Lesson 2.
Design for
manufacture and
assembly
2. DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING AND ASSEMBLY (DFM&A) ........................................................... 2
2.1. DEVELOPMENT .............................................................................................................. 2
2.2. DESIGN GUIDE FOR PARTS HANDLING .................................................................................. 9
2.3. DESIGN GUIDE FOR INSERTION AND PLACEMENT .................................................................. 10
2.4. DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING ........................................................................................ 12
2.5. CASE STUDIES.............................................................................................................. 13
2.5.1. ENGINE REDESIGN—BOOTHROY .............................................................................. 13
2.5.2. PNEUMATIC PISTON REDESIGN—BOOTHROYD ............................................................ 15
2.5.3. REDESIGN OF A COMPUTER MOUSE. JONEJA ............................................................... 17
2.6. DFMA CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................. 19
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2. Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFM&A)
It is defined as a set of techniques and methodologies aimed at improving the design or redesign of a
product.
The main goals are: improving manufacturability, assemblability and cost, while respecting the essential
functions of the product. It is included in Concurrent Engineering.
APPROACH → Functionality and concurrent assembly.
DFM&A techniques analyze the design to find out whether the functions it needs to perform can be
accomplished with fewer parts or not. This is due to the fact that the number of components has a large
influence not only on the assembly complexity but also on the parts manufacturing, procurement
logistics, storage, data volume and complexity of engineering, manufacturing and maintenance
documentation. All of this has an impact on productivity.
Despite the generic name DFM&A, DFM and DFA were originally distinguished according to whether
the study to be undertaken was intended for manufacturing or assembly.
Several methods for DFM&A assessment have been developed in recent years by Miyakawa and
Toshijiro (Hitachi), Swift and Miles, and Andreasen and Kähler. However, the most well-known approach
is the work of Boothroyd and Dewhurst. According to this methodology, an "efficiency index" is to be
calculated as the ratio between the ideal and the designed assembly.
2.1. Development
Figure 37: DFM&A Process
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DFA techniques reveal the advantages and disadvantages of alternative designs, evaluating some
features concerning the further assembly of the product, such as: the number of parts, the difficulty of
handling and insertion, or the assembly time.
DFA method applies assembly efficiency involving two key factors:
➢ Total number of parts and operations.
➢ Simplification of operations by adapting the parts to their handling, insertion and fixing.
Assembly
cost
(€)
ANNUAL PRODUCTION
Manual VOLUMES
Robotic: 200 000
Automated: 2 400 000
Robot
Automatic
Number
of parts
Figure 38: DFM&A example—Boothroyd
There are general rules on how to make this technique more effective, suggested by a number of
DFM&A users (Hartley 1994).
➢ Functional Rules:
● Minimize the number of parts.
● Implement modular assemblies.
● Avoid assembling components in enclosed spaces with low accessibility and low visibility.
● Design parts where the insertion orientation is identified.
● Standardize parts of the same class in order to reduce component variety.
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➢ Handling rules:
● Maximize part symmetry, which allows the component to be assembled in several
positions.
● Remove excess wiring and connections.
➢ Insertion rules:
● Provide geometrical coupling or fitting features to facilitate orientation.
● Add features to facilitate alignment such as chamfers and rounding.
● Insert new components into the product in a constant direction.
➢ Adjustment rules:
● Avoid the use of clamping devices.
● Locate clamping devices away from enclosed spaces that are difficult to access.
● Provide open spaces for easy use of clamping tools.
● Use snap fit systems taking advantage of the elastic properties of the materials.
DFA features
➢ Manual assembly:
● All operations are carried out manually with or without the aid of tools for the clamping
devices.
● High flexibility and adaptability.
➢ Rigid automatic assembly:
● It employs machines designed for the assembly of a particular product.
● Requires large capital investment.
● For high volume production assembly.
➢ Gentle automatic or robotic assembly:
● It incorporates the use of robots for its assembly process.
● It is flexible, but extensive programming knowledge is required.
● High-cost requirements.
Design methods for assembly
➢ Qualitative methods:
● SINTEF (Langmoen and Ramslin, 1983).
○ It specifies which products are compatible for manual or semi-automatic assembly.
● DFA House (Rampsad 1994).
○ Based on rules that make it possible to know how suitable the product is for
automatic assembly.
➢ Quantitative methods:
● Boothroyd and Dewhurst (1994).
● Miyakawa and Toshijiro (Hitachi) (1986).
● Swift and Miles.
● Adreasen and Kähler.
● Lucas (1989).
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Efficiency index calculation
DFM&A analyzes the structure of a product and estimates its cost and assembly time.
According to this methodology, an efficiency index is calculated as the ratio between the ideal and the
designed assembly. For example, the following efficiency calculation methods (E-efficiency index) are
suggested.
