ssues (oolr lecrr|ca| ard ror-lecrr|ca|) rusl oe
cors|dered. Roul|rg Wou|d a|Ways oe prelerao|e lo or|dg|rg excepl lral roulers
are s|oWer ard usua||y rore expers|ve (due lo lre arourl ol process|rg requ|red
lo |oo| |rs|de lre prys|ca| pac|el ard delerr|re Wr|cr |rlerlace lral pac|el
reeds lo gel serl oul), ard lral rary app||cal|ors use ror-roulao|e proloco|s
(|.e., Nel8l03, 0EC LAT, elc.).

Ru|es ol lruro:

8r|dges are usua||y good cro|ces lor sra|| relWor|s W|lr leW, |l ary, s|oW redurdarl
||r|s oelWeer desl|ral|ors. Furlrer, or|dges ray oe your _or|y_ cro|ce lor cerla|r
proloco|s, ur|ess you rave
lre rears lo ercapsu|ale (lurre|) lre urroulao|e proloco| |rs|de a roulao|e proloco|.

Roulers are usua||y rucr oeller cro|ces lor |arger relWor|s, parl|cu|ar|y Wrere
you Warl lo rave a re|al|ve|y c|ear wAN oac|oore. Roulers are oeller al
prolecl|rg aga|rsl proloco| errors (sucr as oroadcasl slorrs) ard oardW|dlr
ul|||zal|or. 3|rce roulers |oo| deeper |rs|de lre dala pac|el, lrey car a|so
ra|e lorWard|rg dec|s|ors oased or lre upper-|ayer proloco|s.

0ccas|ora||y, a coro|ral|or ol lre lWo dev|ces are lre oesl Way lo go. 8r|dges car
oe used lo segrerl sra|| relWor|s lral are geograpr|c|y c|ose lo eacr olrer,
oelWeer eacr olrer ard lre rouler lo lre resl ol lre wAN.

309. Are there prob|ems m|x|ng r|dg|ng & rout|ng?
A: 0r|y |l you p|ar or rav|rg or|dged ||r|s |r para||e| W|lr rouled ||r|s. You reed
lo oe very carelu| aooul rurr|rg or|dges prov|d|rg ||r|s |r para||e| lo a rouler.
8r|dges ray lorWard oroadcasl requesls Wr|cr W||| corluse lre rouler lrere are
|ols ol proloco|s you ray rol lr|r| ol l||ler|rg (e.g. ARP, App|e ARP over 802.3
elc. elc.). A|so, 0ECrel roulers rave lre sare VAC address or a|| porls. Tr|s W|||
prooao|y cause lre or|dge lo lr|r| |l |s see|rg ar Elrerrel |oop.

310. what |s a dr|ver?
A: Typ|ca||y lre sollWare lral a||oWs ar Elrerrel card |r a corpuler lo decode
pac|els ard serd lrer lo lre operal|rg sysler ard ercode dala lror lre
operal|rg sysler lor lrarsr|ss|or oy lre Elrerrel card lrrougr lre relWor|. 8y
rard||rg lre r|lly-gr|lly rardWare |rlerlace crores, |l prov|des a dev|ce-|rdeperderl
|rlerlace lo lre upper |ayer proloco|s, lrereoy ra||rg lrer rore ur|versa| ard
[a||eged|y| eas|er lo deve|op ard use. Trere are rary olrer rear|rgs lo lr|s
Word, oul lr|s |s prooao|y Wral you are |oo||rg lor.

311. what |s N0|8, packet dr|ver, 00|.?
A: N0l3 |s a V|crosoll/3cor puppy lral a||oWs slac||rg ol ru|l|p|e proloco|s lor a
s|rg|e urder|y|rg dr|ver. Esserl|a||y |l a||oWs a s|rg|e Elrerrel card |r a PC (|l's
rol ||r|led lo Elrerrel) lo spea| rary d|llererl relWor| |arguages, ard usua||y
al lre sare l|re.

A pac|el dr|ver |s arolrer relrod ol a||oW|rg ru|l|p|e proloco|s lo access lre
relWor| |rlerlace al lre sare l|re. 0eve|oped ard supporled oy FTP 3ollWare
lrc, C|ar|sor ur|vers|ly, 8Yu ard, rore recerl|y, CryrWr 3ollWare, lre pac|el
dr|ver spec (P03) |s used lo prov|de a dev|ce |rdeperderl |rlerlace lo var|ous
TCP/lP app||cal|ors, ard oller |r coro|ral|or W|lr corcurrerl Nove|| access
(lPX/3PX).

00l |s Nove|| ard App|e's equ|va|erl ol N0l3. Trere are d|llererces oelWeer
lre lWo specs, oul rol so rucr as lo Warrarl descr|pl|or |r lr|s lexl.

Tre rexl |og|ca| quesl|or |s Wr|cr ore srou|d l use? Trere |s ro s|rp|e or oov|ous
arsWer, excepl lral you srou|d use lre ore rosl corror|y requ|red oy your
sollWare.

