Randell L. Mills - The Hydrogen Atom Revisited

2 0 0 0 b y Bla ckLigh t Power , In c. All r igh t s r eser ved .
5 5 9
THE HYDROGEN ATOM REVISITED
Ra n d e l l L. Mi l l s
Bla ckLigh t Power , In c.
4 9 3 Old Tr en t on Roa d
Cr a n b u r y, NJ 0 8 5 1 2
5 6 0
Ab s t r a c t
Sever a l myt h s a b ou t q u a n t u m mech a n ics exist d u e t o a loss of
a wa r en ess of it s d et a ils sin ce it s in cep t ion in t h e b egin n in g of t h e la st
cen t u r y or b a sed on r ecen t exp er imen t a l evid en ce. It is t a u gh t in
t ext b ooks t h a t a t omic h yd r ogen ca n n ot go b elow t h e gr ou n d st a t e.
At omic h yd r ogen h a vin g a n exp er imen t a l gr ou n d st a t e of 1 3 .6 eV ca n
on ly exist in a va cu u m or in isola t ion , a n d a t omic h yd r ogen ca n n ot go
b elow t h is gr ou n d st a t e in isola t ion . However , t h er e is n o kn own
comp osit ion of ma t t er con t a in in g h yd r ogen in t h e gr ou n d st a t e of 1 3 .6
eV. It is a myt h t h a t h yd r ogen h a s a t h eor et ica l gr ou n d st a t e b a sed on
fir st p r in cip les. Hist or ica lly t h er e wer e ma n y d ir ect ion s in wh ich t o
p r oceed t o solve a wa ve eq u a t ion for h yd r ogen . Th e Sch r o d in ger
eq u a t ion gives t h e ob ser ved sp on t a n eou sly r a d ia t ive st a t es a n d t h e
n on r a d ia t ive en er gy level of a t omic h yd r ogen . On t h is b a sis a lon e, it is
ju st ified d esp it e it s in con sist en cy wit h p h ysica l la ws a s well a s wit h ma n y
exp er imen t s. A solu t ion comp a t ib le wit h fir st p r in cip les a n d h a vin g fir st
p r in cip les a s t h e b a sis of q u a n t iza t ion wa s n ever fou n d . Sca t t er in g
r esu lt s r eq u ir ed t h e solu t ion t o b e in t er p r et ed a s p r ob a b ilit y wa ves t h a t
give r ise t o t h e u n cer t a in t y p r in cip le wh ich in t u r n for ms t h e b a sis of t h e
wa ve p a r t icle d u a lit y. Th e cor r esp on d en ce p r in cip a l p r ed ict s t h a t
q u a n t u m p r ed ict ion s mu st a p p r oa ch cla ssica l p r ed ict ion s on a la r ge
sca le. However , r ecen t d a t a h a s sh own t h a t t h e Heisen b er g u n cer t a in t y
p r in cip le a s t h e b a sis of t h e wa ve p a r t icle d u a lit y a n d t h e
cor r esp on d en ce p r in cip le t a u gh t in t ext b ooks a r e exp er imen t a lly
in co r r e ct .
Recen t ly, a r econ sid er a t ion of t h e p ost u la t es of q u a n t u m
mech a n ics, h a s given r ise t o a closed for m solu t ion of a Sch r o d in ger -like
wa ve eq u a t ion b a sed on fir st p r in cip les [1 ]. Hyd r ogen a t p r ed ict ed
lower en er gy levels h a s b een id en t ified in p r eviou s d a t a . Th e t r a n sit ion
of h yd r ogen t o fr a ct ion a l q u a n t u m en er gy levels is r ep or t ed b y t h e
a ssign men t of soft Xr a y emission s fr om t h e in t er st ella r med iu m
ob ser ved b y La b ov a n d Bowyer [2 ] a n d b y t h e a ssign men t of t h e sou r ce
of 50 eV a n oma lou s t h er ma l b r oa d en in g of t h e Ba lmer lin es ob ser ved b y
Ku r a ica a n d Kon jevic [3 ] d u r in g a glow d isch a r ge of h yd r ogen -a r gon
mixt u r es wh ich wa s n ot ob ser ved wit h n eon -h yd r ogen mixt u r es or p u r e
h yd r ogen ir r esp ect ive of ca t h od e ma t er ia l.
Cer t a in in or ga n ic ion s p r ed ict ed b y Mills [1 ] ser ve a s "t r a n sit ion
ca t a lyst s" wh ich r eson a n t ly a ccep t en er gy fr om h yd r ogen a t oms a n d
r elea se t h e en er gy t o t h e su r r ou n d in gs. Ar gon ion is a ca t a lyst t h a t wa s
p r esen t in t h e h yd r ogen glow d isch a r ge of Ku r a ica a n d Kon jevic [3 ].
Lower -en er gy h yd r ogen a t oms, h yd r in os, ca n ca u se a n a u t oca t a lyt ic
a cceler a t ion of t h is "t r a n sit ion r ea ct ion " wh ich is t h e mech a n ism
cor r esp on d in g t o t h e in t er st ella r lin es.
5 6 1
Th e d et ect ion of t h e t r a n sit ion of a t omic h yd r ogen fr om t h e
t r a d it ion a l "gr ou n d " st a t e ( n 1) t o t h e fr a ct ion a l q u a n t u m en er gy level
n 1/ 2 b elow t h e t r a d it ion a l "gr ou n d " st a t eh yd r in os is fu r t h er
r ep or t ed b y t h e a ssign men t of t h e a n oma lou s 3 1 eV b a ckwa r d p ea k
ob ser ved b y Ru d d , et a l. [4 ] in t h e elect r on sp ect r u m fr om collision s of
7 0 keV p r ot on s wit h h yd r ogen a t oms. Th e t r a n sit ion occu r s b y a
"r eson a n t collision " mech a n ism p r ed ict ed b y Mills [1 , 5 ]. Pr ot on s effect
t h is t r a n sit ion of h yd r ogen b y a r eson a n t in ela st ic collision r ea ct ion . In
t h is ca se, a b a ckwa r d 4 0 .8 eV elect r on is p r od u ced wh ich u n d er goes
Fr a n ck-Her t z sca t t er in g [6 ] t o give r ise p r ed omin a n t ly t o a 3 0 .6 eV
b a ckwa r d p ea k, a 2 7 .2 eV b a ckwa r d p ea k, a n d a 2 0 .4 eV b a ckwa r d p ea k.
Discon t in u it ies in t h e b a ck sca t t er in g sp ect r u m a t t h ese en er gies wer e
ob ser ved b y Ru d d , et a l. [4 ] in t h e elect r on sp ect r u m fr om collision s of
7 0 keV p r ot on s wit h h yd r ogen a t oms. Th e ma ximu m in t en sit y of b a ck
sca t t er in g is p r ed ict ed t o b e 1 6 5 fa llin g t o zer o a t 9 0 wh ich is in
a gr eemen t wit h t h e ob ser ved ma ximu m a t 1 6 0 wh ich d ecr ea ses wit h
sma ller a n gles t o t h e a b sen ce of t h e b a ckwa r d sca t t er in g a t 9 0 .
New evid en ce ma n d a t es t h a t old t h eor ies b e r evised or a b a n d on ed .
Recen t ly lin e sp ect r a of fr a ct ion a l q u a n t u m en er gy levels of a t omic
h yd r ogen h a ve b een mea su r ed b y a 4 gr a zin g in cid en ce ext r eme
u lt r a violet sp ect r omet er a t INP Gr eifswa ld , Ger ma n y [7 ]. In t en se EUV
emission wa s ob ser ved b y Mills et a l. [7 -1 2 ] a t low t emp er a t u r es ( e.g.
< 10
3
K) fr om a t omic h yd r ogen a n d cer t a in a t omized p u r e elemen t s or
cer t a in ga seou s ion s wh ich ion ize a t in t eger mu lt ip les of t h e p ot en t ia l
en er gy of a t omic h yd r ogen . Th ese a t omized p u r e elemen t s or ga seou s
ion s comp r ise h yd r ogen ca t a lyst s t o for m lower en er gy h yd r ogen . New
comp osit ion s of ma t t er con t a in in g h yd r ogen a t p r ed ict ed lower en er gy
levels h a ve r ecen t ly b een ob ser ved in t h e la b or a t or y, wh ich en er gy levels
a r e a ch ieved u sin g t h e n ovel ca t a lyst s. Th e Sch r o d in ger wa ve eq u a t ion
solu t ion s ca n n ot exp la in t h ese r esu lt s; t h u s, t h e t h eor y mu st b e
mod ified .
5 6 2
I n t r o d u c t i o n
J. J. Ba lme r sh owe d , in 1 8 8 5 , t h a t t h e fr e q u e n cie s for some of t h e
lin es ob ser ved in t h e emission sp ect r u m of a t omic h yd r ogen cou ld b e
exp r essed wit h a comp let ely emp ir ica l r ela t ion sh ip . Th is a p p r oa ch wa s
la t er ext en d ed b y J. R. Ryd b er g, wh o sh owed t h a t a ll of t h e sp ect r a l lin es
of a t omic h yd r ogen wer e given b y t h e eq u a t ion :
R
1
n
f
2
1
n
i
2

_
,
( 3 8 . 1 )
wh er e R 109,677 cm
1
, n
f
1,2,3,... , n
i
2,3,4,... , a n d n
i
> n
f
. Niels Boh r , in
1 9 1 3 , d evelop ed a t h eor y for a t omic h yd r ogen b a sed on a n
u n p r eced en t ed p ost u la t e of st a b le cir cu la r or b it s t h a t d o n ot r a d ia t e.
Alt h ou gh n o exp la n a t ion wa s offer ed for t h e exist en ce of st a b ilit y for
t h ese or b it s, t h e r esu lt s ga ve en er gy levels in a gr eemen t wit h Ryd b er g' s
eq u a t ion .
E
n

e
2
n
2
8
o
a
H

13.598 eV
n
2
( 3 8 . 2 )
n 1,2,3,... ( 3 8 . 3 )
wh er e a
H
is t h e Boh r r a d iu s for t h e h yd r ogen a t om ( 52.947 pm) , e is t h e
ma gn it u d e of t h e ch a r ge of t h e elect r on , a n d
o
is t h e va cu u m
p er mit t ivit y. Boh r ' s t h eor y wa s a st r a igh t for wa r d a p p lica t ion of
Ne wt on ' s la ws of mot ion a n d Cou lomb ' s la w of e le ct r ic for ce - b ot h
p illa r s of cla ssica l p h ysics a n d is in a ccor d wit h t h e exp er imen t a l
ob ser va t ion t h a t a t oms a r e st a b le. However , it is n ot in a ccor d wit h
elect r oma gn et ic t h eor y - a n ot h er p illa r of cla ssica l p h ysics wh ich
p r ed ict s t h a t a cceler a t ed ch a r ges r a d ia t e en er gy in t h e for m of
elect r oma gn et ic wa ves. An elect r on p u r su in g a cu r ved p a t h is
a cceler a t ed a n d t h er efor e sh ou ld con t in u ou sly lose en er gy, sp ir a lin g in t o
t h e n u cleu s in a fr a ct ion of a secon d . Th e p r ed ict ion s of
elect r oma gn et ic t h eor y h a ve a lwa ys a gr eed wit h exp er imen t , yet a t oms
d o n ot colla p se. To t h e ea r ly 2 0 t h cen t u r y t h eor et icia n s, t h is
con t r a d ict ion cou ld mea n on ly on e t h in g: Th e la ws of p h ysics t h a t a r e
va lid in t h e ma cr owor ld d o n ot h old t r u e in t h e micr owor ld of t h e a t om.
In 1 9 2 3 , d e Br oglie su ggest ed t h a t t h e mot ion of a n elect r on h a s a wa ve
a sp ect
h
p
. Th is con cep t seemed u n likely a ccor d in g t o t h e fa milia r
p r op er t ies of elect r on s su ch a s ch a r ge, ma ss a n d a d h er en ce t o t h e la ws
of p a r t icle mech a n ics. Bu t , t h e wa ve n a t u r e of t h e elect r on wa s
con fir med b y Da visson a n d Ger mer in 1 9 2 7 b y ob ser vin g d iffr a ct ion
e ffe ct s wh e n e le ct r on s we r e r e fle ct e d fr om me t a ls. Sch r o d in ger
r ea son ed t h a t if elect r on s h a ve wa ve p r op er t ies, t h er e mu st b e a wa ve
eq u a t ion t h a t gover n s t h eir mot ion . An d in 1 9 2 6 , h e p r op osed t h e
5 6 3
Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion , H E, wh er e is t h e wa ve fu n ct ion , H is t h e
wa ve op er a t or , a n d E is t h e en er gy of t h e wa ve. Th is eq u a t ion , a n d it s
a ssocia t ed p ost u la t es, is n ow t h e b a sis of quant um mechani cs, a n d it is
t h e b a sis for t h e wor ld view t h a t t h e a t omic r ea lm in clu d in g t h e elect r on
a n d p h ot on ca n n ot b e d escr ib ed in t er ms of "p u r e" wa ve a n d "p u r e"
p a r t icle b u t in t er ms of a wa ve-p a r t icle d u a lit y. Th e wa ve-p a r t icle
d u a lit y b a sed on t h e fu n d a men t a l p r in cip le t h a t p h ysics on a n a t omic
sca le is ver y d iffer en t fr om p h ysics on a ma cr oscop ic sca le is cen t r a l t o
p r esen t d a y a t omic t h eor y [1 ].
De v e l o p m e n t o f At o m i c Th e o r y
Bo h r Th e o r y
In 1 9 1 1 , Ru t h er for d p r op osed a p la n et a r y mod el for t h e a t om
wh er e t h e elect r on s r evolved a b ou t t h e n u cleu s ( wh ich con t a in ed t h e
p r ot on s) in va r iou s or b it s t o exp la in t h e sp ect r a l lin es of a t omic
h yd r ogen . Th er e wa s, h owever , a fu n d a men t a l con flict wit h t h is mod el
a n d t h e p r eva ilin g cla ssica l p h ysics. Accor d in g t o cla ssica l
elect r oma gn et ic t h eor y, a n a cceler a t ed p a r t icle r a d ia t es en er gy ( a s
elect r oma gn et ic wa ves) . Th u s, a n elect r on in a Ru t h er for d or b it ,
cir cu la t in g a t con st a n t sp eed b u t wit h a con t in u a lly ch a n gin g d ir ect ion
of it s velocit y vect or is b ein g a cceler a t ed ; t h u s, t h e elect r on sh ou ld
con st a n t ly lose en er gy b y r a d ia t in g a n d sp ir a l in t o t h e n u cleu s.
An exp la n a t ion wa s p r ovid ed b y Boh r in 1 9 1 3 , wh en h e a ssu med
t h a t t h e en er gy levels wer e q u a n t ized a n d t h e elect r on wa s con st r a in ed
t o move in on ly on e of a n u mb er of a llowed st a t es. Niels Boh r ' s t h eor y
for a t omic h yd r ogen wa s b a sed on a n u n p r eced en t ed p ost u la t e of st a b le
cir cu la r or b it s t h a t d o n ot r a d ia t e. Alt h ou gh n o exp la n a t ion wa s offer ed
for t h e exist en ce of st a b ilit y for t h ese or b it s, t h e r esu lt s ga ve en er gy
levels in a gr eemen t wit h Ryd b er g' s eq u a t ion . Boh r ' s t h eor y wa s a
st r a igh t for wa r d a p p lica t ion of Newt on ' s la ws of mot ion a n d Cou lomb ' s
la w of e le ct r ic for ce . Accor d in g t o Boh r ' s mod e l, t h e p oin t p a r t icle
elect r on wa s h eld t o a cir cu la r or b it a b ou t t h e r ela t ively ma ssive p oin t
p a r t icle n u cleu s b y t h e b a la n ce b et ween t h e cou lomb ic for ce of
a t t r a ct ion b et ween t h e p r ot on a n d t h e elect r on a n d cen t r ifu ga l for ce of
t h e e le ct r on .
e
2
4
0
r
2
m
e
v
2
r
( 3 8 . 4 )
Boh r p ost u la t ed t h e exist en ce of st a b le or b it s in d efia n ce of cla ssica l
p h ysics ( Ma xwell' s Eq u a t ion s) , b u t h e a p p lied cla ssica l p h ysics a ccor d in g
t o Eq . ( 3 8 .4 ) . Th en Boh r r ea lized t h a t t h e en er gy for mu la Eq s. ( 3 8 .2 -
3 8 .3 ) wa s given b y p ost u la t in g n on r a d ia t ive st a t es wit h a n gu la r
5 6 4
momen t u m