● Boothroyd's method
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒⁄
( 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡) ∙ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠
𝐸=
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
● Joneja's method
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠
𝐸 =3∙
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
● Comparative method
𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝐹𝐴 − 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝐹𝐴
% 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝐹𝐴
Each component is rated from 0 to 9 in terms of how easy it is to hold and orientate, as well as its
thickness and size. Taking these values as a basis, standard times are evaluated. Next, the assembly
should be simplified by eliminating parts, considering the following questions:
➢ Does it move in relation to other pieces?
➢ Does your material need to be different from other parts?
➢ Does it need to be a single component or could it be combined with another component
without losing functionality?
The assembly consists of 3 basic operations:
- Attaching.
- Handling or orienting.
- Inserting.
The intention is to obtain certain features that will
facilitate such operations → Reduce assembly time.
Figure 39: Position and rotational symmetry
α → Angle at which the part should rotate about the axis perpendicular to the direction of insertion.
β → Angle at which the part should rotate around its insertion axis.
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Figure 40: Handling time estimation charts.
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During the development of the DFA, assembly manufacturing systems are taken into account. We will
focus on manual assembly systems, as shown in the diagram below:
Figure 41: Assembly line scheme
There are 2 classification systems in assembly, handling and insertion. The following parameters must
be considered in each of them:
➢ Manual handling classification system:
- Part size.
- Thickness.
- Weight.
- Handling ease (grasping).
- Entanglement ease (springs).
- Fragility.
- Flexibility.
- Need to employ 2 hands.
- Need for clamping tools.
- Need for visual amplification.
- Need for mechanical assistance.
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➢ Classification system for insertion and clamping:
- Positioning accessibility.
- Assembly ease.
- Positioning visibility.
- Ease of alignment and positioning during assembly.
- Insertion depth.
Figure 42: Insertion time estimation charts.
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2.2. Design guide for parts handling
Some of the recommendations are detailed below:
1. Reduce the type and number of parts.
2. Design parts with symmetrical endings, as well as with rotational symmetry.
3. Design parts to accentuate symmetry when they can't be made symmetrical.
4. Prevent jamming of parts in storage.
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5. Avoid features that allow parts to become entangled.
6. Avoid slippery, very small or long parts that are dangerous to handle.
2.3. Design guide for insertion and placement
➢ Design in such a way that there is no insertion resistance and add chamfers to guide the insertion
of parts.
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➢ Standardize components using common parts, processes and methods.
➢ Use pyramidal assemblies, around a reference axis. Usually, the assembly is more convenient from
above.
➢ Avoid as far as possible the need to hold the position normally to position the part during the
positioning of another part. Design parts in such a way that they are positioned before they are
released.
➢ Ensure appropriate access and unrestricted vision.
➢ Ensure that those which cannot be assembled incorrectly
➢ Select the most affordable fixing method.
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2.4. Design for manufacturing
➢ Standardize:
● Use standardized components.
● Preform the part if possible.
● Use standardized preforms.
● Use standardized machine features.
➢ Material:
● Use affordable materials.
● Use standardized shape materials.
➢ Component design:
● Try to design the component in such a way that it is realized on a machine.
● Minimize repositioning operations.
● Design the component in such a way that the clamping device withstands shear stresses.
● Ensure that there are no interferences.
● Ensure that the main auxiliary holes have an L/D ratio that allows the machine to perform
them with boring and drilling tools.
● Ensure that blind holes are tapered and that the end of the thread does not reach the
end.
➢ Rotational components:
● Ensure concentric surfaces.
● Ensure that the outside diameter grows from the outer zone.
● Ensure that the inner diameter decreases from the outer diameter.
● For inside radii match tool radii.
➢ Non-rotating components:
● Provide a base for reference and clamping.
● Ensure parallel and perpendicular surfaces.
● Ensure inside radii are equal to tool radii.
● If possible, restrict reference planes to one surface.
● Avoid cylindrical holes in long components.
● Avoid machining large components using preforms.
● Avoid machining of thin parts.
Procedure for the analysis of product assembly
Step 1. Obtain product or assembly information:
Plans.
3D exploded views.
Current versions of the product—for a redesign.
A prototype.
Step 2. Identify the number of parts required.
Step 3. Identify quality opportunities (error proofing).
Step 4. Identify handling possibilities (gripping and orientation).
Step 5. Identify possibilities for insertion (positioning and securing).
Step 6. Identify opportunities for reducing secondary operations.
Step 7. Analyze the data for the new design.
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Figure 43: Template for the application of the Boothroyd method.
2.5. Case studies
2.5.1. Engine redesign—Boothroy
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2.5.2. Pneumatic piston redesign—Boothroyd
➢ Current pneumatic piston design:
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➢ Pneumatic piston redesign:
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2.5.3. Redesign of a computer mouse. Joneja
➢ Current computer mouse design:
Elements:
1. Lower casing.
2. Upper casing.
3. Button cover.
4. Spring.
5. Spring wheel.
6. Geared shaft.
7. Side button.
8. Bakelite.
9. Scroll.
10. Cable.
11. Ball.
12. Cover for the ball.
13. Screw.
No.
