Pre Final IYMC 2024 Solutions

Sameh Sayed

Problem A.1
The intersection of the two functions f (x) and gn (x) is:
x
x= + 2n
n
(n − 1)x
= 2n
n
n n
x= 2
n−1
Where n ̸= 1 (no intersection occurs) neither 0 (since g0 (x) is undefined). The distance between
the origin O and the intersection is (say D):
r
p (n − 1)x (n − 1)x
D = (∆x)2 + (∆y)2 = ( − 0)2 + − 0)2
n n
√ n−1 n
= 2| 2 |
n

Problem A.2
The derivative will be computed from left to right:

(tan x)′ = sec2 x

By the Chain Rule which says that (f (g(x)))′ = f ′ (g(x))g ′ (x):

√ 1
( tan x)′ = √ · sec2 x
2 tan x
√ 1
(cos x + tan x)′ = √ · sec2 x − sin x
2 tan x
q
√ √1 · sec2 x − sin x
2 tan x
( cos x + tan x)′ = p √
2 cos x + tan x
q
√ √1 · sec2 x − sin x
′ 2 tan x
(sin x + cos x + tan x) = cos x + p √
2 cos x + tan x

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and finally:
√1 ·sec2 x−sin x
cos x + 2 √
tan x
r q
√ √
2 cos x+ tan x
( sin x + cos x + tan x)′ = q p √
2 sin x + cos x + tan x

Problem B.1
(a) The sequence of k digits can be in n−k +1 different positions in the sequence of n random
digits. The probability of occuring the small sequence in the large sequence is one minus the
probability of not occurring the sequence at all.
The probability of the sequence occurrence at an exact position is 101k . Not occurring at an
exact position is 1 − 10−k . By We need it to not occur at every single possible position and it
will be (by the multiplication principle):

(1 − 10−k )n−k+1

This is the probability of not occurring at all. The probability of occuring is

1 − (1 − 10−k )n−k+1

(b) We will use the equation at (a) for this part. Here, k = 10 and n is the needed unknown.
Solving for n by the fact that the probability is P = 0.5:

n = k − 1 + log1−10−k (1 − P ) = 6931471418

(c) This is far than we have expected; Even if we needed 1010 digits (which is even less than
tenth of the actual answer), the probability would be 63%.

Problem B.2
Let the big circle has radius R and circumference C and the smaller three circles have radius
r = R2 .
Let the upper, the bottom, and the right circle have centers of A, B, and V respectively. The
point of intersection of all these circles are O and the two intersections of the circle A and B are
O and X. Let also O represents the origin point in the Cartesian coordinates. Thus, circle A
can be drawen by the equality:
(x)2 + (y − r)2 = r2
and circle B is:
(x − r)2 + y 2 = r2
Solving these two equations (to find the intersections), we will √find that (0, 0) and (r, r) are the
intersections. The distance between these two intersections are 2r and it implies that the angle
between lines intersection O and X is π/2 (since OB = XB = r).
The area of the intersection of circle A and B is the circle segment minus the triangle times
two (since the difference gives the area of the half of the concave shape). This is:

πr2 r2
2( − ) = r2 (π/2 − 1)
4 2
Because of the symmetry of the diagram, the area of intersection between circle B and V is also
equal to it.

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 Thus, the area of the white region is the area of the big circle minus the area of the three
smaller circles and we will add up the two equivalent concave shapes (because they are subtracted
twice):
πR2 − 3πr2 + 2 · r2 (π/2 − 1) = 4πr2 − 3πr2 + 2 · r2 (π/2 − 1)
= πr2 + πr2 − 2r2 = 2r2 (π − 1)
C C
Setting r = 2R and R = 2π and solving for r in terms of C results r = π then:

C2
A=2 (π − 1)
π2

Problem C.1
Let the left, middle, and right sequences be an , bn , and cn respectively.

a → 1, 2, 5, 12, 29, ...

b → 1, 3, 7, 17, 41, ...

c → 2, 4, 10, 24, 58, ...
(a) As you can see, if we will relate the sequences with each other we will find that an = an−1 + bn−1 ,
bn = bn−1 + cn−1 , and cn = 2bn−1 + cn−1 for all n > 1.
Also, if we look at each sequence on its own, we will find that an = 2an−1 + an−2 , bn = 2bn−1 + bn−2 ,
and the same also for c ( cn = 2cn−1 + cn−2 ) for all n > 2.
(b) Let there is a sequence xn where xn = 2xn−1 + xn−2 for all n > 2. This recurrence
relation is a homogeneous second order difference equation. By solving it, we will assume that
xn = r n .
rn = 2rn−1 + rn−2
rn−2 (r2 − 2r − 1) = 0
Solving for r for r2 − 2r − 1 = 0 (which is the characteristic equation):
√
r =1± 2

The general solution for xn is:

√ √
xn = c1 (1 + 2)n + c2 (1 − 2)n

The constants c1 and c2 differs from every sequence because of the difference of initial values.
For an , Plugging n = 1:
√ √
c1 (1 + 2) + c2 (1 − 2) = a1 = 1