L
z
m
e
vr nh n 1, 2,3... ( 3 8 . 5 )
a n d b y solvin g t h e en er gy eq u a t ion cla ssica lly. Th e Boh r r a d iu s is given
b y su b st it u t in g t h e solu t ion of Eq . ( 3 8 .5 ) for v in t o Eq . ( 3 8 .4 ) .

r
4
0
h
2
n
2
m
e
e
2
n
2
a
0
n 1, 2,3... ( 3 8 . 6 )
Th e t ot a l en er gy is t h e su m of t h e p ot en t ia l en er gy a n d t h e kin et ic
en er gy. In t h e p r esen t ca se of a n in ver se sq u a r ed cen t r a l field , t h e t ot a l
en er gy ( wh ich is t h e n ega t ive of t h e b in d in g en er gy) is on e h a lf t h e
p ot en t ia l en er gy [1 4 ]. Th e p ot en t ia l en er gy, r ( ) , is given b y Poisson ' s
eq u a t ion
r ( )
r
'
( )
dv
'
4
0
r r
'
V
'
( 3 8 . 7 )
For a p oin t ch a r ge a t a d ist a n ce r fr om t h e n u cleu s t h e p ot en t ia l is
r ( )
e
2
4
0
r
( 3 8 . 8 )
Th u s, t h e t ot a l en er gy is given b y
E
Z
2
e
2
8
o
r
( 3 8 . 9 )
wh er e Z 1. Su b st it u t ion of Eq . ( 3 8 .6 ) in t o Eq .( 3 8 .9 ) wit h t h e
r ep la cemen t of t h e elect r on ma ss b y t h e r ed u ced elect r on ma ss gives
Eq s. ( 3 8 .2 -3 8 .3 ) .
Boh r s mod el wa s in a gr eemen t wit h t h e ob ser ved h yd r ogen
sp ect r u m, b u t it fa iled wit h t h e h eliu m sp ect r u m, a n d it cou ld n ot
a ccou n t for ch emica l b on d s in molecu les. Th e p r eva ilin g wisd om wa s
t h a t t h e Boh r mod el fa iled b eca u se it wa s b a sed on t h e a p p lica t ion of
Newt on ia n mech a n ics for d iscr et e p a r t icles. An d , it s limit ed
a p p lica b ilit y wa s a t t r ib u t ed t o t h e u n wa r r a n t ed a ssu mp t ion t h a t t h e
en er gy levels a r e q u a n t ized .
Boh r ' s t h eor y ma y a lso b e a n a lyzed a ccor d in g t o t h e
cor r esp on d in g en er gy eq u a t ion . Newt on ' s d iffer en t ia l eq u a t ion s of
mot ion in t h e ca se of t h e cen t r a l field su ch a s a gr a vit a t ion a l or
e le ct r ost a t ic fie ld a r e
m( r r

2
) f (r) ( 3 8 .1 0 )
m(2 r

+ r

) 0 ( 3 8 .1 1 )
wh er e f(r) is t h e cen t r a l for ce. Th e secon d or t r a n sver se eq u a t ion , Eq .
( 3 8 .1 1 ) , gives t h e r esu lt t h a t t h e a n gu la r momen t u m is con st a n t .
r
2

constant L / m ( 3 8 .1 2 )
wh er e L is t h e a n gu la r momen t u m. Th e cen t r a l for ce eq u a t ion s ca n b e
t r a n sfor med in t o a n or b it a l eq u a t ion b y t h e su b st it u t ion , u
1
r
. Th e
5 6 5
d iffer en t ia l eq u a t ion of t h e or b it of a p a r t icle movin g u n d er a cen t r a l
fo r ce is
2
u
2
+ u
1
mL
2
u
2
m
2
f (u
1
) ( 3 8 .1 3 )
Beca u se t h e a n gu la r momen t u m is con st a n t , mot ion in on ly on e p la n e
n eed b e con sid er ed ; t h u s, t h e or b it a l eq u a t ion is given in p ola r
coor d in a t es. Th e solu t ion of Eq . ( 3 8 .1 3 ) for a n in ver se sq u a r e for ce
f (r)
k
r
2
( 3 8 .1 4 )
is
r r
0
1+ e
1+ e cos
( 3 8 .1 5 )
e A
m
L
2
m
2
k
( 3 8 .1 6 )
r
0
m
L
2
m
2
k(1+ e)
( 3 8 .1 7 )
wh er e e is t h e eccen t r icit y a n d A is a con st a n t . Th e eq u a t ion of mot ion
d u e t o a cen t r a l for ce ca n a lso b e exp r essed in t er ms of t h e en er gies of
t h e or b it . Th e sq u a r e of t h e sp eed in p ola r coor d in a t es is
v
2
( r
2
+ r
2

2
) ( 3 8 .1 8 )
Sin ce a cen t r a l for ce is con ser va t ive, t h e t ot a l en er gy, E, is eq u a l t o t h e
su m of t h e kin e t ic, T , a n d t h e p ot en t ia l, V , a n d is con st a n t . Th e t ot a l
en er gy is
1
2
m( r
2
+ r
2

2
) + V(r) E constant ( 3 8 .1 9 )
Su b st it u t ion of t h e va r ia b le u
1
r
a n d Eq . ( 3 8 .1 2 ) in t o Eq . ( 3 8 .1 9 ) gives
t h e or b it a l en er gy eq u a t ion .
1
2
m
L
2
m
2
[(
2
u
2
) + u
2
] + V(u
-1
) = E ( 3 8 .2 0 )
Beca u se t h e p ot en t ia l en er gy fu n ct ion V(r) for a n in ver se sq u a r e for ce
field is
V(r) =-
k
r
=- ku ( 3 8 .2 1 )
t h e en er gy eq u a t ion of t h e or b it , Eq . ( 3 8 .2 0 ) , is
1
2
m
L
2
m
2
[(
2
u
2
) + u
2
] ku E ( 3 8 .2 2 )
2
u
2
+ u
2

1
]
1
2m
L
2
E + ku [ ] 0 ( 3 8 .2 3 )
5 6 6
wh ich h a s t h e solu t ion
r =
m
L
2
m
2
k
-1
1+[1+2 Em
L
2
m
2
k
-2
]
1/ 2
cos
( 3 8 .2 4 )
wh er e t h e eccen t r icit y, e , is
e [1+ 2Em
L
2
m
2
k
2
]
1/ 2
( 3 8 .2 5 )
Eq . ( 3 8 .2 5 ) p er mit s t h e cla ssifica t ion of t h e or b it s a ccor d in g t o t h e t ot a l
en er gy, E, a s follows:
E < 0, e <1 ellipse
E < 0, e 0 circle ( special case of ellipse)
E 0, e 1 parabolic orbit
E > 0, e >1 hyperbolic orbit
( 3 8 .2 6 )
Sin ce E T + V a n d is con st a n t , t h e closed or b it s a r e t h ose for wh ich
T <|V| , a n d t h e op en or b it s a r e t h ose for wh ich T |V| . It ca n b e sh own
t h a t t h e t ime a ver a ge of t h e kin et ic en er gy, < T >, for ellip t ic mot ion in
a n in ver se sq u a r e field is 1/ 2 t h a t of t h e t ime a ver a ge of t h e p ot en t ia l
en er gy, < V >. < T > 1/ 2 < V >.
Boh r ' s solu t ion is t r ivia l in t h a t h e sp ecified a cir cu la r b ou n d or b it
wh ich d et er min ed t h a t t h e eccen t r icit y wa s zer o, a n d h e sp ecified t h e
a n gu la r momen t u m a s a in t eger mu lt ip le of Pla n ck' s con st a n t b a r . Eq .
( 3 8 .2 5 ) in CGS u n it s b ecomes

E
1
2
me
4
n
2
h
2

e
2
2n
2
a
0
( 3 8 .2 7 )
Sc h r o d i n g e r Th e o r y o f t h e Hy d r o g e n At o m
In 1 9 2 3 , d e Br oglie su ggest ed t h a t t h e mot ion of a n elect r on h a s a
wa ve a sp ect
h
p
. Th is wa s con fir med b y Da visson a n d Ger mer in
1 9 2 7 b y ob ser vin g d iffr a ct ion effect s wh en elect r on s wer e r eflect ed
fr om me t a ls. Sch r o d in ger r ea son ed t h a t if elect r on s h a ve wa ve
p r op er t ies, t h er e mu st b e a wa ve eq u a t ion t h a t gover n s t h eir mot ion .
An d , in 1 9 2 6 , h e p r op osed t h e t ime in d ep en d en t Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion
H E ( 3 8 .2 8 )
wh er e is t h e wa ve fu n ct ion , H is t h e wa ve op er a t or , a n d E is t h e
en er gy of t h e wa ve. To give t h e sou gh t t h r ee q u a n t u m n u mb er s, t h e
5 6 7
Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion solu t ion s a r e t h r ee d imen sion a l in sp a ce a n d fou r
d imen sion a l in sp a cet ime
1
v
2
2
t
2

1
]
1
(r, , ,t ) 0 ( 3 8 .2 9 )
wh er e (r, , , t) a ccor d in g t o q u a n t u m t h eor y is t h e p r ob a b ilit y d en sit y
fu n ct ion of t h e elect r on a s d escr ib ed b elow. Wh en t h e t ime h a r mon ic
fu n ct ion is elimin a t ed [1 5 ],

h
2
2
1
r
2
r
r
2
r

_
,
+
1
r
2
sin
sin

_
,
r,
+
1
r
2
sin
2
2
2

_
,
r,

1
]
1
+ V r ( ) r, , ( ) E r, , ( )
( 3 8 .3 0 )
wh er e t h e p ot en t ia l en er gy V r ( ) in CGS u n it s is
V r ( )
e
2
r
( 3 8 .3 1 )
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion ( Eq . ( 3 8 .3 0 ) ) ca n b e t r a n sfor med in t o a su m
comp r isin g a p a r t t h a t d ep en d s on ly on t h e r a d iu s a n d a p a r t t h a t is a
fu n ct ion of a n gle on ly ob t a in ed b y sep a r a t ion of va r ia b les a n d lin ea r
su p er p osit ion in sp h er ica l coor d in a t es. Th e gen er a l for m of t h e
solu t ion s for r, , ( ) a r e
r, , ( ) R
nlm
r ( )
l, m
Y
lm
, ( ) ( 3 8 .3 2 )
wh er e l a n d m a r e sep a r a t ion con st a n t s. Th e a zimu t h a l ( t h et a ) p a r t of
Eq . ( 3 8 .3 0 ) is t h e gen er a lized Legen d r e eq u a t ion wh ich is d er ived fr om
t h e La p la ce eq u a t ion b y Ja ckson ( Eq . ( 3 .9 ) of Ja ckson [1 6 ]) . Th e
solu t ion s for t h e fu ll a n gu la r p a r t of Eq . ( 3 8 .3 0 ) , Y
lm
, ( ), a r e t h e
sp h er ica l h a r mon ics
Y
lm
, ( )
2l +1 ( ) l m ( )!
4 l + m ( )!
P
l
m
cos ( )e
im
( 3 8 .3 3 )
By su b st it u t ion of t h e eigen va lu es cor r esp on d in g t o t h e a n gu la r p a r t
[1 7 ], t h e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion b ecomes t h e r a d ia l eq u a t ion , R r ( ), given
b y

h
2
2mr
2
d
dr
r
2
dR
dr

_
,
+
h
2
l l +1 ( )
2mr
2
+ V r ( )

1
]
1
R r ( ) ER r ( ) ( 3 8 .3 4 )
Th e t ime in d ep en d en t Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion is simila r t o Eq . ( 3 8 .2 0 )
excep t t h a t t h e solu t ion is for t h e d ist r ib u t ion of a sp a t ia l wa vefu n ct ion
in t h r ee d imen sion s r a t h er t h a n t h e d yn a mica l mot ion of a p oin t p a r t icle
of ma ss m a lon g a on e d imen sion a l t r a ject or y. Elect r on mot ion is
imp licit in t h e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion . For wa ve p r op a ga t ion in t h r ee
d imen sion s, t h e fu ll t ime d ep en d en t Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion is r eq u ir ed ;
wh er ea s, t h e cla ssica l ca se con t a in s t ime d er iva t ives. Th e kin et ic en er gy
of r ot a t ion is K
rot
is given cla ssica lly b y
5 6 8
K
rot
1
2
mr
2 2
( 3 8 .3 5 )
wh er e m is t h e ma ss of t h e elect r on . In t h e t ime in d ep en d en t
Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion , t h e kin et ic en er gy of r ot a t ion K
rot
is given b y

K
rot
l l +1 ( )h
2
2mr
2
( 3 8 .3 6 )
wh er e

L l l + 1 ( )h
2
( 3 8 .3 7 )
is t h e va lu e of t h e elect r on a n gu la r momen t u m L for t h e st a t e Y
lm
, ( ).
In t h e ca se of t h e gr ou n d st a t e of h yd r ogen , t h e Sch r o d in ger
eq u a t ion solu t ion is t r ivia l for a n imp licit cir cu la r b ou n d or b it wh ich
d et er min es t h a t t h e eccen t r icit y is zer o, a n d wit h t h e sp ecifica t ion t h a t
t h e elect r on a n gu la r momen t u m is Pla n ck' s con st a n t b a r . Wit h k e
2
, Eq .
( 3 8 .2 5 ) in CGS u n it s b ecomes

E
1
2
me
4
h
2

e
2
2a
0
( 3 8 .3 8 )
wh ich cor r esp on d s t o n 1 in Eq . ( 3 8 .2 7 ) . Ma n y p r ob lems in cla ssica l
p h ysics give t h r ee q u a n t u m n u mb er s wh en t h r ee sp a t ia l d imen sion s a r e
con sid er ed . In or d er t o ob t a in t h r ee q u a n t u m n u mb er s, t h e Sch r o d in ger
eq u a t ion r eq u ir es t h a t t h e solu t ion is for t h e d ist r ib u t ion of a sp a t ia l
wa vefu n ct ion in t h r ee d imen sion s wit h imp licit mot ion r a t h er t h a n a on e
d imen sion a l t r a ject or y of a p oin t p a r t icle a s sh own b elow. However , t h is
a p p r oa ch gives r ise t o p r ed ict ion s a b ou t t h e a n gu la r momen t u m a n d
a n gu la r en er gy wh ich a r e n ot con sist en t wit h exp er imen t a l ob ser va t ion s
a s well a s a h ost of ot h er p r ob lems wh ich a r e su mma r ized in t h e
Discu ssion Se ct ion .
Th e r a d ia l eq u a t ion ma y b e wr it t en a s

d
dr
r
2
dR
dr

_
,
+
2mr
2
h
2
E V r ( )
l l +1 ( )h
2
2mr
2

1
]
1
R r ( ) 0 ( 3 8 .3 9 )
Let U r ( ) rR r ( ), t h en t h e r a d ia l eq u a t ion r ed u ces t o

U +
2m
h
2
E V r ( )
l l +1 ( )h
2
2mr
2

1
]
1
U 0 ( 3 8 .4 0 )
wh er e
1
r
U
lm
r ( )Y
lm
, ( ) ( 3 8 .4 1 )
Su b st it u t ion of t h e p ot en t ia l en er gy given b y Eq . ( 3 8 .3 1 ) in t o Eq . ( 3 8 .4 0 )
gives for su fficien t ly la r ge r
U
2