312. what means 80E? what |s |t for?
A: 30E |s lre lEEE lerr lor a co|||s|or. (3|gra| 0ua||ly Error)

313. what means 80E Test? what means heartbeat? what are they for?
A: 30E Tesl (a.|.a. rearloeal) |s a rears ol delecl|rg a lrarsce|ver's |rao|||ly lo
delecl co|||s|ors. w|lroul 30E Tesl, |l |s rol poss|o|e lo delerr|re |l your
co|||s|or deleclor |s operal|rg proper|y. 30E Tesl |s |rp|ererled oy gereral|rg a
lesl s|gra| or lre co|||s|or pa|r lror lre lrarsce|ver (or |ls equ|va|erl)
lo||oW|rg every lrarsr|ss|or or lre relWor|. ll does rol gererale ary s|gra| or lre
corror red|ur.

Tre proo|er W|lr 30E Tesl |s lral |l |s rol parl ol lre Elrerrel vers|or 1.0
spec|l|cal|or. Trerelore, vers|or 1.0 equ|prerl ray rol lurcl|or W|lr lrarsce|ver
lral gererales lre 30E Tesl s|gra|. Add|l|ora||y, lEEE 802.3 spec|l|cal|ors slale
lral lEEE 802.3 corp||arl repealers rusl rol oe allacred lo lrarsce|vers lral
gererale rearloeal. (Tr|s ras lo do W|lr a jar s|gra| lral preverls redurdarl
co|||s|ors lror occurr|rg or lre relWor|). Trerelore, you rusl usua||y lurr-oll
30E Tesl (rearloeal) oelWeer lre lrarsce|ver ard ar 802.3 repealer.

60
314. what means "|PC"?
A: Tre lrlerPac|el 0ap (rore proper|y relerred lo as lre lrlerFrare 0ap, or lF0)
|s ar erlorced qu|el l|re ol 9. us oelWeer lrarsr|lled Elrerrel lrares.

315. what means "prom|scuous mode"?
A: Pror|scuous rode |s a cord|l|or Wrere lre relWor| |rlerlace cor-lro||er W|||
pass a|| lrares, regard|ess ol desl|ral|or address, up lo lre r|grer |eve| relWor|
|ayers. Norra||y lre relWor| corlro||er W||| or|y pass up lrares lral rave lral
dev|ce's desl|ral|or address. loWever, Wrer pul |r pror|scuous rode, a||
lrares are passed or up lre relWor| slac| regard|ess ol desl|ral|or address.
Pror|scuous rode |s usua||y used oy relWor| ror|lor|rg loo|s ard lrarsparerl
or|dges (ard, lrequerl|y, oy relWor| crac|ers lry|rg lo sralcr passWords, or olrer
dala lrey're rorra||y rol ao|e lo see, oll lre W|re).

31. what |s a runt?
A: A pac|el lral |s oe|oW lre r|r|rur s|ze lor a g|ver proloco|. w|lr Elrerrel, a
rurl |s a lrare srorler lrar lre r|r|rur |ega| |erglr ol 0 oyles (al 0ala L|r|).

317. what causes a runt?
A: Rurl pac|els are rosl |||e|y lre resu|l ol a co|||s|or, a lau|ly dev|ce or lre
relWor|, or sollWare gore aWay.

318. what |s a co|||s|on?
A: A cord|l|or Wrere lWo dev|ces delecl lral lre relWor| |s |d|e ard erd up lry|rg
lo serd pac|els al exacl|y lre sare l|re. (W|lr|r 1 rourd-lr|p de|ay) 3|rce or|y
ore dev|ce car lrarsr|l al a l|re, oolr dev|ces rusl oac| oll ard allerpl lo
relrarsr|l aga|r.

Tre relrarsr|ss|or a|gor|lrr requ|res eacr dev|ce lo Wa|l a rardor arourl ol
l|re, so lre lWo are very |||e|y lo relry al d|llererl l|res, ard lrus lre secord ore
W||| serse lral lre relWor| |s ousy ard Wa|l url|| lre pac|el |s l|r|sred. ll lre lWo
dev|ces relry al lre sare l|re (or a|rosl lre sare l|re) lrey W||| co|||de aga|r,
ard lre process repeals url|| e|lrer lre pac|el l|ra||y ra|es |l orlo lre relWor|
W|lroul co|||s|ors, or 1 corsecul|ve co|||s|or occur ard lre pac|el |s aoorled.

319. what causes a co|||s|on?
A: 3ee aoove. Elrerrel |s a C3VA/C0 (Carr|er 3erse Vu|l|p|e Access/ Co|||s|or
0elecl) sysler. ll |s poss|o|e lo rol serse carr|er lror a prev|ous dev|ce ard
allerpl lo lrarsr|l aryWay, or lo rave lWo dev|ces allerpl lo lrarsr|l al lre
sare l|re; |r e|lrer case a co|||s|or resu|ls. Elrerrel |s parl|cu|ar|y
suscepl|o|e lo perlorrarce |oss lror sucr proo|ers Wrer peop|e |grore lre ru|es
lor W|r|rg Elrerrel.