Parts α β α+β Handling Length Thickness
Parts
1. Lower casing 1 0º 0º 0º 1 hand 12.2cm 2.5cm
2. Upper casing 1 360º 360º 720º 1 hand 12.2cm 3.5cm
3. Button cover 1 360º 360º 720º 2 hands 7.8cm 2cm
4. Spring 1 360º 360º 720º 1 hand 7mm 3mm
5. Spring wheel 1 180º 180º 360º 1 hand 7mm 3mm
6. Geared shaft 1 360º 360º 720º 1 hand 2.7cm 1.8cm
7. Side button 1 360º 360º 720º 1 hand 2.2cm 4mm
8. Bakelite 1 360º 360º 720º 1 hand 10.9cm 1.5mm
9. Scroll 1 360º 360º 720º 1 hand 2.6cm 2cm
10. Cable 1 360º 360º 720º 2 hands 1.82m 3mm
11. Ball 1 0º 0º 0º 1 hand 2.3cm 2.3cm
12. Cover for the ball 1 360º 180º 540º 1 hand 3.3cm 5mm
13. Screw 1 360º 0º 360º 1 hand & tool 1cm 2mm
Costing factor 0.8.
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No. Handling Handling Insertion Insertion Total Operation Minimum
Parts Operation
Parts code time code time time cost parts
1. Lower casing 1 00 1.13 30 2 3.13 2.5 1 attach and hold
attach and
2. Upper casing 1 83 5.6 40 4.5 10.1 8.1 1
remain standing
3. Button cover 1 88 6.35 51 9 15.35 12.3 0 attach
pre-orient and
4. Spring 1 31 2.25 06 5.5 7.75 6.2 1
adjust
5. Spring wheel 1 01 1.43 08 6.5 7.93 6.3 1 attach
6. Geared shaft 2 00 1.13 30 2 6.26 5.0 2 attach
7. Side button 1 30 1.95 30 2 3.95 3.3 0 attach
8. Bakelite 1 30 1.95 23 7.5 9.45 7.6 1 attach
9. Scroll 2 30 1.95 30 2 7.9 6.3 1 attach
attach and
10. Cable 1 98 7 30 2 9 7.2 1
connect
11. Ball 1 00 1.13 00 1.5 2.63 2.1 1 attach
12. Cover for the ball 1 20 1.8 30 2 3.8 3.0 1 attach
attach and
13. Screw 1 60 4.8 38 6 10.8 8.6 1
screw
98.05 78.44 12
3∙12
Joneja 𝐸= = 0,367 Cost= 78,44€
98,05
➢ Proposal for improvement:
1. Removal of unnecessary buttons or side buttons. Their removal would not affect the
operation of the mouse as there are existing commands on the computer to do so.
2. Single top cover.
3. Rearrangement of the data cable as the route it follows is uncomfortable for the
assembly.
No. Handling Handling Insertion Insertion Total Operation Minimum
Parts Operation
Parts code time code time time cost parts
1. Lower casing 1 00 1.13 30 2 3.13 2.5 1 attach and hold
attach and
2. Upper casing 1 83 5.6 40 4.5 10.1 8.1 1
remain standing
pre-orient and
4. Spring 1 31 2.25 06 5.5 7.75 6.2 1
adjust
5. Spring wheel 1 01 1.43 08 6.5 7.93 6.3 1 attach
6. Geared shaft 2 00 1.13 30 2 6.26 5.0 2 attach
8. Bakelite 1 30 1.95 23 7.5 9.45 7.6 1 attach
9. Scroll 2 30 1.95 30 2 7.9 6.3 1 attach
attach and
10. Cable 1 98 7 30 2 9 7.2 1
connect
11. Ball 1 00 1.13 00 1.5 2.63 2.1 1 attach
12. Cover for the ball 1 20 1.8 30 2 3.8 3.0 1 attach
attach and
13. Screw 1 60 4.8 38 6 10.8 8.6 1
screw
78.75 63 12
3∙12
Joneja 𝐸 = = 0,457 Cost= 63€
78,75
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2.6. DFMA Conclusions
➢ Ground rules (Hartley 1994):
- Use of a minimum number of parts.
- Modular design.
- Minimization of part variations.
- Assembly of non-standardized parts at the end, when variety is unavoidable.
- Design of multi-functional parts.
- Design to facilitate manufacturing.
- Removal of separate fixturing parts.
- Minimization of different assembly directions, so that each operation naturally
follows the previous one.
- Design for easy assembly
- Minimization of handling operations.
- Removal or simplification of machine adjustments.
- Removal of the use of components made of flexible materials.
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