_
,
2
U 0 ( 3 8 .4 2 )
p r ovid ed we d efin e
5 6 9

2

_
,
2
2mE
h
2
( 3 8 .4 3 )
wh er e is t h e eigen va lu e of t h e eigen fu n ct ion solu t ion of t h e
Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion given in f ra h a vin g u n it s of r ecip r oca l len gt h a n d E
is t h e en er gy levels of t h e h yd r ogen a t om. To a r r ive a t t h e solu t ion
wh ich r ep r esen t s t h e elect r on , a su it a b le b ou n d a r y con d it ion mu st b e
imp ose d . Sch r o d in ger p ost u la t ed a b ou n d a r y con d it ion : 0 a s r ,
wh ich lea d s t o a p u r ely ma t h ema t ica l mod el of t h e elect r on . Th is
eq u a t ion is n ot b a sed on fir st p r in cip les, h a s n o va lid it y a s su ch , a n d
sh ou ld n ot b e r ep r esen t ed a s so. Th e r igh t h a n d sid e of Eq . ( 3 8 .4 3 ) mu st
b e p ost u lat ed in or d er t h a t t h e Ryd b er g eq u a t ion is ob t a in ed a s sh own
b elow. Th e p ost u la t e is imp licit sin ce Eq . ( 3 8 .4 3 ) a r ises fr om t h e
Sch r o d in ger wh ich is p ost u la t ed . It cou ld b e d efin ed arb it rarily, b u t is
ju st ified b eca u se it gives t h e Ryd b er g for mu la . Th a t Sch r o d in ger gu essed
t h e a ccep t ed a p p r oa ch is n ot su r p r isin g sin ce ma n y a p p r oa ch es wer e
con t emp la t ed a t t h is t ime [1 8 ], a n d sin ce n on e of t h ese a p p r oa ch es wer e
su p e r ior , Sch r o d in ger ' s a p p r oa ch p r eva iled .
Th e solu t ion of Eq . ( 3 8 .4 2 ) t h a t is con sist en t wit h t h e b ou n d a r y
con d it ion is
U
c
1
e
/ 2 ( )r
+ c
2
e
/ 2 ( )r
( 3 8 .4 4 )
In t h e ca se t h a t is r ea l, t h e en er gy of t h e p a r t icle is n ega t ive. In t h is
ca se U
will n ot h a ve a n in t egr a b le sq u a r e if c
1
fa ils t o va n ish wh er ein t h e
r a d ia l in t egr a l h a s t h e for m
R
2
r
2
0
dr U
dr ( 3 8 .4 5 )
It is sh own b elow t h a t t h e solu t ion of t h e Sch r o d in ger cor r esp on d s t o
t h e ca se wh er ein c
1
fa ils t o va n ish . Th u s, t h e solu t ion s wit h su fficien t ly
la r ge r a r e in fin it e. Th e sa me p r ob lem a r ises in t h e ca se of a fr ee
elect r on t h a t is ion ized fr om h yd r ogen . If is ima gin a r y, wh ich mea n s
t h a t E is p osit ive, Eq . ( 3 8 .4 2 ) is t h e eq u a t ion of a lin ea r h a r mon ic
oscilla t or [1 9 ]. U
sh ows sin u soid a l b eh a vior ; t h u s, t h e wa vefu n ct ion for

t h e fr ee elect r on ca n n ot b e n or ma lized a n d is in fin it e. In a d d it ion , t h e
a n gu la r momen t u m of t h e fr ee elect r on is in fin it e sin ce it is given b y

l l +1 ( )h
2
( Eq . ( 3 8 .3 7 ) ) wh e r e

l .
In or d er t o solve t h e b ou n d elect r on st a t es, let
E W ( 3 8 .4 6 )
so t h a t W is p osit ive. In Eq . ( 3 8 .3 9 ) , let r x / wh er e is given b y Eq .
( 3 8 .4 3 ) .

x
d
2
R
dx
2
+ 2
dR
dx
+
2me
2
h
2
x
4
l l +1 ( )
x

1
]
1
R 0 ( 3 8 .4 7 )
Eq . ( 3 8 .4 7 ) is t h e d iffer en t ia l eq u a t ion for a ssocia t ed La gu er r e fu n ct ion s
5 7 0
given in gen er a l for m b y
x y + 2 y + n *
k 1
2
x
4
k
2
1
4x

1
]
1
y 0 ( 3 8 .4 8 )
wh ich h a s a solu t ion p ossessin g a n in t egr a b le sq u a r e of t h e for m
y e
x / 2
x
k1 ( )/ 2
d
k
dx
k
L
n*
x ( ) ( 3 8 .4 9 )
p r ovid ed t h a t n * a n d k a r e p osit ive in t eger s. However , n * d oes n ot h a ve
t o b e a n in t eger , it ma y b e a n y arb it rary con st a n t . Th en t h e
cor r esp on d in g solu t ion is [2 0 ]
y e
x / 2
x
k1 ( )/ 2
d
k
dx
k
L x ( ) ( 3 8 .5 0 )
In t h e ca se t h a t n * is ch osen t o b e a n in t eger in or d er t o ob t a in t h e
Ryd b er g for mu la , n * k 0 sin ce ot h er wise L
n*
k
x ( ) of Eq . ( 3 8 .4 9 ) wou ld
va n ish . By comp a r in g Eq . ( 3 8 .4 7 ) a n d Eq . ( 3 8 .4 8 ) ,

k
2
1
4
l l +1 ( ) ( 3 8 .5 1 )
Th u s,

k 2l +1 ( 3 8 .5 2 )
a n d

n *
k 1
2
n * l
me
2
h 2

_
,
1
( 3 8 .5 3 )
Su b st it u t ion of t h e va lu e of a n d solvin g for W gives

W
1
2
me
4
n * l ( )
2
h
2
( 3 8 .5 4 )
Beca u se of t h e con d it ion s on n * a n d k , t h e q u a n t it y

n * l ca n n ot b e
zer o. It is u su a lly d en ot ed b y n a n d ca lled t h e p r in cip a l q u a n t u m
n u mb er . Th e en er gy st a t es of t h e h yd r ogen a t om a r e

W
n
E
n
1
2
me
4
n
2
h
2
( 3 8 .5 5 )
a n d t h e cor r esp on d in g eigen fu n ct ion s fr om Eq . ( 3 8 .4 9 ) a r e

R
n,l
c
n,l
e
x / 2
x
l
L
n+ l
2l +1
x ( ) ( 3 8 .5 6 )
wh er e t h e va r ia b le x is d efin ed b y

x r
8mW
h
r
2me
2
nh
2
r ( 3 8 .5 7 )
In t h e Boh r t h eor y of t h e h yd r ogen a t om, t h e fir st or b it a l h a s a r a d iu s in
CGS u n it s given b y

a
0
h
2
me
2
0.53 X 10
8
cm ( 3 8 .5 8 )
Th u s, 2/ na
0
a n d
x
2
n
r
a
0
( 3 8 .5 9 )
5 7 1
Th e en er gy st a t es of t h e h yd r ogen a t om in CGS u n it s in t er ms of t h e Boh r
r a d iu s a r e given b y Eq . ( 3 8 .2 7 ) . Fr om Eq . ( 3 8 .5 6 ) ,

R
n,l
for t h e h yd r ogen
a t om gr ou n d st a t e is
R
1,0
c
1,0
e
r / a
0
L
1
1
2a
0
3/ 2
e
r / a
0
( 3 8 .6 0 )
For t h is st a t e
Y
00
cons tant 4 ( )
1/ 2
( 3 8 .6 1 )
wh en t h e fu n ct ion is n or ma lized . Th u s, t h e gr ou n d st a t e fu n ct ion is
0
a
0
3
( )
1/ 2
e
r / a
0
( 3 8 .6 2 )
Immed ia t ely fu r t h er p r ob lems a r ise. Sin ce

l mu st eq u a l zer o in t h e
gr ou n d st a t e, t h e p r ed ict ed a n gu la r en er gy a n d a n gu la r momen t u m given
b y Eq . ( 3 8 .3 6 ) a n d Eq . ( 3 8 .3 7 ) , r esp ect ively, a r e zer o wh ich a r e
exp er imen t a lly in cor r ect . In a d d it ion , d iffer en t in t eger va lu es of

l exist
in t h e ca se of e xcit e d e le ct r on st a t e s. In t h e se ca se s, t h e Sch r o d in ger
eq u a t ion solu t ion s, Eq . ( 3 8 .3 6 ) a n d Eq . ( 3 8 .3 7 ) , p r ed ict t h a t t h e excit ed
st a t e r ot a t ion a l en er gy levels a r e n on d egen er a t e a s a fu n ct ion of t h e

l
q u a n t u m n u mb er even in t h e a b sen ce of a n a p p lied ma gn et ic field .
Con sid er t h e ca se of t h e excit ed st a t e wit h

n 2; l 1 comp a r ed t o t h e
exp er imen t a lly d egen er a t e st a t e

n 2; l 0 . Accor d in g t o Eq . ( 3 8 .3 7 ) t h e
d iffer en ce in a n gu la r en er gy of t h ese t wo st a t es is 3.4 eV wh er e t h e
exp ect a t ion r a d iu s, 4a
0
, is given b y t h e sq u a r ed in t egr a l of Eq . ( 3 8 .7 0 )
over sp a ce. Th u s, t h e p r ed ict ed r ot a t ion a l en er gy in t h e a b sen ce of a
ma gn et ic field is over six or d er s of ma gn it u d e of t h e ob ser ved
n on d egen er a t e en er gy (10
7
10
6
eV ) in t h e p r esen ce of a ma gn et ic field .
Sch r o d in ger r ea lized t h a t h is eq u a t ion wa s limit ed . It is n ot
Lor en t zia n in va r ia n t ; t h u s, it viola t es sp ecia l r ela t ivit y. It a lso d oes n ot
comp ly wit h Ma xwell' s eq u a t ion s a n d ot h er fir st p r in cip le la ws.
Sch r o d in ger sou gh t a r esolu t ion of t h e in comp a t ib ilit y wit h sp ecia l
r ela t ivit y for t h e r est of h is life. He wa s d eep ly t r ou b led b y t h e p h ysica l
con seq u en ces of h is eq u a t ion a n d it s solu t ion s. His h op e wa s t h a t t h e
r esolu t ion wou ld ma ke h is eq u a t ion fu lly comp a t ib le wit h cla ssica l
p h ysics a n d t h e q u a n t iza t ion wou ld a r ise fr om fir st p r in cip les.
Qu a n t u m mech a n ics fa iled t o p r ed ict t h e r esu lt s of t h e St er n -
Ger la ch exp er imen t wh ich in d ica t ed t h e n eed for a n a d d it ion a l q u a n t u m
n u mb er . Qu a n t u m elect r od yn a mics wa s p r op osed b y Dir a c in 1 9 2 6 t o
p r ovid e a gen er a liza t ion of q u a n t u m mech a n ics for h igh en er gies in
con for mit y wit h t h e t h eor y of sp ecia l r ela t ivit y a n d t o p r ovid e a
con sist en t t r ea t men t of t h e in t er a ct ion of ma t t er wit h r a d ia t ion . Fr om
Weisskop f [2 1 ], "Dir a c' s q u a n t u m elect r od yn a mics ga ve a mor e
con sist en t d er iva t ion of t h e r esu lt s of t h e cor r esp on d en ce p r in cip le, b u t
it a lso b r ou gh t a b ou t a n u mb er of n ew a n d ser iou s d ifficu lt ies."
Qu a n t u m elect r od yn a mics; 1 .) d oes n ot exp la in n on r a d ia t ion of b ou n d
elect r on s; 2 .) con t a in s a n in t er n a l in con sist en cy wit h sp ecia l r ela t ivit y
5 7 2
r ega r d in g t h e cla ssica l elect r on r a d iu s - t h e elect r on ma ss cor r esp on d in g
t o it s elect r ic en er gy is in fin it e; 3 .) it a d mit s solu t ion s of n ega t ive r est
ma ss a n d n ega t ive kin et ic en er gy; 4 .) t h e in t er a ct ion of t h e elect r on
wit h t h e p r ed ict ed zer o-p oin t field flu ct u a t ion s lea d s t o in fin it e kin et ic
en er gy a n d in fin it e elect r on ma ss; 5 .) Dir a c u sed t h e u n a ccep t a b le
st a t es of n ega t ive ma ss for t h e d escr ip t ion of t h e va cu u m; yet , in fin it ies
st ill a r ise.
A p h ysica l in t er p r et a t ion of Eq . ( 3 8 .2 8 ) wa s sou gh t . Sch r o d in ger
in t er p r et ed e*( x)(x) a s t h e ch a r ge-d en sit y or t h e a mou n t of ch a r ge
b et ween x a n d x + dx ( * is t h e comp lex con ju ga t e of ). Pr esu ma b ly,
t h en , h e p ict u r ed t h e elect r on t o b e sp r ea d over la r ge r egion s of sp a ce.
Th r ee yea r s a ft er Sch r o d in ger s in t er p r et a t ion , Ma x Bor n , wh o wa s
wor kin g wit h sca t t er in g t h eor y, fou n d t h a t t h is in t er p r et a t ion led t o
logica l d ifficu lt ies, a n d h e r ep la ced t h e Sch r o d in ger in t er p r et a t ion wit h
t h e p r ob a b ilit y of fin d in g t h e elect r on b et ween r, , a n d r + dr, + d , + d
a s
(r, , )*(r, , )drd d
( 3 8 .6 3 )
Bor n s in t er p r et a t ion is gen er a lly a ccep t ed . Non et h eless, in t er p r et a t ion
of t h e wa ve fu n ct ion is a n ever -en d in g sou r ce of con fu sion a n d con flict .
Ma n y scien t ist s h a ve solved t h is p r ob lem b y con ven ien t ly a d op t in g t h e
Sch r o d in ger in t er p r et a t ion for some p r ob lems a n d t h e Bor n
in t er p r et a t ion for ot h er s. Th is d u a lit y a llows t h e elect r on t o b e
ever ywh er e a t on e t imeyet h a ve n o volu me. Alt er n a t ively, t h e elect r on
ca n b e viewed a s a d iscr et e p a r t icle t h a t moves h er e a n d t h er e ( fr om
r 0 t o r ) , a n d * gives t h e t ime a ver a ge of t h is mot ion .
Sch r o d in ger wa s a lso t r ou b led b y t h e p h ilosop h ica l con seq u en ces
of h is t h eor y sin ce q u a n t u m mech a n ics lea d s t o cer t a in p h ilosop h ica l
in t er p r et a t ion s [2 2 ] wh ich a r e n ot sen sib le. Some con ju r e u p mu lt it u d es
of u n iver ses in clu d in g "min d " u n iver ses; ot h er s r eq u ir e b elief in a logic
t h a t a llows t wo con t r a d ict or y st a t emen t s t o b e t r u e. Th e q u est ion
a d d r essed is wh et h er t h e u n iver se is d et er min ed or in flu en ced b y t h e
p ossib ilit y of ou r b ein g con sciou s of it . Th e mea n in g of q u a n t u m
mech a n ics is d eb a t ed , b u t t h e Cop en h a gen in t er p r et a t ion is
p r ed omin a n t . It s a sser t s t h a t "wh a t we ob ser ve is a ll we ca n kn ow; a n y
sp ecu la t ion a b ou t wh a t a p h ot on , a n a t om, or even a SQUID
( Su p er con d u ct in g Qu a n t u m In t er fer en ce Device) r ea lly is or wh a t it is
d oin g wh en we a r e n ot lookin g is ju st t h a t sp ecu la t ion " [2 2 ]. As sh own
b y Pla t t [2 3 ] in t h e ca se of t h e St er n -Ger la ch exp er imen t , "t h e p ost u la t e
of q u a n t u m mea su r emen t [wh ich ] a sser t s t h a t t h e p r ocess of mea su r in g
a n ob ser va b le for ces t h e st a t e vect or of t h e syst em in t o a n eigen vect or
of t h a t ob ser va b le, a n d t h e va lu e mea su r ed will b e t h e eigen va lu e of t h a t
eigen vect or ". Accor d in g t o t h is in t er p r et a t ion ever y ob ser va b le exist s in
5 7 3
a st a t e of su p er p osit ion of p ossib le st a t es, a n d ob ser va t ion or t h e
p ot en t ia l for kn owled ge ca u ses t h e wa vefu n ct ion cor r esp on d in g t o t h e
p ossib ilit ies t o colla p se in t o a d efin it e.
Accor d in g t o t h e q u a n t u m mech a n ica l view, a movin g p a r t icle is
r ega r d ed a s a wa ve gr ou p . To r ega r d a movin g p a r t icle a s a wa ve gr ou p
imp lies t h a t t h er e a r e fu n d a men t a l limit s t o t h e a ccu r a cy wit h wh ich
su ch "p a r t icle" p r op er t ies a s p osit ion a n d momen t u m ca n b e mea su r ed .
Qu a n t u m p r ed ict s t h a t t h e p a r t icle ma y b e loca t ed a n ywh er e wit h in it s
wa ve gr ou p wit h a p r ob a b ilit y
2
. An isola t ed wa ve gr ou p is t h e r esu lt
of su p er p osin g a n in fin it e n u mb er of wa ves wit h d iffer en t wa velen gt h s.
Th e n a r r ower t h e wa ve gr ou p , t h e gr ea t er r a n ge of wa velen gt h s in volved .
A n a r r ow d e Br oglie wa ve gr ou p t h u s mea n s a well-d efin ed p osit ion ( x
sma ller ) b u t a p oor ly d efin ed wa velen gt h a n d a la r ge u n cer t a in t y p in
t h e momen t u m of t h e p a r t icle t h e gr ou p r ep r esen t s. A wid e wa ve gr ou p
mea n s a mor e p r ecise momen t u m b u t a less p r ecise p osit ion . Th e
in fa mou s Heisen b er g u n cer t a in t y p r in cip le is a for ma l st a t emen t of t h e
st a n d a r d d evia t ion s of p r op er t ies imp licit in t h e p r ob a b ilit y mod el of
fu n d a men t a l p a r t icles.