320. how many co|||s|ons are too many?
A: Tr|s deperds or your app||cal|or ard proloco|. lr rary cases, co|||s|or rales
ol 50 W||| rol cause a |arge decrease |r perce|ved lrrougrpul. ll your relWor| |s
s|oW|rg doWr ard you rol|ce lre percerlage ol co|||s|ors |s or lre r|gr s|de,
you ray Warl lry segrerl|rg your relWor| W|lr e|lrer a or|dge or rouler lo see |l
perlorrarce |rproves.

321. how do | reduce the number of co|||s|ons?
A: 0|scorrecl dev|ces lror lre relWor|. 3er|ous|y, you reed lo cul- doWr or lre
ruroer ol dev|ces or lre relWor| segrerl lo allecl lre co|||s|or rale. Tr|s |s
usua||y accorp||sred oy sp||ll|rg lre segrerl |rlo lWo p|eces ard pull|rg a or|dge
or rouler |r oelWeer lrer.

322. what |s a |ate co|||s|on?
A: A |ale co|||s|or occurs Wrer lWo dev|ces lrarsr|l al lre sare l|re, oul due lo
cao||rg errors (rosl corror|y, excess|ve relWor| segrerl |erglr or repealers
oelWeer dev|ces) re|lrer delecls a co|||s|or. Tre reasor lr|s rappers |s oecause
lre l|re lo propagale lre s|gra| lror ore erd ol lre relWor| lo arolrer |s |orger
lrar lre l|re lo pul lre erl|re pac|el or lre relWor|, so lre lWo dev|ces lral cause
lre |ale co|||s|or rever see lral lre olrer's serd|rg url|| aller |l puls lre erl|re
pac|el or lre relWor|. Lale co|||s|ors are delecled oy lre lrarsr|ller aller lre l|rsl
s|ol l|re ol 1 oyle l|res. Trey are or|y delecled dur|rg lrarsr|ss|ors ol
pac|els |orger lrar 1 oyles. ll's delecl|or |s exacl|y lre sare as lor a rorra|
co|||s|or; |l jusl rappers loo |ale.

Typ|ca| causes ol |ale co|||s|ors are segrerl cao|e |erglrs |r excess ol lre
rax|rur perr|lled lor lre cao|e lype, lau|ly correclors or |rproper cao||rg,
excess|ve ruroers ol repealers oelWeer relWor| dev|ces, ard delecl|ve Elrerrel
lrarsce|vers or corlro||ers.

Arolrer oad lr|rg aooul |ale co|||s|ors |s lral lrey occur lor sra|| pac|els a|so,
oul carrol oe delecled oy lre lrarsr|ller. A relWor| suller|rg a reasurao|e rale
ol |ale co|||s|ors (or |arge pac|els) |s a|so suller|rg |osl sra|| pac|els. Tre
r|grer proloco|s do rol cope We|| W|lr sucr |osses. we||, lrey cope, oul
al rucr reduced speed. A 1 pac|el |oss |s erougr lo reduce lre speed ol NF3
oy 90 W|lr lre delau|l relrarsr|ss|or l|rers. Tral's a 10X arp||l|cal|or ol lre
proo|er.
F|ra||y, Elrerrel corlro||ers do rol relrarsr|l pac|els |osl lo |ale co|||s|ors.

823. what |s a jam?
A: wrer a Wor|slal|or rece|ves a co|||s|or, ard |l |s lrarsr|ll|rg, |l puls oul a jar so
a|| olrer slal|ors W||| see lre co|||s|or a|so. wrer a repealer delecls a co|||s|or or
ore porl, |l puls oul a jar or a|| olrer porls, caus|rg a co|||s|or lo occur or lrose
||res lral are lrarsr|ll|rg, ard caus|rg ary ror-lrarsr|ll|rg slal|ors lo Wa|l lo
lrarsr|l.

824. what |s a broadcast storm?
A: Ar over|oaded lerr lral descr|oes ar over|oaded proloco|. :-). 8as|ca||y |l
descr|oes a cord|l|or Wrere dev|ces or lre relWor| are gereral|rg lrall|c lral oy |ls
ralure causes lre gereral|or ol ever rore lrall|c. Tre |rev|lao|e resu|l |s a ruge
degradal|or ol perlorrarce or corp|ele |oss ol lre relWor| as lre dev|ces corl|rue
lo gererale rore ard rore lrall|c. Tr|s car oe re|aled lo lre prys|ca|
lrarsr|ss|or or lo very r|gr |eve| proloco|s.

82. how do | recogn|ze a broadcast storm?
A: Tral deperds or Wral |eve| |l |s occurr|rg. 8as|ca||y you rave lo oe aWare ol lre
polerl|a| lor |l oelorerard ard oe |oo||rg lor |l, oecause |r a lrue oroadcasl slorr
you W||| prooao|y oe urao|e lo access lre relWor|. Tr|s car crarge
draral|ca||y lor a r|grer |eve| proloco|. NF3 corlerl|or car resu|l |r a draral|c
0R0P |r Elrerrel lrall|c, yel ro ore W||| rave access lo resources.

827. how can | prevent a broadcast storm?
A: Avo|d proloco|s lral are prore lo |l. Roule Wrer |l |s pracl|ca|.

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