And for n = 2:
√ √ √ √
c1 (1 + 2)2 + c2 (1 − 2)2 = c1 (3 + 2 2) + c2 (3 − 2 2) = a2 = 2

Subtract two times the first equality from the second equality gives us:

c1 + c2 = 0 → c1 = −c2

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 √√
1 −1 2)n − (1 − 2)n
(1 +
Which gives us c1 = √
2 2
and c2 = √ .
2 2
Thus an = √
2 2
For bn , we will solve for c1 and c2 for the values b1 and b2 like we do for an and it will give
√ √
1 (1 + 2)n + (1 − 2)n
us c1 = c2 = 2 and hence bn =
2
√ √
(1 + 2)n − (1 − 2)n
Since also cn = 2an for all n, cn = √
2
√
(c) By dividing bn by an , we might expect that it approximates 2 and this is right.
By taking the limit:
√ √ n √ √ √ n
bn (1 + 2)n + (1 − 2 2 2 √ (1 + 2)n + (1 − 2 )
lim = lim · √ √ = 2 lim √ √
n→∞ an n→∞ 2 (1 + 2)n − (1 − 2)n n→∞ (1 + 2)n − (1 − 2)n
√ √
(1+ 2)n (1− 2)n
√ √
(1+ 2)n
+ √
(1+ 2)n √ 1+0 √
= 2 lim √ √ = 2 lim = 2
n→∞ (1+√2)n (1− 2)n n→∞ 1 − 0
(1+ 2)n
− √
(1+ 2)n

Problem C.2
(a)
Y 1 1
ϕ(8) = 8 (1 − ) = 8 · (1 − ) = 4
p 2
p|8

Y pk+1 − 1 23 − 1 32 − 1
σ(12) = ( )= · = 28
k
p−1 2−1 3−1
p ||12

22 − 1 33 − 1
σ(18) = · = 39
2−1 3−1
Y 1 1 1
ϕ(σ(18)) = ϕ(39) = ϕ(3 · 13) = 39 (1 − ) = 39 · (1 − ) · (1 − ) = 24
p 3 13
p|39

(b) For every c you choose, the following happens:

Let S be the number of positive integers n that are (1) less than or equal to x (any real value
you choose) (2) the Euler’s totient function of the number of divisors of n is not less than n times
the c you choose.
π2 x x log3 (x)
Always S is not greater than 6c log (x) plus a constant (say u) times 1 . Note
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(log x) log3 (x) ·log4 (x)
that in that research if we say logk x this means log log log ... log x exactly k times.
(c) Since σ(n) is odd, it means that 2 ̸ |p. Now #{n ≤ x : 2 ̸ |σ(n)} = S2 (x) and by Lemma
3:
log log x 2−1
1 log log x log log x
S2 (x) = O(x · ( ) ) = O( 1 ) = O( )
log x x log x
log x1/x
and by the definition of the Ordnung (Big-O function):

log log x
#{n ≤ x : σ(n) is odd} ≤ α
log x1/x

where α is positive integer. Lemma 3 states it for x ≥ e2 .

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 (d) As mentioned in the research (on page 4):
Y 1 Y 1
ϕ(σ(n)) = σ(n) (1 − ) ≤ σ(n) (1 − )
p p
p|σ(n) p≤y
Q
If P (y)|σ(n) where P (y) := p≤y p. Also by Merten’s theorem:
Y 1 1
(1 − ) <
p log y
p≤y

We will find that:

Y 1 σ(n)
ϕ(σ(n)) ≤ σ(n) (1 − ) <
p log y
p≤y
1 Q
Now let y = n k and if 1 p|σ(n)
p≤n k

σ(n) σ(n)
ϕ(σ(n)) < 1 =k
log n k log n

(e) Note that:

#{n ≤ x : σ(n) < δn} = [x] − #{n ≤ x : σ(n) ≥ δn}
Since
π2 x log2 x
#{n ≤ x : σ(n) ≥ δn} ≤ + O( )
6δ 6δ
−π 2 x log2 x
−#{n ≤ x : σ(n) ≥ δn} ≥ − O( )
6δ 6δ
π2 x log2 x
#{n ≤ x : σ(n) < δn} ≥ [x] − − O( )
6δ δ
Since [x] ≤ x and the right-hand side is negative and the left hand side is non-negative:
π2 log2 x
#{n ≤ x : σ(n) < δn} ≥ x(1 − ) − O( )
6δ δ
Since kO(f (x)) = O(f (x)):

π2 log2 x
#{n ≤ x : σ(n) < δn} ≥ x(1 − ) + O( )
6δ δ
(f) This table is made by C++:
x c #
1000 1.01 144
1000 1.1 199
1000 2 754
2000 1.6 1076
3000 1.8 1974
4000 1.8 2627
4000 3 3927
5000 3 4906
40000 1.8 39190
100000 2.3 86660