xp
h
2
( 3 8 .6 4 )
Accor d in g t o t h e st a n d a r d in t er p r et a t ion of q u a n t u m mech a n ics, t h e a ct
of mea su r in g t h e p osit ion or momen t u m of a q u a n t u m mech a n ica l en t it y
colla p ses t h e wa ve-p a r t icle d u a lit y b eca u se t h e p r in cip le for b id s b ot h
q u a n t it ies t o b e simu lt a n eou sly kn own wit h p r ecision .
Th e Wa v e - Pa r t i c l e Du a l i t y i s No t Du e t o t h e Un c e r t a i n t y
Pr i n c i p l e
Qu a n t u m en t it ies ca n b eh a ve like p a r t icles or wa ves, d ep en d in g on
h ow t h ey a r e ob ser ved . Th ey ca n b e d iffr a ct ed a n d p r od u ce in t er fer en ce
p a t t er n s ( wa ve b eh a vior ) wh en t h ey a r e a llowed t o t a ke d iffer en t p a t h s
fr om some sou r ce t o a d e t e ct or --in t h e u su a l e xa mp le , e le ct r on s or
p h ot on s go t h r ou gh t wo slit s a n d for m a n in t er fer en ce p a t t er n on t h e
scr een b eh in d . On t h e ot h er h a n d , wit h a n a p p r op r ia t e d et ect or p u t
a lon g on e of t h e p a t h s ( a t a slit , sa y) , t h e q u a n t u m en t it ies ca n b e
d et ect ed a t a p a r t icu la r p la ce a n d t ime, a s if t h ey a r e p oin t -like p a r t icles.
Bu t a n y a t t emp t t o d et er min e wh ich p a t h is t a ken b y a q u a n t u m ob ject
d est r oys t h e in t er fer en ce p a t t er n . Rich a r d Feyn ma n d escr ib ed t h is a s
t h e cen t r a l myst er y of q u a n t u m p h ysics.
Boh r ca lled t h is va gu e p r in cip le ' comp lemen t a r y' , a n d exp la in ed it
in t er ms of t h e u n cer t a in t y p r in cip le, p u t for wa r d b y Wer n er Heisen b er g,
h is p ost d oc a t t h e t ime. In a n a t t emp t t o p er su a d e Ein st ein t h a t wa ve-
p a r t icle d u a lit y is a n essen t ia l p a r t of q u a n t u m mech a n ics, Boh r
con st r u ct ed mod els of q u a n t u m mea su r emen t s t h a t sh owed t h e fu t ilit y
5 7 4
of t r yin g t o d et er min e wh ich p a t h wa s t a ken b y a q u a n t u m ob ject in a n
in t er fer en ce exp er imen t . As soon a s en ou gh in for ma t ion is a cq u ir ed for
t h is d et er min a t ion , t h e q u a n t u m in t er fer en ces mu st va n ish , sa id Boh r ,
b eca u se a n y a ct of ob ser vin g will imp a r t u n con t r olla b le momen t u m
kicks t o t h e q u a n t u m ob ject . Th is is q u a n t ified b y Heisen b er g' s
u n cer t a in t y p r in cip le, wh ich r ela t es u n cer t a in t y in p osit ion a l
in for ma t ion t o u n cer t a in t y in momen t u m--wh en t h e p osit ion of a n en t it y
is con st r a in ed , t h e momen t u m mu st b e r a n d omized t o a cer t a in d egr ee.
Mor e t h a n 6 0 yea r s a ft er t h e fa mou s d eb a t e b et ween Niels Boh r
a n d Alb er t Ein st ein on t h e n a t u r e of q u a n t u m r ea lit y, a q u est ion cen t r a l
t o t h eir d eb a t e --t h e n a t u r e of q u a n t u m in t er fer en ce--h a s r esu r fa ced .
Th e u su a l t ext b ook exp la n a t ion of wa ve-p a r t icle d u a lit y in t er ms of
u n a void a b le ' mea su r emen t d ist u r b a n ces' is exp er imen t a lly p r oven
in cor r ect b y a n exp er imen t r ep or t ed in t h e Sep t emb er 3 , 1 9 9 8 issu e of
Na t u r e [2 4 ] b y Du r r , Non n , a n d Remp e. Du r r , Non n , a n d Remp e r ep or t
on t h e in t er fer en ce fr in ges p r od u ced wh en a b ea m of cold a t oms is
d iffr a ct ed b y st a n d in g wa ves of ligh t . Th eir in t er fer omet er d isp la yed
fr in ges of h igh con t r a st --b u t wh en t h ey ma n ip u la t ed t h e elect r on ic st a t e
wit h in t h e a t oms wit h a micr owa ve field a ccor d in g t o wh ich p a t h wa s
t a ken , t h e fr in ges d isa p p ea r ed en t ir ely. Th e in t er fer omet er p r od u ced a
sp a t ia l d ist r ib u t ion of elect r on ic p op u la t ion s wh ich wer e ob ser ved via
flu or escen ce. Th e micr owa ve field ca n celed t h e sp a t ia l d ist r ib u t ion of
elect r on ic p op u la t ion s. Th e key t o t h is n ew exp er imen t wa s t h a t
a lt h ou gh t h e in t er fer en ces a r e d est r oyed , t h e in it ia lly imp osed a t omic
momen t u m d ist r ib u t ion left a n en velop e p a t t er n ( in wh ich t h e fr in ges
u sed t o r esid e) a t t h e d et ect or . A ca r efu l a n a lysis of t h e p a t t er n
d emon st r a t ed t h a t it h a d n ot b een mea su r a b ly d ist or t ed b y a momen t u m
kick of t h e t yp e in voked b y Boh r , a n d t h er efor e t h a t a n y loca lly r ea list ic
momen t u m kicks imp a r t ed b y t h e ma n ip u la t ion of t h e in t er n a l a t omic
st a t e a ccor d in g t o t h e p a r t icu la r p a t h of t h e a t om a r e t oo sma ll t o b e
r esp on sib le for d est r oyin g in t er fer en ce.
Th e Co r r e s p o n d e n c e Pr i n c i p l e Do e s No t Ho l d
Recen t exp er imen t a l r esu lt s a lso d isp el a n ot h er d oct r in e of
q u a n t u m mech a n ics [2 5 , 2 6 ]. Boh r p r op osed a r u le of t h u mb ca lled t h e
cor r esp on d en ce p r in cip le [2 7 ]. A for m of t h e p r in cip le wid ely r ep ea t ed
in t ext b ooks a n d lect u r e h a lls st a t es t h a t p r ed ict ion s of q u a n t u m
mech a n ics a n d cla ssica l p h ysics sh ou ld ma t ch for t h e most en er get ic
ca se s.
In t h e Nov. 2 2 Ph ysica l Review Let t er s [2 5 ], Bo Ga o ca lcu la t es
p ossib le en er gy st a t es of a n y ch illed , t wo-a t om molecu le, su ch a s
sod iu m, t h a t ' s vib r a t in g a n d r ot a t in g a lmost t o t h e b r ea kin g p oin t . He
p er for ms t h e ca lcu la t ion s via q u a n t u m mech a n ica l a n d so ca lled
5 7 5
semicla ssica l met h od s a n d comp a r es t h e r esu lt s. In st ea d of t h e r esu lt s
a gr eein g b et t er for in cr ea sin gly en er get ic st a t es. Th e op p osit e h a p p en s.
Cl a s s i c a l So l u t i o n o f t h e Sc h r o d i n g e r Eq u a t i o n
Mills h a s solved a n d p u b lish ed a solu t ion of a Sch r o d in ger t yp e
eq u a t ion b a sed on fir st p r in cip les [1 ]. Th e cen t r a l fea t u r e of t h is t h eor y
is t h a t a ll p a r t icle s ( a t omic-size a n d ma cr oscop ic p a r t icle s) ob e y t h e
sa me p h ysica l la ws. Wh er ea s Sch r o d in ger p ost u la t ed a b ou n d a r y
con d it ion : 0 a s r , t h e b ou n d a r y con d it ion in Mills' t h eor y wa s
d er ived fr om Ma xwell' s eq u a t ion s [2 8 ]:
For n on -rad iat iv e st at es, t h e cu rren t -d en sit y f u n ct ion m u st n ot
p ossess sp ace-t im e Fou rier com p on en t s t h at are sy n ch ron ou s
wit h wav es t rav elin g at t h e sp eed of ligh t .
Ap p lica t ion of t h is b ou n d a r y con d it ion lea d s t o a p h ysica l mod el of
p a r t icles, a t oms, molecu les, a n d , in t h e fin a l a n a lysis, cosmology. Th e
closed -for m ma t h ema t ica l solu t ion s con t a in fu n d a men t a l con st a n t s on ly,
a n d t h e ca lcu la t ed va lu es for p h ysica l q u a n t it ies a gr ee wit h exp er imen t a l
ob ser va t ion s. In a d d it ion , t h e t h eor y p r ed ict s t h a t Eq . ( 3 8 .3 ) , sh ou ld b e
r ep la ced b y Eq . ( 3 8 .6 5 ) .
n 1,2,3,..., and, n
1
2
,
1
3
,
1
4
,... ( 3 8 .6 5 )
Some r evision s t o st a n d a r d q u a n t u m t h eor y a r e imp lied . Qu a n t u m
mech a n ics b ecomes a r ea l p h ysica l d escr ip t ion a s op p osed t o a p u r ely
ma t h ema t ica l mod el wh er e t h e old a n d t h e r evised ver sion s a r e
in t er ch a n gea b le b y a Fou r ier Tr a n sfor m op er a t ion [1 ].
Th e t h e or ie s of Boh r , Sch r o d in ger , a n d p r esen t ly Mills a ll give t h e
id en t ica l eq u a t ion for t h e p r in cip a l en er gy levels of t h e on e elect r on
a t om.
E
ele

Z
2
e
2
8
o
n
2
a
H

Z
2
n
2
X 2.1786 X 10
18
J Z
2
X
13.598
n
2
eV ( 3 8 .6 6 )
Th e Mills t h eor y solves t h e t wo d imen sion a l wa ve eq u a t ion for t h e
ch a r ge d en sit y fu n ct ion of t h e elect r on . An d , t h e Fou r ier t r a n sfor m of
t h e ch a r ge d en sit y fu n ct ion is a solu t ion of t h e t h r ee d imen sion a l wa ve
eq u a t ion in fr eq u en cy k, ( ) sp a ce. Wh er ea s, t h e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion
solu t ion s a r e t h r ee d imen sion a l in sp a cet ime. Th e en er gy is given b y
H
dv E
2
dv ; ( 3 8 .6 7 )
2
dv 1 ( 3 8 .6 8 )
5 7 6
Th u s,
H
dv E ( 3 8 .6 9 )
In t h e ca se t h a t t h e p ot en t ia l en er gy of t h e Ha milt on ia n , H, is a con st a n t
t imes t h e wa ven u mb er , t h e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion is t h e well kn own
Bessel eq u a t ion . Th en wit h on e of t h e solu t ion s for , Eq . ( 3 8 .6 9 ) is
eq u iva len t t o a n in ver se Fou r ier t r a n sfor m. Accor d in g t o t h e d u a lit y a n d
sca le ch a n ge p r op er t ies of Fou r ier t r a n sfor ms, t h e en er gy eq u a t ion of
t h e p r esen t t h eor y a n d t h a t of q u a n t u m mech a n ics a r e id en t ica l, t h e
en er gy of a r a d ia l Dir a c d elt a fu n ct ion of r a d iu s eq u a l t o a n in t eger
mu lt ip le of t h e r a d iu s of t h e h yd r ogen a t om ( Eq . ( 3 8 .6 6 ) ) . An d , Boh r
ob t a in ed t h e sa me en er gy for mu la b y p ost u la t in g n on r a d ia t ive st a t es
wit h a n gu la r momen t u m

L
z
mh ( 3 8 .7 0 )
a n d solvin g t h e en er gy eq u a t ion cla ssica lly.
Th e ma t h ema t ics for a ll t h r ee t h eor ies con ver ge t o Eq . ( 3 8 .6 6 ) .
However , t h e p h ysics is q u it e d iffer en t . On ly t h e Mills t h eor y is d er ived
fr om fir st p r in cip les a n d h old s over a sca le of sp a cet ime of 4 5 or d er s of
ma gn it u d e: it cor r ect ly p r ed ict s t h e n a t u r e of t h e u n iver se fr om t h e
sca le of t h e q u a r ks t o t h a t of t h e cosmos.
Mills r evision s t r a n sfor m Sch r o d in ger ' s a n d Heisen b er g' s q u a n t u m
t h eor y in t o wh a t ma y b e t er med a cl assi cal quant um t heor y . Ph ysica l
d escr ip t ion s flow r ea d ily fr om t h e t h eor y. For exa mp le, in t h e old
q u a n t u m t h eor y t h e sp in a n gu la r momen t u m of t h e elect r on is ca lled t h e
"in t r in sic a n gu la r momen t u m". Th is t er m a r ises b eca u se it is d ifficu lt t o
p r ovid e a p h ysica l in t er p r et a t ion for t h e elect r on ' s sp in a n gu la r
momen t u m. Qu a n t u m Elect r od yn a mics p r ovid es somewh a t of a p h ysica l
in t er p r et a t ion b y p r op osin g t h a t t h e "va cu u m" con t a in s flu ct u a t in g
elect r ic a n d ma gn et ic field s. In con t r a st , in Mills' t h eor y, sp in a n gu la r
momen t u m r esu lt s fr om t h e mot ion of n ega t ively ch a r ged ma ss movin g
syst ema t ica lly, a n d t h e eq u a t ion for a n gu la r momen t u m, r p, ca n b e
a p p lied d ir ect ly t o t h e wa ve fu n ct ion ( a cu r r en t d en sit y fu n ct ion ) t h a t
d escr ib es t h e elect r on . An d , q u a n t iza t ion is ca r r ied b y t h e p h ot on ,
r a t h er t h a n p r ob a b ilit y wa ves of t h e elect r on .
Fr a c t i o n a l Qu a n t u m En e r g y Le v e l s o f Hy d r o g e n
Th e n on r a d ia t ive st a t e of a t omic h yd r ogen wh ich is h ist or ica lly
ca lled t h e "gr ou n d st a t e" for ms t h e b a sis of t h e b ou n d a r y con d it ion of
Mills t h eor y [1 ] t o solve t h e wa ve eq u a t ion . Mills fu r t h er p r ed ict s [1 ]
t h a t cer t a in a t oms or ion s ser ve a s ca t a lyst s t o r elea se en er gy fr om
h yd r ogen t o p r od u ce a n in cr ea sed b in d in g en er gy h yd r ogen a t om ca lled
a h y d rin o at om h a vin g a b in d in g en er gy of
5 7 7
Binding Energy
13.6 eV
n
2
( 3 8 .7 1 )
wh er e
n
1
2
,
1
3
,
1
4
,...,
1
p
( 3 8 .7 2 )
a n d p is a n in t eger gr ea t er t h a n 1 , d esign a t ed a s H
a
H
p

1
]
1
wh er e a
H
is t h e
r a d iu s of t h e h yd r ogen a t om. ( Alt h ou gh it is p u r ely ma t h ema t ica l, t h ese
st a b le en er gy levels a r e a lso given b y b ot h Boh r ' s a n d Sch r o d in ger ' s
t h eor ies b y p ost u la t in g in t eger va lu es of t h e cen t r a l ch a r ge. Ju st ifica t ion
ma y b e b a sed on n ot ion s su ch vir t u a l p a r t icles wh ich a r e a ccep t a b le in
ot h er a p p lica t ion s of Sch r o d in ger ' s eq u a t ion .) Hyd r in os a r e p r ed ict ed
t o for m b y r ea ct in g a n or d in a r y h yd r ogen a t om wit h a ca t a lyst h a vin g a
n et en t h a lp y of r ea ct ion of a b ou t
m 27.2 eV ( 3 8 .7 3 )
wh er e m is a n in t eger . Th is ca t a lysis r elea ses en er gy fr om t h e h yd r ogen
a t om wit h a commen su r a t e d ecr ea se in size of t h e h yd r ogen a t om,
r
n
na
H
. For exa mp le, t h e ca t a lysis of H(n 1) t o H(n 1/2) r elea ses
40.8 eV , a n d t h e h yd r ogen r a d iu s d ecr ea ses fr om a
H
t o
1
2
a
H
.
It is t a u gh t in t ext b ooks t h a t a t omic h yd r ogen ca n n ot go b elow t h e
gr ou n d st a t e. At omic h yd r ogen h a vin g a n exp er imen t a l gr ou n d st a t e of
1 3 .6 eV ca n on ly exist in a va cu u m or in isola t ion , a n d a t omic h yd r ogen
ca n n ot go b elow t h is gr ou n d st a t e in isola t ion . However , t h er e is n o
kn own comp osit ion of ma t t er con t a in in g h yd r ogen in t h e gr ou n d st a t e
of 1 3 .6 eV. At omic h yd r ogen is r a d ica l a n d is ver y r ea ct ive. It ma y r ea ct
t o for m a h yd r id e ion or comp osit ion s of ma t t er . It is a ch emica l
in t er med ia t e wh ich ma y b e t r a p p ed a s ma n y ch emica l in t er med ia t es ma y
b e b y met h od s su ch a s isola t ion or cr yogen ica lly. A h yd r in o a t om ma y
b e con sid er ed a ch emica l in t er med ia t e t h a t ma y b e t r a p p ed in va cu u m
or isola t ion . A h yd r in o a t om ma y b e ver y r ea ct ive t o for m a h yd r id e ion
or a n ovel comp osit ion of ma t t er . Hyd r ogen a t p r ed ict ed lower en er gy
levels, h yd r in o a t oms, h a s b een id en t ified in t h e ext r eme u lt r a violet
emission sp ect r u m fr om in t er st ella r med iu m. In a d d it ion , n ew
comp osit ion s of ma t t er con t a in in g h yd r ogen a t p r ed ict ed lower en er gy
levels h a ve r ecen t ly b een ob ser ved in t h e la b or a t or y, wh ich en er gy levels
a r e a ch ieved u sin g t h e n ovel ca t a lyst s.
Th e excit ed en er gy st a t es of a t omic h yd r ogen a r e a lso given b y Eq .
( 3 8 .7 1 ) e xce p t t h a t
n 1,2,3,... ( 3 8 .7 4 )
Th e n 1 st a t e is t h e "gr ou n d " st a t e for "p u r e" p h ot on t r a n sit ion s ( t h e
n 1 st a t e ca n a b sor b a p h ot on a n d go t o a n excit ed elect r on ic st a t e, b u t
5 7 8
it ca n n ot r elea se a p h ot on a n d go t o a lower -en er gy elect r on ic st a t e) .
However , a n elect r on t r a n sit ion fr om t h e gr ou n d st a t e t o a lower -en er gy
st a t e is p ossib le b y a n on r a d ia t ive en er gy t r a n sfer su ch a s mu lt ip ole
cou p lin g or a r eson a n t collision mech a n ism. Th ese lower -en er gy st a t es
h a ve fr a ct ion a l q u a n t u m n u mb er s, n
1
integer
. Pr oce sse s t h a t occu r
wit h ou t p h ot on s a n d t h a t r eq u ir e collision s a r e common . For exa mp le,
t h e e xot h e r mic ch e mica l r e a ct ion of H + H

t o for m H
2
d oe s n ot occu r
wit h t h e emission of a p h ot on . Ra t h er , t h e r ea ct ion r eq u ir es a collision
wit h a t h ir d b od y, M, t o r emove t h e b on d en er gy- H + H + M H
2
+ M*
[2 9 ]. Th e t h ir d b od y d ist r ib u t es t h e en er gy fr om t h e exot h er mic
r ea ct ion , a n d t h e en d r esu lt is t h e H
2
molecu le a n d a n in cr ea se in t h e
t emp er a t u r e of t h e syst em. Some commer cia l p h osp h or s a r e b a sed on
n on r a d ia t ive en er gy t r a n sfer in volvin g mu lt ip ole cou p lin g [3 0 ]. For
exa mp le, t h e st r on g a b sor p t ion st r en gt h of Sb
3+
ion s a lon g wit h t h e
efficien t n on r a d ia t ive t r a n sfer of excit a t ion fr om Sb
3+
t o Mn
2+
, a r e
r esp on sib le for t h e st r on g ma n ga n ese lu min escen ce fr om p h osp h or s
con t a in in g t h ese ion s. Simila r ly, t h e n 1 st a t e of h yd r ogen a n d t h e
n
1
integer
st a t es of h yd r ogen a r e n on r a d ia t ive, b u t a t r a n sit ion b et ween
t wo n on r a d ia t ive st a t es is p ossib le via a n on r a d ia t ive en er gy t r a n sfer , sa y
n 1 t o n 1/ 2 . In t h ese ca ses, d u r in g t h e t r a n sit ion t h e elect r on cou p les
t o a n ot h er elect r on t r a n sit ion , elect r on t r a n sfer r ea ct ion , or in ela st ic
sca t t er in g r ea ct ion wh ich ca n a b sor b t h e exa ct a mou n t of en er gy t h a t
mu st b e r emoved fr om t h e h yd r ogen a t om. Th u s, a ca t a lyst p r ovid es a
n et p osit ive en t h a lp y of r ea ct ion of m 27.2 eV ( i.e . it a b sor b s m 27.2 eV
wh er e m is a n in t eger ) . Cer t a in a t oms or ion s ser ve a s ca t a lyst s wh ich
r eson a n t ly a ccep t en er gy fr om h yd r ogen a t oms a n d r elea se t h e en er gy t o
t h e su r r ou n d in gs t o effect elect r on ic t r a n sit ion s t o fr a ct ion a l q u a n t u m
en er gy levels.
On ce for med h yd r in os h a ve a b in d in g en er gy given b y Eq s. ( 3 8 .7 1 -
3 8 .7 2 ) ; t h u s, t h ey ma y ser ve a s ca t a lyst s wh ich p r ovid e a n et en t h a lp y of
r ea ct ion given b y Eq . ( 3 8 .7 3 ) . Also, t h e simu lt a n eou s ion iza t ion of t wo
h yd r ogen a t oms ma y p r ovid e a n et en t h a lp y given b y Eq . ( 3 8 .7 3 ) . Sin ce
t h e su r fa ces of st a r s comp r ise sign ifica n t a mou n t s of a t omic h yd r ogen ,
h yd r in os ma y b e for med a s a sou r ce t o in t er st ella r sp a ce wh er e fu r t h er
t r a n sit ion s ma y occu r .
A n u mb er of exp er imen t a l ob ser va t ion s lea d t o t h e con clu sion t h a t
a t omic h yd r ogen ca n exist in fr a ct ion a l q u a n t u m st a t es t h a t a r e a t lower
en er gies t h a n t h e t r a d it ion a l "gr ou n d " ( n 1) st a t e. For exa mp le, t h e
exist en ce of fr a ct ion a l q u a n t u m st a t es of h yd r ogen a t oms exp la in s t h e
sp ect r a l ob ser va t ion s of t h e ext r eme u lt r a violet b a ckgr ou n d emission
5 7 9
fr om in t er st ella r sp a ce [2 ], wh ich ma y ch a r a ct er ize d a r k ma t t er a s
d emon st r a t ed in Ta b le 2 . ( In t h ese ca ses, a h yd r ogen a t om in a
fr a ct ion a l q u a n t u m st a t e, H n
i
( ), collid es, for exa mp le, wit h a n
1
2
h yd r ogen a t om, H
1
2

_
,
, a n d t h e r esu lt is a n even lower -en er gy h yd r ogen
a t om, H n
f
( ), a n d H
1
2

_
,
is ion ized .
H n
i
( ) + H
1
2

_
,
H n
f
( ) + H
+
+ e
+ photon ( 3 8 .7 5 )
Th e en er gy r elea sed , a s a p h ot on , is t h e d iffer en ce b et ween t h e en er gies
of t h e in it ia l a n d fin a l st a t es given b y Eq s. ( 3 8 .7 1 -3 8 .7 2 ) min u s t h e
ion iza t ion en er gy of H
1
2

_
,
, 54.4 eV .) Th e ca t a lysis of a n en er gy st a t e of
h yd r ogen t o a lower en er gy st a t e wh er ein a d iffer en t lower en er gy st a t e
a t om of h yd r ogen ser ves a s t h e ca t a lyst is ca lled d isp r op or t ion a t ion b y
Mills [1 ].
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Lo we r - En e r g y Hy d r o g e n b y So f t X- r a y s f r o m
Da r k I n t e r s t e l l a r Me d i u m
Th e fir st soft X-r a y b a ckgr ou n d wa s d et ect ed a n d r ep or t ed [3 1 ]
a b ou t 2 5 yea r s a go. Qu it e n a t u r a lly, it wa s a ssu med t h a t t h ese soft X-r a y
emission s wer e fr om ion ized a t oms wit h in h ot ga ses. In a mor e r ecen t
p a p er , a gr a zin g in cid en ce sp ect r omet er wa s d esign ed t o mea su r e a n d
r ecor d t h e d iffu se ext r eme u lt r a violet b a ckgr ou n d [2 ]. Th e in st r u men t
wa s ca r r ied a b oa r d a sou n d in g r ocket a n d d a t a wer e ob t a in ed b et ween
80 a n d 650 ( d a t a p oin t s a p p r oxima t ely ever y 1.5 ) . Her e a ga in , t h e
d a t a wer e in t er p r et ed a s emission s fr om h ot ga ses. However , t h e
a u t h or s left t h e d oor op en for some ot h er in t er p r et a t ion wit h t h e
followin g st a t emen t fr om t h eir in t r od u ct ion :
"It is n ow gen er a lly b elieved t h a t t h is d iffu se soft X-r a y b a ckgr ou n d
is p r od u ced b y a h igh -t emp er a t u r e comp on en t of t h e in t er st ella r
med iu m. However , evid en ce of t h e t h er ma l n a t u r e of t h is emission is
in d ir ect in t h a t it is b a sed n ot on ob ser va t ion s of lin e emission , b u t
on in d ir ect evid en ce t h a t n o p la u sib le n on -t h er ma l mech a n ism h a s
b een su ggest ed wh ich d oes n ot con flict wit h some comp on en t of t h e
ob ser va t ion a l evid en ce."
Th e a u t h or s a lso st a t e t h a t "if t h is in t er p r et a t ion is cor r ect , ga s a t
sever a l t emp er a t u r es is p r esen t ." Sp ecifica lly, emission s wer e
a t t r ib u t ed t o ga ses in t h r ee r a n ges: 5 .5 < log T < 5 .7 ; log T = 6 ; 6 .6 < log
T < 6 .8 .
5 8 0
Th e exp la n a t ion p r op osed h er ein of t h e ob ser ved d a r k in t er st ella r
med iu m sp ect r u m h in ges on t h e p ossib ilit y of en er gy st a t es b elow t h e
n 1 st a t e, a s given b y Eq s. ( 3 8 .7 1 -3 8 .7 2 ) . Th u s, lower -en er gy
t r a n sit ion s of t h e t yp e,
E
1
n
f
2
1
n
i
2

_
,
X13.6 eV 54.4 eV

n 1,
1
2
,
1
3
,
1
4
,..., a n d n
i
> n
f
( 3 8 .7 6 )
in d u ced b y a d isp r op or t ion a t ion r ea ct ion wit h H
a
H
2

1
]
ou gh t t o occu r .
Th e wa velen gt h is r ela t ed t o E b y
(in )
1.240 X 10
4
E(in eV)
( 3 8 .7 7 )
Th e en er gies a n d wa velen gt h s of sever a l of t h ese p r op osed t r a n sit ion s
a r e sh own in Ta b le 1 . Not e t h a t t h e lower en er gy t r a n sit ion s a r e in t h e
soft X-r a y r egion .
Ta b le 1 . En er gies ( Eq . ( 3 8 .7 6 ) ) of sever a l fr a ct ion a l-st a t e t r a n sit ion s
ca t a lyzed b y H
a
H
2

1
]
.
n
i
n
f
E ( eV) ( )
1
2
1
3
1 3 .6 9 1 2
1
3
1
4
4 0 .8 0 3 0 3 .9
1
4
1
5
6 8 .0 0 1 8 2 .4
1
5
1
6
9 5 .2 0 1 3 0 .2
1
6
1
7
1 2 2 .4 1 0 1 .3
1
7
1
8
1 4 9 .6 8 2 .9
Th e Da t a An d I t s I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
5 8 1
In t h eir a n a lysis of t h e d a t a , La b ov a n d Bowyer [2 ] est a b lish ed
sever a l t est s t o sep a r a t e emission fea t u r es fr om t h e b a ckgr ou n d . Th er e
wer e seven fea t u r es ( p ea ks) t h a t p a ssed t h eir cr it er ia . Th e wa velen gt h s
a n d ot h er a sp ect s of t h ese p ea ks a r e sh own in Ta b le 2 . Pea ks 2 a n d 5
wer e in t er p r et ed b y La b ov a n d Bowyer a s in st r u men t a l secon d -or d er
ima ges of p ea ks 4 a n d 7 , r esp ect ively. Pea k 3 , t h e st r on gest fea t u r e, is
clea r ly a h eliu m r eson a n ce lin e: He( 1 s
1
2 p
1
1 s
2
) . At issu e h er e, is t h e
in t er p r et a t ion of p ea ks 1 , 4 , 6 , a n d 7 . It is p r op osed t h a t p ea ks 4 , 6 , a n d
7 a r ise fr om t h e
1
3

1
4
,
1
4

1
5
, a n d
1
6

1
7
h yd r ogen a t oms
t r a n sit ion s given b y Eq . ( 3 8 .7 6 ) . It is a lso p r op osed t h a t p ea k 1 a r ises
fr om in ela st ic h eliu m sca t t er in g of p ea k 4 . Th a t is, t h e
1
3

1
4
t r a n sit ion yield s a 40.8 eV p h ot on ( 303.9 ) . Wh en t h is p h ot on st r ikes
He (1s
2
) , 21.2 eV is a b sor b ed in t h e excit a t ion t o He (1s
1
2 p
1
). Th is lea ves a
19.6 eV p h ot on (632.6 ), p ea k 1 . For t h ese fou r p ea ks, t h e a gr eemen t
b et ween t h e p r ed ict ed va lu es ( Ta b le 1 ) a n d t h e exp er imen t a l va lu es
( Ta b le 2 ) is r e ma r ka b le .
5 8 2
5 8 3
On e a r gu men t a ga in st t h is n ew in t er p r et a t ion of t h e d a t a is t h a t
t h e t r a n sit ion
1
5

1
6
is missin gp r ed ict ed a t 130.2 b y Eq s. ( 3 8 .7 6 -
3 8 .7 7 ) . Th is missin g p ea k ca n n ot b e exp la in ed in t o exist en ce, b u t a
r ea son a b le r a t ion a le ca n b e p r ovid ed for wh y it migh t b e missin g fr om
t h ese d a t a . Th e d a t a ob t a in ed b y La b ov a n d Bowyer a r e ou t st a n d in g
wh en t h e r egion of t h e sp ect r u m, t h e t ime a llot t ed for d a t a collect ion ,
a n d t h e logist ics a r e con sid er ed . Non et h eless, it is clea r t h a t t h e sign a l-
t o-n oise r a t io is low a n d t h a t con sid er a b le effor t h a d t o b e exp en d ed t o
d iffer en t ia t e emission fea t u r es fr om t h e b a ckgr ou n d . Th is p a r t icu la r
p ea k,
1
5

1
6
, is likely t o b e on ly sligh t ly st r on ger t h a n t h e
1
6

1
7
p ea k ( t h e in t en sit ies, Ta b le 2 , a p p ea r t o d ecr ea se a s n d ecr ea ses) , wh ich
h a s low in t en sit y. La b ov a n d Bowyer p r ovid ed t h eir d a t a ( wa velen gt h ,
cou n t , cou n t er r or , b a ckgr ou n d , a n d b a ckgr ou n d er r or ) . Th e cou n t s
min u s b a ckgr ou n d va lu es for t h e r egion of in t er est , 130.2 t 5 , a r e sh own
in Ta b le 3 ( t h e con fid en ce limit s for t h e wa velen gt h of a b ou t t5 a r e
t h e sin gle-sid e 1 con fid en ce levels a n d in clu d e b ot h t h e u n cer t a in t ies in
t h e fit t in g p r oced u r e a n d u n cer t a in t ies in t h e wa velen gt h ca lib r a t ion ) .
Not e t h a t t h e la r gest p ea k ( cou n t b a ckgr ou n d ) is a t 129.64 a n d h a s a
counts background 8.72 . Th e counts background for t h e st r on gest sign a l of
t h e ot h er h yd r in o t r a n sit ion s a r e: n 1/3 t o n 1/4 , 20.05 ; n 1/4 t o
n 1/5 , 11.36; n 1/6 t o n 1/7 , 10.40 . Th u s, t h er e is fa ir a gr eemen t wit h
t h e wa velen gt h a n d t h e st r en gt h of t h e sign a l. Th is, of cou r se, d oes n ot
mea n t h a t t h er e is a p ea k a t 130.2 . However , it is n ot u n r ea son a b le t o
con clu d e t h a t a sp ect r u m wit h a b et t er sign a l-t o-n oise r a t io migh t
u n cover t h e missin g p ea k.
5 8 4
Ta b le 3 . Da t a ( La b ov & Bowyer ) n ea r t h e p r ed ict ed
1
5
1
6
t r a n sit ion
(130.2 ).
l counts background counts background
()
1 2 5 .8 2 2 6 2 1 .5 8 4 .4 2
1 2 7 .1 0 2 2 2 1 .3 2 0 .6 8
1 2 8 .3 7 1 8 1 9 .5 0 1 .5 0
1 2 9 .6 4 2 9 2 0 .2 8 8 .7 2
1 3 0 .9 0 1 8 1 9 .7 6 1 .7 6
1 3 2 .1 5 2 0 1 9 .5 0 0 .5 0
1 3 3 .4 1 1 9 1 9 .5 0 0 .5 0
1 3 4 .6 5 1 9 2 0 .8 0 1 .8 0
An ot h er , a n d mor e imp or t a n t , a r gu men t a ga in st t h is n ew
in t er p r et a t ion is t h e fa ct t h a t t h e p r op osed fr a ct ion a l-q u a n t u m-st a t e
h yd r ogen a t oms h a ve n ot b een d et ect ed b efor e. Th er e a r e sever a l
exp la n a t ion s. Fir st ly, t h e t r a n sit ion s t o t h ese fr a ct ion a l st a t es mu st b e
for b id d en or mu st h a ve ver y h igh a ct iva t ion en er giesot h er wise a ll
h yd r ogen a t oms wou ld q u ickly go t o t h ese lower en er gy st a t es ( a n
est ima t ed t r a n sit ion p r ob a b ilit y, b a sed on t h e La b ov a n d Bowyer d a t a , is
b e b et ween 10
15
a n d 10
17
s
1
) . In a ct u a lit y, a ca t a lyst is r eq u ir ed in or d er
t o ob t a in emission . Secon d ly, t h e n u mb er of h yd r ogen at om s ( n 1) , t h e
h yd r ogen -at om d en sit y, a n d t h e p r esen ce of a n a ct ive ca t a lyst u n d er a n y
con d it ion s on Ea r t h is exceed in g low. Th e comb in a t ion of ext r emely low
p op u la t ion a n d ext r emely low t r a n sit ion p r ob a b ilit y ma kes t h e d et ect ion
of t h ese t r a n sit ion s esp ecia lly d ifficu lt . Th ir d ly, t h is is a ver y
t r ou b le some r e gion of t h e e le ct r oma gn e t ic sp e ct r u m for d e t e ct ion
b eca u se t h ese wa velen gt h s d o n ot p en et r a t e even millimet er s of t h e
a t mosp h er e ( i.e. t h is r egion is t h e va cu u m u lt r a violet wh ich r eq u ir es
win d owless sp ect r oscop y a t va cu u m for d et ect ion ) . La st ly, n o on e
5 8 5
p r eviou sly h a s b een a ct ively sea r ch in g for t h ese t r a n sit ion s. Th e
Ch a n d r a X-r a y Ob ser va t or y is sch ed u led t o p er for m simila r exp er imen t s
wit h d et ect ion a t mu ch b et t er sign a l t o n oise t h a n ob t a in ed b y La b ov a n d
Bowyer .
Hy d r o g e n Ca t a l y s t s
Th e ca t a lysis of h yd r ogen in volves t h e n on r a d ia t ive t r a n sfer of
en er gy fr om a t omic h yd r ogen t o a ca t a lyst wh ich ma y t h en r elea se t h e
t r a n sfer r ed en er gy b y r a d ia t ive a n d n on r a d ia t ive mech a n isms. As a
con seq u en ce of t h e n on r a d ia t ive en er gy t r a n sfer , t h e h yd r ogen a t om
b ecomes u n st a b le a n d emit s fu r t h er en er gy u n t il it a ch ieves a lower -
en er gy n on r a d ia t ive st a t e h a vin g a p r in cip a l en er gy level given b y Eq s.
( 3 8 .7 1 -3 8 .7 2 ) .
Pot a ssiu m ion s ca n p r ovid e a n et en t h a lp y of a mu lt ip le of t h a t of
t h e p ot en t ia l en er gy of t h e h yd r ogen a t om. Th e secon d ion iza t ion
en er gy of p ot a ssiu m is 31.63 eV ; a n d K
+
r elea ses 4.34 eV wh en it is
r ed u ced t o K. Th e comb in a t ion of r ea ct ion s K
+
t o K
2+
a n d K
+
t o K,
t h en , h a s a n et en t h a lp y of r ea ct ion of 27.28 eV , wh ich is eq u iva len t t o
m 1 in Eq . ( 3 8 .7 3 ) .
27.28 eV + K
+
+ K
+
+ H
a
H
p

1
]
1
K + K
2 +
+ H
a
H
( p +1)

1
]
1
+ [(p +1)
2
p
2
] X 13.6 eV ( 3 8 .7 8 )
K + K
2+
K
+
+ K
+
+ 27.28 eV ( 3 8 .7 9 )
Th e over a ll r ea ct ion is
H
a
H
p

1
]
1
H
a
H
(p +1)

1
]
1
+ [(p +1)
2
p
2
] X 13.6 eV ( 3 8 .8 0 )
Ar gon ion is a ca t a lyst . Th e secon d ion iza t ion en er gy is 27.63 eV .
27.63 eV + Ar
+
+ H
a
H
p

1
]
1
Ar
2+
+ e
+ H
a
H
( p +1)

1
]
1
+[( p +1)
2
p
2
]X13.6 eV ( 3 8 .8 1 )
Ar
2+
+ e
Ar
+
+ 27.63 eV ( 3 8 .8 2 )
An d , t h e over a ll r ea ct ion is
H
a
H
p

1
]
1
H
a
H
(p +1)

1
]
1
+ [(p +1)
2
p
2
]X13.6 eV ( 3 8 .8 3 )
An a r gon ion a n d a p r ot on ca n a lso p r ovid e a n et en t h a lp y of a
mu lt ip le of t h a t of t h e p ot en t ia l en er gy of t h e h yd r ogen a t om. Th e t h ir d
ion iza t ion en er gy of a r gon is 40.74 eV , a n d H
+
r elea ses 13.6 eV wh en it is
5 8 6
r ed u ced t o H. Th e comb in a t ion of r ea ct ion s of Ar
2+
t o Ar
3+
a n d H
+
t o H,
t h en , h a s a n et en t h a lp y of r ea ct ion of 27.14 eV , wh ich is eq u iva len t t o
m 1 in Eq . ( 3 8 .7 3 ) .
27.14 eV + Ar
2+
+ H
+
+ H
a
H
p

1
]
1
H + Ar
3+
+ H
a
H
(p +1)

1
]
1
+ [(p +1)
2
p
2
]X13.6 eV ( 3 8 .8 4 )
H + Ar
3+
H
+
+ Ar
2 +
+ 27.14 eV ( 3 8 .8 5 )
An d , t h e over a ll r ea ct ion is
H
a
H
p

1
]
1
H
a
H
(p +1)

1
]
1
+ [(p +1)
2
p
2
]X13.6 eV ( 3 8 .8 6 )
An o m a l o u s Th e r m a l Br o a d e n i n g o f t h e At o m i c Hy d r o g e n
Em i s s i o n Sp e c t r u m i n a Ga s Di s c h a r g e Ce l l b y t h e Pr e s e n c e o f
Ar g o n
Th e ob ser va t ion b y Ku r a ica a n d Kon jevic [3 ] of h yd r ogen Ba lmer
lin es in a r gon -h yd r ogen , n eon -h yd r ogen , a n d p u r e h yd r ogen mixt u r es
r evea led in t en se win g d evelop men t s wit h a r gon p r esen t in t h e p la sma of
n ega t ive glow of a glow d isch a r ge ir r esp ect ive of ca t h od e ma t er ia l
( ca r b on , cop p er , a n d silver ) . Th e a u t h or s offer a t en t a t ive exp la n a t ion
for h yd r ogen lin e sh a p es in t h e p r esen ce of a r gon wh ich is b a sed on a
q u a sir eson a ce ch a r ge t r a n sfer b et ween met a st a b le a r gon ion s a n d
h yd r ogen molecu les a n d t h e for ma t ion of a h yd r ogen molecu la r ion .
Accor d in g t o t h e a u t h or s,
"... it is essen t ia l t h a t t h e H
2
+
or H
3
+
ion mu st ga in en er gy in t h e
elect r ic field b efor e d issocia t ion . Ot h er wise, t h e la r ge en er gy of
excit ed h yd r ogen a t oms ( on t h e a ver a ge 5 0 eV p er a t om) ca n n ot
b e exp la in ed ".
Th e sou r ce of 50 eV a n oma lou s t h er ma l b r oa d en in g of t h e Ba lmer
lin es ob ser ved b y Ku r a ica a n d Kon jevic [3 ] d u r in g a glow d isch a r ge of
h yd r ogen -a r gon mixt u r es wh ich wa s n ot ob ser ved wit h n eon -h yd r ogen
mixt u r es or p u r e h yd r ogen ir r esp ect ive of ca t h od e ma t er ia l is a ssign ed
t o lower -en er gy h yd r ogen t r a n sit ion s. Tr a n sit ion s of h yd r ogen t o lower -
en er gy levels occu r s in a h yd r ogen p la sma d isch a r ge cell via a ca t a lyst
wit h a n et en t h a lp y of a b ou t 2 7 .2 elect r on volt s in clu d in g t h er ma l
b r oa d en in g. Th e ca t a lyst , Ar
+
ion s ( Eq s. ( 3 8 .8 1 -3 8 .8 3 ) ) , or Ar
2+
ion s a n d
p r ot on s ( Eq s. ( 3 8 .8 4 -3 8 .8 6 ) ) a r e for med b y t h e d isch a r ge wh ich a lso
p r od u ces r ea ct a n t h yd r ogen a t oms. Th e t r a n sit ion s t o lower -en er gy
levels ca t a lyzed b y a r gon ion s r esu lt in t h e r elea se of en er gy ( Eq s.
( 3 8 .8 1 -3 8 .8 6 ) ) . Hyd r ogen a t oms in fr a ct ion a l q u a n t u m st a t es ca n u n d er
go a n a u t oca t a lyt ic r ea ct ion t o fu r t h er lower en er gy st a t es. Lin e sp ect r a
in t h e ext r eme u lt r a violet a n d soft x-r a y r egion s cor r esp on d in g t o t h ese
5 8 7
t r a n sit ion s h a ve b een ob ser ved b y a 4 gr a zin g in cid en ce ext r eme
u lt r a violet sp ect r omet er a t INP, Gr eifswa ld , Ger ma n y [7 ]. Th e en er gy
h ea t s t h e p la sma a n d ca u ses t h er ma l b r oa d en in g of t h e h yd r ogen
sp ect r u m.
Ba c k wa r d Pe a k i n t h e El e c t r o n Sp e c t r u m f r o m Co l l i s i o n s o f 7 0
k e V Pr o t o n s wi t h Hy d r o g e n At o m s
Th e en er gy r emoved b y a sca t t er in g r ea ct ion is r eson a n t wit h t h e
h yd r ogen en er gy r elea sed t o st imu la t e t h is t r a n sit ion . Con sid er t h e ca se
wh er ein a p r ot on u n d er goes a collision wit h a n elect r on of a h yd r ogen
a t om t o e ffe ct a n e le ct r on ic t r a n sit ion fr om n 1 t o n 1/ 2 . Th e in it ia l
a n d fin a l elect r on ic st a t es a r e n on r a d ia t ive; t h u s, t h e t r a n sit ion mu st
occu r wit h ou t r a d ia t ion . Th e en d r esu lt is a lower -en er gy st a t e for t h e
h yd r ogen a n d b a ckwa r d sca t t er ed elect r on wh ich is r eq u ir ed t o con ser ve
en er gy, momen t u m, a n d sa t isfy t h e b ou n d a r y con d it ion for
n on r a d ia t ion . Th e en er gy of t h e h yd r ogen t r a n sit ion mu st b e
t r a n sfer r ed t o a b a ckwa r d fr ee elect r on . Th e r ea ct ion for t h e n 1 t o
n 1/ 2 h yd r ogen t r a n sit ion effect ed b y in ela st ic sca t t er in g of a 7 0 keV
p r ot on is
H
+
70 keV ( ) + H n 1 ( ) + e
0 eV ( ) H
+
70 keV ( ) + H n 1/ 2 ( ) + e
40.8 eV ( ) ( 3 8 .8 7 )
Th e b a ckwa r d elect r on is Fr a n ck-Her t z [6 ] sca t t er ed b y fr ee h yd r ogen
a t oms. For h yd r ogen , t h e Fr a n ck-Her t z sca t t er ed p ea ks of h yd r ogen
t r a n sit ion s, n
i
n
f
is
E
1
n
f
2
1
n
i
2

_
,
X13.6 eV 10.2 eV ( 3 8 .8 8 )
( wh e n t h is e le ct r on st r ike s H (1s
1
), 10.2 eV is a b sor b ed in t h e excit a t ion t o
H (2 p
1
)) . For t h e n 1 t o n 1/ 2 h yd r ogen t r a n sit ion , a b a ckwa r d 4 0 .8 eV
elect r on is p r od u ced wh ich u n d er goes Fr a n ck-Her t z sca t t er in g t o give
r ise t o a 3 0 .6 e V b a ckwa r d p e a k. Fr a n ck-He r t z sca t t e r in g of t h e 3 0 .6 e V
p ea k gives r ise t o a 2 0 .4 eV b a ckwa r d p ea k. Or , t h e b a ckwa r d 4 0 .8 eV
elect r on ion izes a h yd r ogen a t om t o give r ise t o a 2 7 .2 eV p ea k.
E
1
n
f
2
1
n
i
2

_
,
X13.6 eV 13.6 eV ( 3 8 .8 9 )
( wh e n t h is e le ct r on st r ike s H (1s
1
), 13.6 eV is a b sor b ed in t h e ion iza t ion t o
H
+
+ e
) . Ot h e r t r a n sit ion s will occu r t o a le sse r e xt e n t . Discon t in u it ie s

a t t h e p osit ion of t h e ma jor t r a n sit ion s of 4 0 .8 eV, 3 0 .6 eV, 2 7 .2 eV, a n d
2 0 .4 eV wer e ob ser ved b y Ru d d , et a l. [4 ] in t h e elect r on sp ect r u m fr om
collision s of 7 0 keV p r ot on s wit h h yd r ogen a t oms sh own in Figu r e 1 .
5 8 8
Figu r e 1 . Sp ect r u m of Ru d d et a l. [4 ] of elect r on s eject ed a t 1 6 0 fr om
7 0 keV p r ot on imp a ct on t h e t a r get ga s fr om t h e Slevin h yd r ogen a t om
sou r ce. Op en cir cles, t h e RF excit a t ion wa s on a n d t h e mea su r ed
h yd r ogen d issocia t ion fr a ct ion wa s 9 3 %; solid cir cles, t h e RF excit a t ion
wa s off, ma kin g t h e t a r get p u r e H
2
.
Th e a n gle of t h e ma ximu m in t en sit y of b a ck sca t t er in g ca n b e
ca lcu la t ed via t h e b ou n d a r y con d it ion of n on r a d ia t ion . Th e con d it ion
for r a d ia t ion b y a movin g ch a r ge is d er ived fr om Ma xwell' s eq u a t ion s
[2 8 ]. Th e con d it ion for n on r a d ia t ion of a movin g ch a r ge-d en sit y
fu n ct ion is t h a t t h e sp a cet ime Fou r ier t r a n sfor m of t h e cu r r en t -d en sit y
fu n ct ion mu st n ot p ossess wa ves syn ch r on ou s wit h wa ves t r a velin g a t
t h e sp eed of ligh t , t h a t is syn ch r on ou s wit h
n
c
or syn ch r on ou s wit h
n
c
o
wh er e is t h e d ielect r ic con st a n t of t h e med iu m. Th e con d it ion
for n on r a d ia t ion b y a movin g p oin t ch a r ge is t h a t it s sp a cet ime Fou r ier
t r a n sfor m d oes n ot p ossess comp on en t s t h a t a r e syn ch r on ou s wit h
wa ves t r a velin g a t t h e sp eed of ligh t , a s sh own b y Ha u s [2 8 ]. Th e Ha u s
d er iva t ion a p p lies t o a movin g ch a r ge-d en sit y fu n ct ion a s well b eca u se
ch a r ge ob eys su p er p osit ion . Th e Ha u s d er iva t ion is su mma r ized b elow.
Th e Fou r ier comp on en t s of t h e cu r r en t p r od u ced b y t h e movin g
ch a r ge a r e d er ived . Th e elect r ic field is fou n d fr om t h e vect or eq u a t ion
in Fou r ier sp a ce ( k , -sp a ce) . Th e in ver se Fou r ier t r a n sfor m is ca r r ied
over t h e ma gn it u d e of k . Th e r esu lt in g exp r ession d emon st r a t es t h a t
t h e r a d ia t ion field is p r op or t ion a l t o J
(
c
n, ) , wh er e J
(k, ) is t h e
sp a cet ime Fou r ier t r a n sfor m of t h e cu r r en t p er p en d icu la r t o k a n d
5 8 9
n
k
|k|
. Sp ecifica lly,
E
r, ( )
d
2
c
2
, ( )
d d
0
0
n X n X J
c
n,

_
,
e
i
c

_
,
nr

_
,
( 3 8 .9 0 )
Th e field E
r, ( )
d
2
is p r op or t ion a l t o J
c
n,

_
,
, n a mely, t h e Fou r ier
comp on en t for wh ich k
c
. Fa ct or s of t h a t mu lt ip ly t h e Fou r ier
comp on en t of t h e cu r r en t a r e d u e t o t h e d en sit y of mod es p er u n it
volu me a n d u n it solid a n gle. An u n a cceler a t ed ch a r ge d oes n ot r a d ia t e
in fr ee sp a ce, n ot b eca u se it exp er ien ces n o a cceler a t ion , b u t b eca u se it
h a s n o Fou r ier comp on en t J
c
n,

_
,
.
Con sid er a 7 0 keV p r ot on of p osit ion r
0
t ( ). Th e ch a r ge d en sit y of
t h e p r ot on is d escr ib ed b y
r, t ( ) e (r r
0
t ( )) ( 3 8 .9 1 )
wh er e (r r
0
t ( )) is t h e sp a t ia l u n it imp u lse fu n ct ion . Th e cu r r en t d en sit y
is
J r, t ( ) e
r
0
t ( ) (r r
0
t ( )) ( 3 8 .9 2 )
Th e sp a t ia l Fou r ier t r a n sfor m r ep r esen t s t h e cu r r en t d en sit y a s a
su p er p osit ion of sp a t ia l exp on en t ia ls, exp ik r .
J k, t ( ) d
3
re
r
0
t ( ) (r r
0
t ( ))exp ik r

e
r
0
t ( )e
ikr
0
( 3 8 .9 3 )
Th e fu ll sp a cet ime Fou r ier t r a n sfor m is
J k, ( ) dteve
ikvt+ i t

2 ev k v ( )
( 3 8 .9 4 )
Th e on ly n on zer o Fou r ier comp on en t s a r e for
k
z
v
z
cos
>
c
( 3 8 .9 5 )
wh er e is t h e a n gle b et ween t h e wa ven u mb er vect or , k
z
, a n d t h e
ve locit y ve ct or , v
z
. Th u s, n o Fou r ier comp on en t s t h a t a r e syn ch r on ou s
wit h ligh t velocit y wit h t h e p r op a ga t ion con st a n t k
z
c
exist . Ra d ia t ion
d u e t o ch a r ge mot ion d oes n ot occu r wh en t h is b ou n d a r y con d it ion is
met .
Con sid er t h e ca se wh er ein t h e p r ot on u n d er goes a collision wit h
t h e elect r on of a h yd r ogen a t om t o effect a n elect r on ic t r a n sit ion fr om
n 1 t o n 1/ 2 . Th e in it ia l a n d fin a l elect r on ic st a t es a r e n on r a d ia t ive;
t h u s, t h e t r a n sit ion mu st occu r wit h ou t r a d ia t ion . If t h e p r ot on r emoves
5 9 0
t h e en er gy, t h en r a d ia t ion will occu r d u r in g t h e con comit a n t
a cceler a t ion . Wit h a cceler a t ion , t h e cu r r en t d en sit y is
J r, t ( ) e
r
0
t ( ) 1 e
t
( ) (r r
0
t ( )) ( 3 8 .9 6 )
wh er e is t h e t r a n sit ion d eca y con st a n t . Th e sp a t ia l Fou r ier t r a n sfor m
r ep r esen t s t h e cu r r en t d en sit y a s a su p er p osit ion of sp a t ia l exp on en t ia ls,
exp ik r .
J k, t ( ) d
3
re
r
0
t ( ) 1 e
t
( )
(r r
0
t ( ))exp ik r

e
r
0
t ( )e
ikr
0
1 e
t
( )
( 3 8 .9 7 )
Th e fu ll sp a cet ime Fou r ier t r a n sfor m is
J k, ( ) dteve
ikvt+ i t t

2 ev
+ i k v ( )
( 3 8 .9 8 )
For Eq . ( 3 8 .9 8 ) , Fou r ier comp on en t s t h a t a r e syn ch r on ou s wit h ligh t
velocit y wit h t h e p r op a ga t ion con st a n t k
z
c
d o exist .
However , n on r a d ia t ion ca n b e a ch ieved d u r in g t h e t r a n sit ion b y
cou p lin g b et ween t h e p r ot on a n d a fr ee elect r on . Du r in g t h e t r a n sit ion
fr om n 1 t o n 1/ 2 , a t r a n sfer of en er gy fr om a h yd r ogen a t om ca u sin g
a b a ckwa r d elect r on is r eq u ir ed t o sa t isfy t h e n on r a d ia t ive b ou n d a r y
con d it ion . In t h e limit , t h e cu r r en t d en sit y fu n ct ion a p p r oa ch es t h a t of a
ch a r ge movin g a t con st a n t velocit y. Th is con d it ion a lso a p p lies t o t h e
b a ckwa r d elect r on . Th u s, t h e con d it ion for t h e fin a l velocit y of t h e
b a ckwa r d elect r on is given b y Eq s. ( 3 8 .9 4 ) a n d ( 3 8 .9 5 ) . Th e b ou n d a r y
con d it ion for t h e velocit y of t h e p r ot on , v
p
, a n d t h e velocit y of t h e
b a ckwa r d e le ct r on , v
e
, is
v
e
cos
e
v
p
cos
p
( 3 8 .9 9 )
wh er e
e
is t h e la b or a t or y fr a me elect r on sca t t er in g a n gle a n d
p
is t h e
la b or a t or y fr a me p r ot on sca t t er in g a n gle. Th e velocit y, v
e
, of a n
elect r on a s a fu n ct ion of t h e en er gy, E
e
, is
v
e
2E
e
m
e
( 3 8 .1 0 0 )
wh er e m
e
is t h e ma ss of t h e elect r on . Th e velocit y, v
p
, of a n e le ct r on a s a
fu n ct ion of t h e en er gy, E
p
, is
v
p
2E
p
m
p
( 3 8 .1 0 1 )
wh er e m
p
is t h e ma ss of t h e p r ot on . Su b st it u t ion of Eq s. ( 3 8 .1 0 0 ) a n d
( 3 8 .1 0 1 ) in t o Eq . ( 3 8 .9 9 ) give s
5 9 1
2E
e
m
e
cos
e
2E
p
m
p
cos
p
( 3 8 .1 0 2 )
Fr om t h e n on r a d ia t ive b ou n d a r y con d it ion , t h e a n gle of t h e b a ckwa r d
elect r on is
cos
1
E
p
m
e
m
p
E
e
cos
p

1
]
1
( 3 8 .1 0 3 )
In t h e ca se t h a t t h e in it ia l a n d fin a l velocit y vect or s of t h e in cid en t
p r ot on a r e eq u a l, E
pinitial
E
p final
70 keV, a n d t h e in it ia l a n d fin a l en er gies of
t h e elect r on a r e E
einitial
0 eV a n d E
efinal
40.8 eV , r esp ect ively, t h e ma ximu m
in t en sit y of t h e p ea ks is p r ed ict ed ( Eq . ( 3 8 .1 0 3 ) ) t o b e 1 6 5 . Th is is in
a gr eemen t wit h t h e ob ser ved ma ximu m a t a b ou t 1 6 0 [4 ]. For sma ll
p r ot on sca t t er in g a n gles, Eq . ( 3 8 .1 0 3 ) is a lso in a gr eemen t wit h t h e
a b sen ce of t h e b a ckwa r d p ea ks a t 9 0 [4 ]. Th e ma ximu m in t en sit y of t h e
b a ckwa r d p ea ks fr om collision s of h yd r ogen a t oms wit h 3 0 keV p r ot on s
p r ed ict ed fr om Eq . ( 3 8 .1 0 3 ) is 1 3 0 . Th u s, t h e in t en sit y of t h e b a ckwa r d
p ea ks a t 1 6 0 wit h 3 0 keV p r ot on s is p r ed ict ed t o b e less t h a n t h a t of 7 0
keV in cid en t p r ot on s in a gr eemen t wit h Ru d d [4 ].
No v e l En e r g y St a t e s o f Hy d r o g e n Fo r m e d b y a Ca t a l y t i c
Re a c t i o n
Typ ica lly t h e emission of ext r eme u lt r a violet ligh t fr om h yd r ogen
ga s is a ch ieved via a d isch a r ge a t h igh volt a ge, a h igh p ower in d u ct ively
cou p led p la sma , or a p la sma cr ea t ed a n d h ea t ed t o ext r eme
t emp er a t u r es b y RF cou p lin g ( e.g. > 10
6
K ) wit h con fin emen t p r ovid ed b y
a t or oid a l ma gn et ic field . In t en se EUV emission wa s ob ser ved b y Mills et
a l. [7 -1 2 ] a t low t e mp e r a t u r e s ( e .g. < 10
3
K) fr om a t omic h yd r ogen a n d
cer t a in a t omized p u r e elemen t s or cer t a in ga seou s ion s wh ich ion ize a t
in t eger mu lt ip les of t h e p ot en t ia l en er gy of a t omic h yd r ogen . Th e
r elea se of en er gy fr om h yd r ogen a s evid en ced b y t h e EUV emission mu st
r esu lt in a lower -en er gy st a t e of h yd r ogen . Th e lower -en er gy h yd r ogen
a t om ca lled a h yd r in o a t om b y Mills [1 ] wou ld b e exp ect ed t o
d emon st r a t e n ovel ch emist r y. Th e for ma t ion of n ovel comp ou n d s b a sed
on h yd r in o a t oms wou ld b e su b st a n t ia l evid en ce su p p or t in g ca t a lysis of
h yd r ogen a s t h e mech a n ism of t h e ob ser ved EUV emission . A n ovel
h yd r id e ion ca lled a h yd r in o h yd r id e ion h a vin g ext r a or d in a r y ch emica l
p r op er t ies given b y Mills [1 ] is p r ed ict ed t o for m b y t h e r ea ct ion of a n
elect r on wit h a h yd r in o a t om. Comp ou n d s con t a in in g h yd r in o h yd r id e
ion s h a ve b een isola t ed a s p r od u ct s of t h e r ea ct ion of a t omic h yd r ogen
wit h a t oms a n d ion s id en t ified a s ca t a lyst s in t h e Mills et a l. EUV st u d y
[1 , 7 -1 2 , 3 2 -3 7 ]. Th e n ovel h yd r id e comp ou n d s wer e id en t ified
a n a lyt ica lly b y t ech n iq u es su ch a s t ime of fligh t secon d a r y ion ma ss
5 9 2
sp ect r oscop y, X-r a y p h ot oelect r on sp ect r oscop y, a n d p r ot on n u clea r
ma gn et ic r eson a n ce sp ect r oscop y. For exa mp le, t h e t ime of fligh t
secon d a r y ion ma ss sp ect r oscop y sh owed a la r ge h yd r id e p ea k in t h e
n ega t ive sp ect r u m. Th e X-r a y p h ot oelect r on sp ect r u m sh owed la r ge
met a l cor e level sh ift s d u e t o b in d in g wit h t h e h yd r id e a s well a s n ovel
h yd r id e p ea ks. Th e p r ot on n u clea r ma gn et ic r eson a n ce sp ect r u m
sh owed sign ifica n t ly u p field sh ift ed p ea ks wh ich cor r esp on d ed t o a n d
id en t ified n ovel h yd r id e ion s.
Di s c u s s i o n
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion gives t h e ob ser ved sp on t a n eou sly
r a d ia t ive en er gy levels a n d t h e n on r a d ia t ive st a t e of h yd r ogen . On t h is
b a sis a lon e, it is ju st ified d esp it e it s in con sist en cy wit h p h ysica ls la ws
a n d n u mer ou s exp er imen t a l ob ser va t ion s su ch a s
Th e a p p r op r ia t e eigen va lu e mu st b e p ost u la t ed a n d t h e va r ia b les
of t h e La gu er r e d iffer en t ia l eq u a t ion mu st b e d efin ed a s in t eger s in or d er
t o ob t a in t h e Ryd b er g for mu la .
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion is n ot Lor en t zia n in va r ia n t .
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion viola t es fir st p r in cip les in clu d in g
sp ecia l r ela t ivit y a n d Ma xwell' s eq u a t ion s [1 , 3 8 ].
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion gives n o b a sis wh y excit ed st a t es a r e
r a d ia t ive a n d t h e 1 3 .6 eV st a t e is st a b le [1 ]. Ma t h ema t ics d oes n ot
d et er min e p h ysics. It on ly mod els p h ysics.
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion solu t ion s, Eq . ( 3 8 .3 6 ) a n d Eq . ( 3 8 .3 7 ) ,
p r ed ict t h a t t h e gr ou n d st a t e elect r on h a s zer o a n gu la r en er gy a n d zer o
a n gu la r momen t u m, r esp ect ively.
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion solu t ion , Eq . ( 3 8 .3 6 ) , p r ed ict s t h a t t h e
ion ized elect r on ma y h a ve in fin it e a n gu la r momen t u m.
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion solu t ion s, Eq . ( 3 6 ) a n d Eq . ( 3 7 ) ,
p r ed ict t h a t t h e excit ed st a t e r ot a t ion a l en er gy levels a r e n on d egen er a t e
a s a fu n ct ion of t h e

l q u a n t u m n u mb er even in t h e a b sen ce of a n
a p p lied ma gn et ic field , a n d t h e p r ed ict ed en er gy is over six or d er s of
ma gn it u d e of t h e ob ser ved n on d egen er a t e en er gy in t h e p r esen ce of a
ma gn et ic field . In t h e a b sen ce of a ma gn et ic field , n o p r efer r ed
d ir ect ion exist s. In t h is ca se, t h e

l q u a n t u m n u mb er is a fu n ct ion of t h e
or ien t a t ion of t h e a t om wit h r esp ect t o a n a r b it r a r y coor d in a t e syst em.
5 9 3
Th er efor e, t h e n on d egen er a cy is n on sen sica l a n d viola t es con ser va t ion
of a n gu la r momen t u m of t h e p h ot on .
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion p r ed ict s t h a t ea ch of t h e fu n ct ion s
t h a t cor r esp on d s t o a h igh ly excit ed st a t e elect r on is n ot in t egr a b le a n d
ca n n ot b e n or ma lized ; t h u s, ea ch is in fin it e.
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion p r ed ict s t h a t t h e ion ized elect r on is
sin u soid a l over a ll sp a ce a n d ca n n ot b e n or ma lized ; t h u s, it is in fin it e.
Th e Heisen b er g u n cer t a in t y p r in cip le a r ises a s t h e st a n d a r d
d evia t ion in t h e elect r on p r ob a b ilit y wa ve, b u t exp er imen t a lly it is n ot
t h e b a sis of wa ve p a r t icle d u a lit y.
Th e cor r esp on d en ce p r in cip le d oes n ot h old exp er imen t a lly.
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion d oes n ot p r ed ict t h e elect r on ma gn et ic
momen t a n d misses t h e sp in q u a n t u m n u mb er a ll t oget h er .
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion is n ot a wa ve eq u a t ion sin ce it gives
t h e velocit y sq u a r ed p r op or t ion a l t o t h e fr eq u en cy.
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion is n ot con sist en t wit h con ser va t ion of
en er gy in a n in ver se p ot en t ia l field wh er ein t h e b in d in g en er gy is eq u a l
t o t h e kin et ic en er gy a n d t h e su m of t h e b in d in g en er gy a n d t h e kin et ic
en er gy is eq u a l t o t h e p ot en t ia l en er gy [1 4 ].
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion p er mit s t h e elect r on t o exist in t h e
n u cleu s wh ich is a st a t e t h a t is p h ysica lly n on sen sica l wit h in fin it e
p ot en t ia l en er gy a n d in fin it e n ega t ive kin et ic en er gy.
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion in t er p r et ed a s a p r ob a b ilit y wa ve of a
p oin t p a r t icle ca n n ot exp la in n eu t r a l sca t t er in g of elect r on s fr om
h yd r ogen [1 ].
Th e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion in t er p r et ed a s a p r ob a b ilit y wa ve of a
p oin t p a r t icle gives r ise t o in fin it e ma gn et ic a n d elect r ic en er gy in t h e
cor r esp on d in g field s of t h e elect r on .
A mod ifica t ion of t h e Sch r o d in ger eq u a t ion wa s d evelop ed b y
Dir a c t o exp la in sp in wh ich r elies on t h e u n fou n d ed n ot ion s of n ega t ive
en er gy st a t es of t h e va cu u m, vir t u a l p a r t icles, a n d ga mma fa ct or s.
5 9 4
Th e su ccess of q u a n t u m mech a n ics ca n b e a t t r ib u t ed t o 1 .) t h e
la ck of r igor a n d u n limit ed t oler a n ce t o a d h oc a ssu mp t ion s in viola t ion
of p h ysica l la ws, 2 .) fa n t a st ica l exp er imen t a lly immea su r a b le cor r ect ion s
su ch a s vir t u a l p a r t icles, va cu u m p ola r iza t ion s, effect ive n u clea r ch a r ge,
sh ield in g, ion ic ch a r a ct er , comp a ct ified d imen sion s, a n d
r en or ma liza t ion , a n d 3 .) cu r ve fit t in g p a r a met er s t h a t a r e ju st ified solely
on t h e b a sis t h a t t h ey for ce t h e t h eor y t o ma t ch t h e d a t a . Qu a n t u m
mech a n ics is n ow in a st a t e of cr isis wit h con st a n t ly mod ified ver sion s of
ma t t er r ep r esen t ed a s u n d et ect a b le min u scu le vib r a t in g st r in gs t h a t exist
in ma n y u n ob ser va b le h yp er d imen sion s, t h a t ca n t r a vel b a ck a n d for t h
b et ween u n d et ect a b le in t er con n ect ed p a r a llel u n iver ses. An d , r ecen t
d a t a sh ows t h a t t h e exp a n sion of t h e u n iver se is a cceler a t in g. Th is
ob ser va t ion h a s sh a t t er ed t h e lon g h eld u n q u est ion a b le d oct r in e of t h e
or igin of t h e u n iver se a s a b ig b a n g [3 9 ]. It ma y b e t ime t o r econ sid er
t h e r oot s of q u a n t u m t h eor y, n a mely t h e t h eor y of t h e h yd r ogen a t om.
Esp ecia lly in ligh t of t h e d emon st r a t ion t h a t t h e h yd r ogen a t om ca n b e
solved in closed for m fr om fir st p r in cip les, t h a t n ew ch emist r y is
p r ed ict ed , a n d t h a t t h e p r ed ict ion s h a ve su b st a n t ia l exp er imen t a l
su p p or t . New evid en ce ma n d a t es t h a t old t h eor ies b e r evised or
a b a n d on ed . Recen t ly lin e sp ect r a of fr a ct ion a l q u a n t u m en er gy levels of
a t omic h yd r ogen h a ve b een mea su r ed b y a 4 gr a zin g in cid en ce ext r eme
u lt r a violet sp ect r omet er a t INP, Gr eifswa ld , Ger ma n y [7 ]. Th e
Sch r o d in ger wa ve eq u a t ion solu t ion s ca n n ot exp la in t h e exp er imen t a l
r esu lt s wh ich con fir m t h e exist en ce of lower en er gy st a t es of h yd r ogen ;
t h u s, t h e t h eor y mu st b e mod ified .
Billion s of d olla r s h a ve b een sp en t t o h a r n ess t h e en er gy of
h yd r ogen t h r ou gh fu sion u sin g p la sma s cr ea t ed a n d h ea t ed t o ext r eme
t emp er a t u r es b y RF cou p lin g ( e.g. > 10
6
K ) wit h con fin emen t p r ovid ed b y
a t or oid a l ma gn et ic field . Mills et a l. [7 -1 2 ] h a ve d emon st r a t ed t h a t
en er gy ma y b e r elea sed fr om h yd r ogen u sin g a ch emica l ca t a lyst a t
r ela t ively low t emp er a t u r es wit h a n a p p a r a t u s wh ich is of t r ivia l
t ech n ologica l comp lexit y comp a r ed t o a t okoma k. An d , r a t h er t h a n
p r od u cin g r a d ioa ct ive wa st e, t h e r ea ct ion h a s t h e p ot en t ia l t o p r od u ce
comp ou n d s h a vin g ext r a or d in a r y p r op er t ies [3 2 -3 7 ]. Th e imp lica t ion s
a r e t h a t a va st n ew en er gy sou r ce a n d a n ew field of h yd r ogen ch emist r y
h a ve b een d iscover ed .
Ref er enc es
1. R. Mills, The Grand Unif ied Theory of Classical Quant um Mechanics,
January 1999 Edit ion, BlackLight Power, Inc., Cranbury, New Jersey,
Dist ribut ed by Amazon.com.
2. Labov, S., Bowyer, S., " Spect ral observat ions of t he ext reme ult raviolet
background" , The Ast rophysical Journal, 371, ( 1991) , pp. 810-819.
5 9 5
3. Kuraica, M., Konj evic, N., Physical Review A, Volume 46, No. 7, Oct ober
( 1992) , pp. 4429-4432.
4. Rudd, M. E., Gealy, M. W., Kerby, G. W., Hsu, Ying-Yuan, Physical Review
Let t ers, Vol. 68, No. 10, ( 1992) , pp. 1504-1506.
5. R. Mills, W. Good, J. Phillips, A. Popov, Lower-Energy Hydrogen Met hods
and St ruct ures, US Pat ent 6,024,935, issued February 15, 2000.
6. Beiser, A., Concept s of Modern Physics, Fourt h Edit ion, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, ( 1978) , pp. 312-354.
7. J. P. F. Conrads, R. Mills, " Observat ion of Ext reme Ult raviolet Hydrogen
and Hydrino Emission f rom Hydrogen-KI Plasmas Produced by a Hollow
Cat hode Discharge" , in progress.
8. R. Mills, J. Dong, Y. Lu, " Observat ion of Ext reme Ult raviolet Hydrogen
Emission f rom Incandescent ly Heat ed Hydrogen Gas wit h Cert ain
Cat alyst s" , 1999 Pacif ic Conf erence on Chemist ry and Spect roscopy
and t he 35t h ACS West ern Regional Meet ing, Ont ario Convent ion Cent er,
Calif ornia, ( Oct ober 6-8, 1999) .
9. R. Mills, J. Dong, Y. Lu, " Observat ion of Ext reme Ult raviolet Hydrogen
Emission f rom Incandescent ly Heat ed Hydrogen Gas wit h Cert ain
Cat alyst s" , Int . J. Hydrogen Energy, accept ed.
10. J. P. F. Conrads, R. Mills, " Temporal Behavior of Light -Emission in t he
Visible Spect ral Range f rom a Ti-K2CO3-H-Cell' , in progress.
11. R. Mills, Y. Lu, and T. Onuma, " Format ion of a Hydrogen Plasma f rom an
Incandescent ly Heat ed Hydrogen-Pot assium Gas Mixt ure and Plasma
Decay Upon Removal of Heat er Power" , Int . J. Hydrogen Energy,
submit t ed.
12. R. Mills, M. Nanst eel, and Y. Lu, " Observat ion of Ext reme Ult raviolet
Hydrogen Emission f rom Incandescent ly Heat ed Hydrogen Gas wit h
St ront ium t hat Produced an Opt ically Measured Power Balance t hat was
4000 Times t he Cont rol" , Int . J. Hydrogen Energy, submit t ed.
13. Beiser, A., Concept s of Modern Physics, Fourt h Edit ion, McGraw-Hill,
New York, ( 1987) ,. pp. 87-117.
14. Fowles, G. R., Analyt ical Mechanics, Third Edit ion, Holt , Rinehart , and
Winst on, New York, ( 1977) , pp. 154-156.
15. McQuarrie, D. A., Quant um Chemist ry, Universit y Science Books, Mill
Valley, CA, ( 1983) , pp. 78-79.
16. Jackson, J. D., Classical Elect rodynamics, Second Edit ion, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, ( 1962) , pp. 84-108.
17. McQuarrie, D. A., Quant um Chemist ry, Universit y Science Books, Mill
Valley, CA, ( 1983) , pp. 221-224.
18. W. Moore, Schr o dinger lif e and t hought , Cambridge Universit y Press,
( 1989) , p.198.
19. Fowles, G. R., Analyt ical Mechanics, Third Edit ion, Holt , Rinehart , and
Winst on, New York, ( 1977) , pp. 57-60.
5 9 6
20. H. Margenau, G. M. Murphy, The Mat hemat ics of Chemist ry and Physics,
D. Van Nost rand Company, Inc., New York, ( 1943) , pp. 77-78.
21. Weisskopf , V. F., Reviews of Modern Physics, Vol. 21, No. 2, ( 1949) , pp.
305-315.
22. Horgan, J., " Quant um Philosophy" , Scient if ic American, July, ( 1992) , pp.
94-104.
23. Plat t , D. E., Am. J. Phys., 60 ( 4) , April, 1992, pp. 306-308.
24. S. Durr, T. Nonn, G. Rempe, Nat ure, Sept ember 3, ( 1998) , Vol. 395, pp.
33-37.
25. B. Gao, Phys. Rev. Let t ., Vol. 83, No. 21, Nov. 22, ( 1999) , pp. 4225-
4228.
26. Science News, Vol. 156, November 27t h 1999, p. 342, under " Physics
rule of t humb get s t humbs down" 2nd & 3rd paragraphs.
27. Science News, 1/ 11/ 86, p. 26.
28. Haus, H. A., " On t he radiat ion f rom point charges" , American Journal of
Physics, 54, ( 1986) , pp. 1126-1129.
29. N. V. Sidgwick, The Chemical Element s and Their Compounds, Volume I,
Oxf ord, Clarendon Press, ( 1950) , p.17.
30. M. D. Lamb, Luminescence Spect roscopy, Academic Press, London,
( 1978) , p. 68.
31. S. Bower, G. Field, and J. Mack, " Det ect ion of an Anisot rophic Sof t X-ray
Background Flux," Nat ure, Vol. 217, ( 1968) , p. 32.
32. R. Mills, B. Dhandapani, N. Greenig, J. He, " Synt hesis and
Charact erizat ion of Pot assium Iodo Hydride" , Int . J. of Hydrogen Energy,
accept ed.
33. R. Mills, " Novel Inorganic Hydride" , Int . J. of Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 25,
( 2000) , pp. 669-683.
34. R. Mills, " Novel Hydrogen Compounds f rom a Pot assium Carbonat e
Elect rolyt ic Cell" , Fusion Technology, Vol. 37, No. 2, March, ( 2000) , pp.
157-182.
35. R. Mills, J. He, and B. Dhandapani, " Novel Hydrogen Compounds" , 1999
Pacif ic Conf erence on Chemist ry and Spect roscopy and t he 35t h ACS
West ern Regional Meet ing, Ont ario Convent ion Cent er, Calif ornia,
( Oct ober 6-8, 1999) .
36. R. Mills, B. Dhandapani, M. Nanst eel, J. He, " Synt hesis and
Charact erizat ion of Novel Hydride Compounds" , Int . J. of Hydrogen
Energy, submit t ed.
37. R. Mills, " Highly St able Novel Inorganic Hydrides" , Int ernat ional Journal of
Inorganic Mat erials, submit t ed.
38. C. A. Fuchs, A. Peres, " Quant um t heory needs no ' int erpret at ion' " ,
Phys. Today, Vol. 53, March, ( 2000) , No. 3, pp. 70-71.
39. N. A. Bahcall, J. P. Ost riker, S. Perlmut t er, P. J. St einhardt , Science,
May 28, 1999, Vol. 284, pp. 1481-1488.
5 9 7

Randell L. Mills - The Hydrogen Atom Revisited

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Randell L. Mills - The Hydrogen Atom Revisited

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2 0 0 0 b y Bla ckLigh t Power , In c. All r igh t s r eser ved .

sh ows sin u soid a l b eh a vior ; t h u s, t h e wa vefu n ct ion for

) . Ot h e r t r a n sit ion s will occu r t o a le sse r e xt e n t . Discon t in u it ie s

You might also like